1. Development of medical biology: Medical biology has evolved over centuries through scientific
discoveries and advancements in understanding the biological basis of diseases and human health.
It incorporates principles from various fields, including anatomy, physiology, genetics, and
biochemistry, to study the mechanisms of diseases and develop treatments.
2. Organizational levels of the living: The organizational levels of living organisms range from simple
to complex. They include subatomic particles, atoms, molecules, cells, tissues, organs, organ
systems, and the whole organism.
3. Acellular and cellular life forms: Acellular life forms, such as viruses, do not have cells and
depend on host cells for reproduction. Cellular life forms, including all living organisms, consist of
one or more cells as their basic structural and functional units.
4. Microscope: A microscope is an instrument used to view objects that are too small to be seen by
the naked eye. Its main parts include the eyepiece, objective lenses, stage, condenser, focus knobs,
and light source. It functions by magnifying and illuminating the specimen.
5. Mutations and their types: Mutations are changes in the DNA sequence. They can be classified
into different types, including point mutations (substitutions, insertions, and deletions),
chromosomal mutations (deletions, duplications, inversions, and translocations), and gene
mutations (missense, nonsense, frameshift, etc.).
6. Structure of DNA and replication: DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) is a double-stranded helical
molecule made up of nucleotides. It has a sugar-phosphate backbone and four nitrogenous bases:
adenine (A), thymine (T), cytosine (C), and guanine (G). DNA replication is the process of
duplicating DNA, where the double helix unwinds and two new complementary strands are
synthesized using the existing strands as templates.
7. Microscope structure and rules: The microscope consists of an eyepiece, objective lenses, stage,
condenser, focus knobs, and light source. When using a microscope, some rules include placing the
slide on the stage, starting with the lowest magnification objective, adjusting the focus, and
avoiding touching the lenses with fingers.
8. Transcription and translation: Transcription is the process by which genetic information from DNA
is used to synthesize RNA molecules. Translation is the process of converting the RNA sequence
into a sequence of amino acids to synthesize proteins. Transcription occurs in the nucleus, while
translation occurs in the cytoplasm.
9. Cell organelles: Cell organelles are specialized structures within a cell that perform specific
functions. Examples include the nucleus, mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus,
lysosomes, and vacuoles.
10. Structure of the nucleus and its functions: The nucleus is a membrane-bound organelle that
contains DNA. It has a nuclear envelope, nucleoplasm, nucleolus, and chromatin. The nucleus
controls the cell's activities, stores genetic information, and is involved in DNA replication and
transcription.
11. Cell organelles of general importance: Some cell organelles of general importance include the
endoplasmic reticulum (involved in protein synthesis and lipid metabolism), Golgi apparatus
(modifies, sorts, and packages proteins), lysosomes (contain digestive enzymes), and mitochondria
(generate energy through cellular respiration).
12. Multiple allelism: Multiple allelism refers to the existence of more than two alleles for a particular
gene in a population. It leads to increased genetic variation and can result in different phenotypic
expressions.
13. Cell and its constituent parts: A cell is the basic structural and functional unit of life. It consists
of various parts
, including the cell membrane, cytoplasm, nucleus, and organelles.
14. Structure, functions of mitochondria, and difference from other organelles: Mitochondria are
double-membraned organelles involved in cellular respiration and energy production. They have an
outer membrane, inner membrane with folds called cristae, and a matrix. Unlike other organelles,
mitochondria have their own DNA and can self-replicate.
15. Function of the endoplasmic reticulum and its types: The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is involved
in protein synthesis, lipid metabolism, and detoxification. It has two types: rough ER (with ribosomes
attached, involved in protein synthesis) and smooth ER (lacks ribosomes, involved in lipid
metabolism and detoxification).
16. Organelles of the ribosome, Golgi apparatus: Ribosomes are organelles involved in protein
synthesis. The Golgi apparatus modifies, sorts, and packages proteins for transport within the cell
or secretion outside the cell.
17. Main provisions of the cell theory: The cell theory states that all living organisms are composed
of cells, cells are the basic units of structure and function, and cells come from pre-existing cells
through cell division.
18. Cell membrane and its functions: The cell membrane, also known as the plasma membrane, is a
selectively permeable barrier that surrounds the cell. It regulates the movement of substances in
and out of the cell, maintains cell shape, and facilitates cell communication.
19. Cell cytoplasm and main parts: The cell cytoplasm refers to the fluid-filled region between the
cell membrane and the nucleus. It contains various components, including cytosol, organelles,
cytoskeleton, and inclusions.
20. Types of ribosomes and their functions: There are two types of ribosomes: free ribosomes,
which are suspended in the cytoplasm and synthesize proteins for internal use, and bound
ribosomes, which are attached to the endoplasmic reticulum and synthesize proteins for secretion
or membrane incorporation.
21. Functions of proteins and lipids: Proteins have diverse functions in cells, including enzyme
catalysis, structural support, transport, signaling, and defense. Lipids play roles in energy storage,
membrane structure, insulation, and signaling.
22. Membrane organelles and their functions: Membrane organelles, such as the endoplasmic
reticulum, Golgi apparatus, and lysosomes, are involved in the synthesis, modification, and
transport of proteins and lipids within the cell.
23. Prokaryotes and eukaryotes: Prokaryotes are single-celled organisms that lack a nucleus and
membrane-bound organelles. Eukaryotes, including plants, animals, fungi, and protists, are
organisms with cells that have a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles.
24. Structure of plant and animal cells: Plant cells have a cell wall, chloroplasts, and large central
vacuoles, which are not present in animal cells. Animal cells have centrioles, which are absent in
most plant cells.
25. Life cycle of a cell: The cell cycle consists of interphase (G1, S, G2 phases) and cell division
(mitosis or meiosis). Interphase involves growth, DNA replication, and preparation for cell division.
Cell division involves the separation of genetic material and cytoplasm to form two daughter cells.
26. Methods of cell division: Cell division can occur through mitosis (producing two genetically
identical daughter cells) or meiosis (producing four genetically diverse daughter cells, used in
sexual reproduction).
27. Synthesis of proteins and its stages: Protein synthesis involves two main stages: transcription
(in the
nucleus) and translation (in the cytoplasm). Transcription produces mRNA from DNA, and
translation uses mRNA to synthesize proteins.
28. Translation (initiation, elongation, termination): Translation initiation involves the assembly of
ribosomes on mRNA. Elongation involves the addition of amino acids to the growing protein chain.
Termination occurs when the ribosome reaches a stop codon and the protein is released.
29. Interphase and its stages: Interphase is the longest phase of the cell cycle. It consists of three
stages: G1 (growth and preparation), S (DNA replication), and G2 (further growth and preparation
for cell division).
30. Modification variability: Modification variability refers to the variations that can occur during the
modification of proteins or other cellular components, leading to functional diversity and adaptation.
31. Difference between mitotic cycle and cell cycle: The mitotic cycle refers specifically to the
phases of mitosis (prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase) and cytokinesis, which are part of
the larger cell cycle that includes interphase.
32. Meiosis, mitosis, and their biological significance: Meiosis is a type of cell division that produces
haploid cells (gametes) for sexual reproduction. Mitosis is a type of cell division that produces
genetically identical cells for growth, repair, and asexual reproduction. Both processes are
significant for maintaining genetic diversity and cell proliferation.
33. Structure of DNA: DNA has a double helix structure composed of two antiparallel strands. Each
strand is made up of nucleotides, which consist of a sugar (deoxyribose), a phosphate group, and a
nitrogenous base (A, T, C, G).
34. RNA and its types: RNA (ribonucleic acid) is a single-stranded nucleic acid that is involved in
protein synthesis. It has three main types: messenger RNA (mRNA, carries genetic information),
transfer RNA (tRNA, carries amino acids), and ribosomal RNA (rRNA, forms the structure of
ribosomes).
35. Stages, phases of mitosis and meiosis: Mitosis consists of prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and
telophase. Meiosis has two rounds of division: meiosis I (prophase I, metaphase I, anaphase I,
telophase I) and meiosis II (prophase II, metaphase II, anaphase II, telophase II).
36. Difference between mitosis and meiosis: Mitosis produces two diploid daughter cells with the
same number of chromosomes as the parent cell. Meiosis produces four haploid daughter cells with
half the number of chromosomes, leading to genetic variation and gamete production.
37. Types and periods of ontogenesis: Ontogenesis refers to the development of an individual
organism from fertilization to adulthood. It includes embryogenesis (development from a fertilized
egg), fetal development, and postnatal growth and maturation.
38. Types of fertilization: Fertilization can be external (occurs outside the body) or internal (occurs
inside the body). External fertilization is common in aquatic organisms, while internal fertilization is
common in terrestrial organisms.
39. Steps of fertilization: Fertilization involves the fusion of a sperm cell and an egg cell to form a
zygote. It includes steps such as sperm penetration, egg activation, fusion of genetic material, and
zygote formation.
40. Fern: A fern is a type of vascular plant that reproduces through spores. It has leaves called
fronds and lacks flowers and seeds.
41. Gametogenesis: Gametogenesis is the process of producing gametes (sex cells) through
meiosis. In males, it is called spermatogenesis
, which forms sperm cells. In females, it is called oogenesis, which forms egg cells.
42. Formation of zygote: The formation of a zygote occurs when a sperm cell fertilizes an egg cell.
The zygote contains the combined genetic material from both parents and develops into a new
individual.