Journal of Pipeline Science and Engineering 1 (2021) 419–427
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An insight into asphaltene precipitation, deposition and management
stratagems in petroleum industry
Festus M. Adebiyi
Dangote Oil Refining Company Ltd, 1, Alfred Rewane Road, Falomo-Ikoyi, Lagos, Nigeria
Department of Chemistry, Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife, Nigeria
a r t i c l e
i n f o
Keywords:
Asphaltene
Deposition
Flow lines
Management stratagem
Modelling
Petroleum
Precipitation
a b s t r a c t
Petroleum industry is the mainstay of the economical enlargement of many nations. Most of the market prices
of all commodities are built on the cost of wide-range of petroleum products. Prompt identifying and alleviating challenges facing this sector can reduce costs and enhance productivity and economic growths. Asphaltene
deposition, a crucial operational challenge in some petroleum production facilities is one of the key challenges
facing petroleum sector universally. Asphaltene clogs pipelines as cholesterols block blood vessels; this has made
asphaltene deposition management a principal factor to consider before establishing any petroleum producing
company. Therefore, in order to guarantee urbane and uninterrupted movement of petroleum to the consumers,
it is vital for the field Operators, Engineers and Chemist to be pipeline deposition conscious as lines would suffer degradation owing to asphaltene precipitation, aggregation and eventual deposition. There are documented
literatures on asphaltene, but almost new information is disseminated in literature or occurs in the brains of
experts comparable to silent knowledge. The mission of this review paper is to publicize the information and
close some knowledge-breaks. This particular article provides an inclusive appraisal of asphaltene interaction,
precipitation, deposition, challenges and management stratagems. Besides, it provides a conclusion and prised
recommendations.
1. Introduction
Petroleum typically composes of four components – saturates, aromatics, resins and asphaltenes, SARA. Asphaltene is a high molecular
weight N, S, O containing compound component of petroleum. Asphaltene is a petroleum solid component that is operationally referred to as
toluene soluble and n-heptane insoluble (Mullins, 2010). Asphaltenes
are usually dispersed in the crude oil by resins which are more polar NSO
compounds. Thus, the polar resin molecules form micelles having asphaltene molecules as the centre. Naturally, cracking of petroleum in the
reservoir due to thermal pressure usually generate a shift in the direction of light petroleum component (saturated hydrocarbons) resulting in
the precipitation of asphaltene. In the laboratory, similar phenomenon
is made through the addition of light hydrocarbon solvent such as npentane or n-heptane. This process may also take place in the production
process of crude oil resulting in the precipitation of asphaltenes in the
pore spaces of a reservoir rock. Asphaltenes precipitation do arise naturally producing impervious blockades in oil wells due to natural breakdown of oil through biodegradation or via gas injection (Mullins and
Sheu, 1998). In the SARA fractions of crude oils, asphaltenes have a crucial function in organic deposition in the course of petroleum production
and processing. Mullins et al. (2007) asserted that miscible and immis-
cible flooding of petroleum wells using either light hydrocarbon gases,
carbon dioxide or other injection gases have the possibility of trigger
asphaltene precipitation. Asphaltene precipitation can typically modify
the flow and phase behaviour of the reservoir fluids and rock characteristics; this is capable of harmfully slowdown the output of the oil
well in the course of oil recovery. Precipitation of asphaltenes can also
result in formation plugging and wettability setback, thus result in decreased oil recovery efficiencies. Also, the precipitated asphaltenes may
clog the reservoir tubing or be transported to the well head and downstream separators producing critical hitches (Mullins, 2010). According
to , asphaltene deposition is a recognised challenge that produces massive cost rise in the oil and gas industry. The challenge is extremely impeding petroleum production and refining operations in the petroleum
industry.
Conveyance of petroleum from its production site to the refinery typically necessitate a considerable network of pipelines.
Management of these networks of pipeline is typically vital
for freshly emerging undersea, off shore oil and gas ventures.
This is because, the colder environments beneath water enhances asphaltene precipitation and deposition which will definitely offer challenges for pipeline overhauling (Adebiyi et al.,
2005).
E-mail address: fmbiyi@oauife.edu.ng
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpse.2021.08.006
Received 22 July 2021; Received in revised form 30 August 2021; Accepted 30 August 2021
2667-1433/© 2021 The Authors. Publishing Services by Elsevier B.V. on behalf of KeAi Communications Co. Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY
license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/)
F.M. Adebiyi
Journal of Pipeline Science and Engineering 1 (2021) 419–427
Asphaltene deposition which extends from oil well to refinery plants
is a crucial challenging flow assurance concern in petroleum production
development. Nonetheless their penalties can be mostly puzzling when
the impaired material such as producing reservoir is tough to get at. Asphaltene deposition in some parts neighbouring the pump, tubing string,
bore and bore surface is usually due to the cooling consequence that happens when the petroleum moves from the high-pressure well into the
reservoir bore and finally the surface. When there is temperature defeat
in reservoir, asphaltene will precipitate, congeal and successively plug
the reservoir causing asphaltene deposition to reduce reservoir rate of
movement and ultimately produces full impasse. This reviewed article
offers an insight into the chemical composition of petroleum, asphaltene precipitation and deposition mechanisms, challenges of asphaltene
deposition and their management stratagems.
with benzene associated structure (Zhang et al., 2014; Jarullah, 2021;
Yasin et al., 2013; Robert et al., 1995; Roussel and Boulet, 1995).
According to basic model of Pfeiffer and Saal (1940), there are four
established petroleum fractions viz; saturate, aromatics, resin and asphaltene, SARA (Hammami and Ratulowski, 2007). The definition is
founded on solubility and polarity of the petroleum fractions. Out of the
four fractions, wax and asphaltene fractions are challenges for crude oil
extraction and transport. Wax comprises of high molecular weight hydrocarbons (C16+ ) and it is in the class of the saturate (linear, branched
and cyclic alkanes). Similar to asphaltenes, wax can precipitate out via
alterations in pressure, temperature and composition and produce white
wax deposits with or without the presence of other organic and/or inorganic substances (Sotomayor, 2000).
2.2. The nature of asphaltene
2. Literature review
Asphaltenes are a fraction of petroleum composing of multifarious
high molecular weight compounds of large quantity of atoms (Fig. 1).
The highest molecular weight and polar among the petroleum fractions
is asphaltene, while its quantity and features in petroleum is based on
the source of the petroleum. In the crude oil refining processes, asphaltene exists in the residue as non-distillable part of crude oil after the
lighter fractions have been gathered. Asphaltenes form dark brown black solid deposits and they do not have no fixed melting point and
on heating it commonly froth and increase in size with carbonaceous
scum as leftover (Speight, 2004; Li et al., 2021). As a result of the
chemical nature of these complex compounds, their thermodynamic
comportment varies from well to well, thus they do not possess precise molecular weight. Due to their aromatic nature, asphaltene are
readily soluble in aromatic solvents (toluene, benzene, xylene, carbon
tetrachloride, carbon disulphide and pyridine) having surface tension
higher than 25 dyne cm−1 , while it is insoluble in liquefied gases, for
example methane, ethane and propane, and n-alkane solvents such as
n-hexane and n-heptane. That is why asphaltenes are precipitated out
from crude oil by low molecular weight n-alkanes. Typically, it is the
heavy oil content that determines the quantity of asphaltene in crude
oil; the more the content of heavy fraction, the more the asphaltene
content and vice versa. Thus, reducing the density of crude oil, the asphaltene content will consequently reduce in the composition of the
crude oil (Mansoori, 1997; Speight, 2004; Hasanvand et al., 2018; LiraGaleana and Hammami, 2000; Ariza-León et al., 2014). Generally, the
asphaltene structure molecule comprises majorly of aromatics of 3–10 or
> 10 rings in an asphaltene molecule. The elemental composition of asphaltenes includes majorly hydrogen and carbon. Asphaltenes are also
known as NSO compounds because of the existence of some atoms of
nitrogen, oxygen, or sulfur heteroatoms in their molecules. Asphaltenes
also contain other non-hydrocarbon constituents, most especially transition metals such as V, Ni, Fe, Cu, Cr, Mn etc., which are capable of
2.1. Petroleum chemical composition characteristics
Petroleum/crude oil (L. petroleum, coined out from Greek: Π𝜀́ 𝜏𝜌𝛼
(rock) and Latin: oleum (oil)) is a very multifarious, naturally occurring
liquid blend comprising generally hydrocarbons of numerous molecular
weights, and oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur (NSO) containing compounds, and
trace metals like V, Ni, Fe, Cu etc. It is ascribed to be a naturally existing
fossil fuel liquid located under the earth’s crust. Petroleum is referred
to as fossil fuel because it was produced through the biodegradation
of plant and animal refuses known as organic matter through millions
of decades. It is mined and refined into various fuel products of economic importance. It is habitually called the “black gold” (Zhang et al.,
2014; Jarullah, 2021, Yasin et al., 2013). The petroleum comprises virtually all recognized hydrocarbons and non-hydrocarbons and because
it is mined from the ground, it also consists contaminants such as water, sludge and salts. The petroleum hydrocarbon types include aliphatic
hydrocarbons (n-alkanes, iso-alkanes and cylcoalkanes), polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) including their alkylated derivatives, and
other higher molecular weight compound groups called resins and asphaltenes, principally comprising of heterocyclic compounds such as S,
N and O comprising aromatics (e.g., thiophene, carbazole and phenol
derivatives). Generally, three key categories of hydrocarbons exist depending on the kind of carbon-carbon bonds existing. The categories
of hydrocarbons are (i) saturated hydrocarbons which comprise only
carbon-carbon single bonds. When acyclic, they are called are paraffins
(or alkanes), and naphthenes (or cycloalkanes) when cyclic. (ii) Unsaturated hydrocarbons that comprise carbon-carbon double, triple or both
bonds. The hydrocarbons that comprise a carbon-carbon double bond
are referred to as alkenes, while alkynes have carbon-carbon triple bond.
(iii) Aromatic hydrocarbons are distinct categories of cyclic compounds
Fig. 1. General molecular structure of asphaltene (Husin et al., 2019)
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complexing with porphyrin content of the asphaltene to form metalloporpyrin complexes. Usually, asphaltene compound weight percentage
includes carbon (80%–86%), hydrogen (6%–8%), Sulphur (2%–9%),
oxygen (0.5%–2%), nitrogen (0.5%–2%) and trace metals (0.1%–0.2%)
(Mamin et al., 2016; Hasanvand et al., 2018).
According to Nakhli et al., (2011), there exists two varied concepts of the structure of molecule of asphaltene viz; ocean or island
and archipelago or rosary-type models. The ocean or island model explains that asphaltene monomer has a molecular mass of 500–1000 Dalton ∼500–1000 gmol−1 by molar mass. The theory further states that
each monomer comprises of 6–8 aromatic rings bounded by saturated
links of heterogeneous atom (Fig. 2 ). The second model, Archipelago or
rosary-type offered for the asphaltene structure in scientific resources.
It explains that asphaltene monomer consists of mass of poly-condensed
clusters containing 5–7 aromatic rings. These groups are unified by saturated links and occasionally via polar bonds (Fig. 3 ). Researches have
been carried out on the definite structure of the asphaltene molecule
and as well as its molecular mass and size i.e. molecular characteristics.
Herod et al., (2007) suggested that the asphaltene molecule possesses 2
islands of monomer that is produced via a section of a mass of 1 mega
Dalton and a fragment weighing ∼ 5 kDa. The research proved that it
is probable a cluster of asphaltene has been used based on the large
amount (1 mega Dalton) for molecular mass. Another set of authors,
Strausz et al., (2008) discovered that differing from the preceding assumptions, it is proposed that asphaltene lack an island structure, and
that the asphaltene structure is probable liken to the archipelago model.
The report of Mullins et al. (2008) is founded on the outcomes of assessing molecular mass built on four approaches of molecular diffusion and
seven mass spectrometry procedures. The research concluded that asphaltenes composes of a single monomer structure having a molecular
weight ∼750–1,000 Daltons, which resembles the proposed ocean or
island structure (Mullins et al., 2008; Strausz et al., 2008; Hasanvand
et al., 2018).
2.3. Asphaltene precipitation and deposition
2.3.1. Asphaltene precipitation and scheme
Under encouraging settings, the resins enclose asphaltenes in the
petroleum. The occurrence whereby asphaltenes are suspended or solubilised by resins in the petroleum is ascribed to be a thermodynamic
equilibrium occurrence. If any of the influences that can upset the status of the suspension equilibrium is modified, the asphaltene particles
will amass and ultimately have their nature altered. Alterations do occur during petroleum production, particularly during the second and
third stages of oil extraction. These alterations usually disrupt the well
characteristics, phase equilibrium and flow behaviour and then affect
with the thermodynamic equilibrium and results in asphaltene precipitation (Fig. 4) in the well bore, pipelines or other production facilities
(PetroWiki, 2021; Hasanvand et al., 2018).
When asphaltene molecules are disrupted, there will be separation
of molecules of asphaltene from the liquid segment, while repressing
thermodynamic balance due to existence of polar heads of maltenes
and resins which cover asphaltene molecules. The asphaltene molecules
are disjointed from the liquid segment and micelle as a result of the
disturbances triggered as a result of the pressure drop. Each micelle
possesses an asphaltene core and arrangement of non-polar resins ends
called fines. Thus, asphaltene precipitate out as a result of occurrence of
resins all over the asphaltene nuclei. Asphaltene industrial inhibitors are
produce using a principle similar to this phenomenon. (Mullins et al.,
2008; Hasanvand et al., 2018; Leontaritis and Mansoori, 1987).
Thermodynamically, temperature, pressure, concentration, or composition are the actual factors required in the course of production of
asphaltene precipitates. For instance, when the pressure is higher than
the bubble pressure of crude oils that are predisposed to asphaltene
precipitation, asphaltene precipitation will be initiated. Thus, the differences in the precipitation characteristics of asphaltenes are caused
by the changes in density and the volatilization of light components
of crude oil (Vargas et al., 2009; Vargas and Tavakkoli, 2021). When
pressure is reduced drastically to the bubble point, then the quantity
of asphaltene precipitates will surge. However, the bubble point usually presents the highest quantity of precipitation of asphaltene, while
reducing the pressure from the bubble point makes the asphaltene precipitation to decrease, causing the precipitation produced in the liquid
segment to finally dissolve. Thus, precipitation attains the highest level
at the saturation pressure and reduces as pressure drops beneath the
saturation pressure. The area where precipitation happens is covered
by the asphaltene precipitation envelope (APE) or asphaltene deposition envelope (ADE). For example, Fig. 4 presents a characteristic pressure composition APE and pressure temperature APE (PetroWiki, 2021;
Fotland, 1996; Hasanvand et al., 2018).
Fig. 2. Ocean/island model of asphaltene monomeric structure (Hasanvand
et al., 2018).
Fig. 4. Precipitation of asphaltene (Pressure-composition and pressuretemperature APEs) (Soleymanzadeh et al., 2019).
Fig. 3. Archipelago model of asphaltene monomeric structure (Hasanvand
et al., 2018).
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Temperature influences on the modification of asphaltene precipitation have been documented by many scientific authors globally. Some
authors reported that asphaltene precipitation will increase with increasing in temperature and vice versa, while some author describe different behavioural patterns. Nakhli et al. (2011) reported that asphaltene precipitation reduces in light oils with API gravity > 30, and in
heavy oils with API gravity < 20, while increases with temperature rise.
It has been reported that the influence of temperature in addition
with pressure on the asphaltene precipitation in the phase envelop is referred to as precipitation phase envelops (Zhuang et al., 2018). As a result of the diverse influence of temperature on phase envelop, the precipitation phase envelop behaviour has two universal settings. The first setting is typically associated with heavy oil; here precipitation yield range
is restricted by temperature decrease. Thus, specifies the direct temperature influence on the precipitation i.e. temperature rise will result in
more precipitate mass. The second setting is typically associated with
light oil; here asphaltene precipitation is usually restricted by the range
of temperature, which specifying the reciprocal influence of temperature
on asphaltene precipitate formation. Figs. 5 and 6 present the broad impression of the two forms of thermodynamic behaviour (Mullins , 2008;
Hasanvand et al., 2018; Leontaritis and Mansoori, 1988).
Concentration of petroleum is the third and most vital thermodynamic parameter in the development of asphaltene precipitation.
Largely, the quantity of asphaltene precipitates produced reduces with
rise in API gravity i.e. reduced density. The level of oil cut is usually
greater than 5% in heavy oil, but less than 5% or insignificant in lighter
oils (Leontaritis and Mansoori, 1988; Mullins, 2008; Hasanvand et al.,
2018; Wang et al., 2000).
the detailed circumstances surrounding the occurrence of the asphaltene
precipitation. The APE describes the area in which asphaltene precipitation arises; thus, precise determination of the APE as well as the quantities of precipitate contained by the APE are essential for policy making
and to regulation prevailing models. Generally, pAu signifies the upper
pressure on the APE, while pA𝓁 signifies the lower pressure on the APE.
There exist many approaches such as electrical-conductance, viscometric, light-scattering, acoustic-resonance, flirtation and gravimetric methods that can be used for the determination and appraisal of the inception of asphaltene precipitation and consequently presenting paramount
ways to avert and/or control the menace adequately (PetroWiki, 2021;
Fotland , 1996).
i. Electrical-conductance method. Due to the fact that asphaltenes
possess enormous dipole moments, conductivity curve reveals an
alteration in the slope during asphaltene precipitation. Alteration
in the fluid conductivity with fluctuations in quantity and movement of charged constituents are determined by this method
(PetroWiki, 2021; MacMillan et al., 1995; Fotland , 1996; Cho et al.,
2019; Mohebbinia et al., 2017).
ii. Viscometric method. Due to the fact that the viscosity of petroleum
having suspended solids (SS) is greater than that of the pure petroleum’s
viscosity, this method is able to identify a noticeable alteration in
the viscosity curve at the asphaltene precipitation inception accurately
(PetroWiki, 2021; Turta et al., 1997; Escobedo and Mansoori, 1995).
iii. Light-scattering method. Dark-coloured petroleum necessitates a
near-infrared laser light system (800 × 10−9 m to 2,200 × 10−9 m
wavelength) to identify asphaltene-precipitation circumstances. Lightscattering methods can be used effectively to determine the APE at
this condition. The norm of this method is founded on the transmission of a laser light via the test fluid in an elevated-pressure,
elevated-temperature visual PVT cell experiencing pressure, temperature, and composition fluctuations. During asphaltene precipitation
measurement, a receiver apprehends the quantity of light that move
through the analysed petroleum. It has proofed that, the power of transmitted light (PTL) is inversely proportional to the petroleum mass density, to the particle size of the asphaltene precipitate, and particle number per unit fluid volume, while the PTL curve reveals strident obstructions at pAu , ps , and pA𝓁 . (PetroWiki, 2021; Hammami and Ratulowski, 2007; MacMillan et al., 1995).
2.3.2. Asphaltene precipitation/asphaltene precipitation envelope (APE)
determination
Controlling of asphaltene precipitation at its inception necessitates
adequate developmental approaches as well as having the knowledge of
iv. Acoustic-resonance method. Kokal and Sayegh (1995) has successfully employed acoustic-resonance method to describe pAu . In the process of measurement of asphaltene precipitation using this method, the
petroleum is charged at an elevated pressure, for instance, 8,500 psia
into a resonator cell kept at the oil well temperature. Altering the volume, the resonator pressure is then reduced at a very little rate of for
example 50 psia/min. At the completion of the test, the rate of depressurization reduces per time to a characteristic rate of 5 psia/min, while
acoustic data reveal strident alterations at pAu and at the petroleum saturation pressure, ps (PetroWiki, 2021).
Fig. 5. Precipitation phase envelop in heavy oil (Hasanvand et al., 2018).
v. Flirtation method. During measurement using this approach, the
cell constituents in the course of a depressurization experiment are
blended in a magnetic mixer, while little amount of the well-blended
well fluid are expunged via a hydrophobic filter at different pressures. The saturate, aromatic, resin and asphaltene (SARA) constituents
of the substance left on the filter is then analyzed (PetroWiki, 2021;
Jamaluddin et al., 2000).
vi. Gravimetric method. In this method which is typically carried out
in a conventional pressure/volume/temperature (PVT) cell, a pressure
below the pAu , precipitation takes place, while bigger molecules separate
out and stay at the low part of the cell due to gravity. Pressure phases is
Fig. 6. Precipitation phase envelop in light oil (Hasanvand et al., 2018).
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essential to be selected prudently to detect the point of inflection at pAu
and pA𝓁 Asphaltene study of the petroleum using n-pentane or n-heptane
as titrant indicates a reduced asphaltene content composition in relation
to the main petroleum (Monger and Trujillo, 1991; PetroWiki, 2021).
guidelines that have been offered in the asphaltene deposition practice
modelling in the reservoir pole are as stated. i) The mass transfer occurrence, which is concerned with the determination of the coefficients of
molecule mass transmission as well as the impact on the physiognomies
of the scheme. ii) The second guideline involves submission to contemplate the question of mass transfer, practice of generating nuclei of the
asphaltene, their impacts, while asphaltene deposition are seen as key
kinetic reactions (Hasanvand et al., 2018; Hassanpouryouzband et al.,
2017).
Nghiem et al. (1993) reported a resourceful modelling practice built
on the exemplification of the precipitated asphaltene by a way of an unalloyed dense stage. Accomplishment of the method was built on the partition of the densest constituent in the petroleum as a non-precipitating
and precipitating constituents. The model made measureable estimates
of investigational documents from previous studies and extra information from industry.
In the study of Solaimany-Nazar and Zonnouri (2011), formation impairment as a result of asphaltene deposition was observed via the advancement of a four-stage black oil model (asphaltene, water, oil, and
gas) in arrangement with appropriate thermodynamic and deposition
models in tubular coordinates about a well. The model was employed
successively for the investigation of the impact of performance degree
of reservoir including the preliminary well penetrability on the asphaltene deposition act in a characteristic well in the course of principal
production method. This model’s outcome showed that at a stable penetrability, as the production degree rises, the quantity of asphaltene deposits rises, while a rise in the well penetrability reduces the frequency
of deposition as a result of the presence of additional networks for flow
(Mohebbinia et al., 2017; Emmanuel et al., 2020).
The investigation of Poozesh et al. (2020) advanced a model that portrays asphaltenes as a polydisperse structure and trails asphaltene features such as advection, precipitation, aggregation, deposition, breakage and diffusion beside the flow route. The model was able to effectively mimic the methodologically vessel deposition experiments as
well as calculated particle magnitude distribution, that signified seizing
mass activities at tiny level. It also clarified that the heat rise, principally through rising interface rate of combinations with the deposit
exterior is capable of quicken the deposition development. Nonetheless,
the modification of structure base upon medium stability impairment as
well as speed may improve or slow down the deposition development
(Vargas and Tavakkoli, 2021).
Nazemi et al. (2020) modelled asphaltene precipitation behaviour in
crude oils using cubic-plus-association (CPA) equation of state. Cubicplus-association reflected the physical and relationship positions of
blends. As a result of the nature of the relationship of asphaltene particles, the equation predicted the quantity of asphaltene precipitation at
diverse settings. Peng-Robinson (PR) and Soave-Redlich-Kwong (SRK)
were the two equations of state employed for physical aspect of the anticipated CPA model. Outcomes of the established CPA-PR and CPA-SRK
models were matched with the procedural data collected. The study concluded that the usage of SRK for the physical aspect of the CPA enhanced
the accuracy of the established model.
The work of Mirzayi et al. (2013) centred on deposition of asphaltene in crude oil passing via pipes. Buoyancy, thermophoresis, Brownian diffusion and drag, shear exclusion, and gravitational forces were
taken to be diverse probable mechanisms in the asphaltene deposition development. A model was employed for the pipeline deposition
modelling to forecast the asphaltene deposition degrees under flow situations by thermo-physical characteristics of the crude oils collected
at Iranian oil reservoirs. Impacts of temperature gradient, fluid velocity and particle magnitude were investigated on the frequency of asphaltene deposition. The study concluded that, amid the afore stated
mechanisms, the thermophoresis and gravitational forces performed
major functions in the production of the asphaltene deposit in the flow
environments.
vii. Additional methods. A method that can be employed to identify asphaltene precipitation is an approach of visual detection using a microscope (Hirschberg et al., 1984). Others are determining the interfacial tension among petroleum and water; a method built on pressuredecrease across a capillary tube (Broseta et al., 2000; PetroWiki, 2021).
2.3.3. Asphaltene deposition and scheme
Asphaltene deposition is the accumulation of asphaltene precipitates
in pipelines, reservoirs and some other production facilities in petroleum
industry. Generally, asphaltene deposition process on the exterior of the
tube has many phases. During the initial stage, in addition to the thermodynamic equilibrium accomplishment, fluid temperature and pressure,
asphaltene particles organise to alter phase from liquid to solid. Foremost, asphaltenes are glued to one another via solid particles and then
generate nano-sized nuclei. The major little nuclei and resin particles
that cover them are suspended in petroleum medium. This phase is referred to as precipitation formation stage. As the time goes on, due to
the two factors viz; the nuclei collision and particle growth, the magnitude of the asphaltene molecules is bloated and then micronized. It was
reported that peradventure, the asphaltene molecule magnitude could
not be suspended in the liquid medium, the gradient of the temperature and amount of the molecules can transmit them to the interior of
the liquid medium. On the other hand, the metal or mineral surface of
the scheme will adsorb solid molecules causing asphaltene deposition
to commence. In mobile settings like pipelines and reservoirs, a limited
period is required for the transmission of solid molecules of asphaltene
from liquid to reach and get adsorbed to wall of pipeline or reservoir.
As a result of the instability of the movement in column, the asphaltene
molecules on the wall usually go over via turbulent core, buffer layer
and laminar sublayer situations (Ferworn et al., 1993; Hasanvand et al.,
2018; Emmanuel et al., 2020).
It is observed that small quantity of the precipitated flocculates is
normally deposited and gum to the walls of the pipeline and other oil
transport facilities. The quantity of the deposit is governed by some factors viz; flow viscosity, particle size, flow density, flow velocity, particle density, gravity, particle distribution, surface material, flow pressure
and temperature. The impact of each of these factors on the quantities
of asphaltene deposits in the tube as well as detecting these impacts in
the field are very vital but challenging (Ferworn et al., 1993; Hasanvand
et al., 2018; Hasanvand et al., 2018).
2.3.4. Asphaltene deposition modelling
Scheme of asphaltene deposition at the reservoir bore is an occurrence of mass transfer which is also dependent on particulate magnitude
of the flocculates as well as frame of time. The precipitated asphaltenes
molecules in petroleum possess 1 nm - multiple of μm by size. The kind
of forces distressing the infiltration of the asphaltene molecules varies
in the gathering approach. Principal mechanisms under attention in
measuring deposition coefficient are gravitational and thermophysical
forces (Mirzayi et al., 2013; Hasanvand et al., 2018), Brownian motion
(Friedlander and Johnstone, 1957; Hasanvand et al., 2018), eddy motion
in turbulent flows (Hasanvand et al., 2018; Davies, 1983; Beal, 1970),
shear force (Hasanvand et al., 2018; Ramirez-Jaramillo et al., 2006), and
inertia (Escobedo and Mansoori, 1995). Various practices exist to model
asphaltene deposition development in the reservoir bore as well as assessing the deposition coefficient in pipes. There are diverse conventions to streamline the difficulties with respect to the earlier studies for
definite settings, restricting the estimation of the model series. Abridge
forms of various previous modelling processes are offered including the
account of effort made by diverse researcher. The common principal
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2.4. Asphaltene deposition challenges and management
ous. Even though, the methodology is functioning for up-keep of
the petroleum transport facilities; nonetheless, it is not a proficient technique for separating asphaltene deposits that happen
at the formation (El-Dalatony et al., 2019; Adebiyi, 2020).
(b) Heating/thermal technique
Heating or Thermal technique involves high temperature oiling,
heating outlining of pipes and tubing-tubing connection of elevated temperature non-waxy petroleum well by petroleum well.
The technique encompasses the separation of asphaltene deposit
by electric heating or hot fluid and it performs adequately for
short pipelines and downhole. The process involves heating the
deposit at temperature more than its pour point using water or
hot oil or steam circulated in the structure. It is typically employed to separate asphaltene deposits from the wellbore to circumvent occurrence of re-precipitation and re-deposition. Heating process operates by performs via melting the deposits; hence
it is crucial to check that the melted precipitated asphaltene
solids are not located in the formation (El-Dalatony et al., 2019).
Even though the technique is effective; nonetheless, it could exacerbate the asphaltene deposition challenge latter in the future. It
possesses some shortcomings such as impracticality of heating in
belligerent settings, high energy expenditure, and chances of generation loss due to occurrence of asphaltene re-precipitation at
reduced temperature production (Barker, 1987; Adebiyi, 2020).
It is thus appropriate to add crystal modifiers or solvency chemicals into the hot oil. This will definitely help the suspension of
the asphaltene in the hot oil and exasperate its precipitation out
of the hot oil. Consequently, it will slow down or prevent the
impairment to the formation, and also enhance the solubility
properties of the hot oil being used (El-Dalatony et al., 2019;
Adebiyi, 2020).
ii Microbial approach. The approach is typically engaged as a replacement to the conversional asphaltene deposit management process.
The approach is eco-friendlier, non-carcinogenic, non-combustible,
and non-pathogenic (Sakthipriya et al., 2017). It comprises the usage of microbes to make by-products that function as surfactants
or solvents to asphaltene particles and dissolve or separate asphaltene deposits in the formation (Etoumi, 2007). Nevertheless, the imperfection of the approach is that actions and growth the microbes
in used could be curtailed by reservoir environmental factors viz;
permeability, pressure, temperature and salinity (Sakthipriya et al.,
2017; Adebiyi, 2020).
iii Chemical soaking approach. Due to the fact that asphaltene exhibits
high degree aromaticity and as its solubility rises with an upsurge
in aromatic composition, chemical solvents like toluene and xylene
are regularly employed to dissolve asphaltene deposits in both the
formation as well as wellbore. Severer guidelines prevailing discarding, flammability and volatile-emission limits worries are making
the usage of the two chemical solvents not to be usable but substitute chemical solvents cosolvents for asphaltene separation have
been considered (Samuelson, 1992; Trbovich and King, 1991). Cosolvents are mostly xylene- augmented substances with water-wetting
characteristics that employ modest-length carbon-chain alcohols.
Refurbishment of production is similar to that attained using xylene, nonetheless the handling persists for lengthier time i.e. 6 to
8 months. Polymeric dispersants are also substitutes to aromatic
solvents (xylene and toluene). The dispersants impede the asphaltene deposition through disintegration of asphaltene precipitates
into lesser particle magnitudes, that are capable of linger in the oil
segment suspension. Solubility factor models have been employed
to assess and monitor inhibitors and solvents (Samuelson, 1992).
Jamaluddin et al., (1996), while studies have confirmed that deasphaltened oil is better used to deal with asphaltene deposition due to
its native resin and aromatic compositions; conversely, the expenses
of getting huge quantities of deasphaltened oil to be employed as
solvent is worrisome (Adebiyi, 2020; Vargas and Tavakkoli, 2021).
According to Husin et al. (2019), asphaltenes deposition usually have
negative impacts on the petroleum generation rate at any oil generation stage. For instance, asphaltene deposits usually reduces the probabilities of attaining an operative and successful oil recovery when the
deposits accumulate in reservoir rock by altering the rock wettability.
Challenges accompanying the asphaltene deposition produce momentous operational damage and requires costly remedial processes. Thus,
asphaltene deposition significantly slows efficiency rate of the impaired
reservoirs, while in many occurrences stops the reservoir from flowing after a total stuffing or blocking of production pole. The deposit
could also block surface production services including pipes meant for
the transportation of petroleum (flow lines).
The issue of asphaltene precipitation and subsequent deposition is a
major prospective challenges in petroleum industry. Even though, this
issue is not expected like wax or scale, nonetheless, the influence of
asphaltene is habitually disastrous. Asphaltene precipitation can result
in reservoir damage, blocking of reservoirs and pipelines via deposition, removal complications, and entangling in services particularly in
offshore operations. These asphaltene precipitates could deposit on exteriors, amass in low-energy areas or upsurge the operational viscosity
of the flowing oil (Mamin et al., 2016). The overall impact is a rise
in pressure drop for a particular frequency via decrease in the flowing
zone or alteration in viscosity. Generally, the mitigation expenditure
of an unanticipated asphaltene challenges is usually much. Therefore,
it is vital that the characteristics of asphaltenes in an offshore production structure be comprehended starting from the project plan phase.
It is thus imperative that adequate control and mitigation approaches
needed to be integrated into the scheme from the commencement of the
project (Mamin et al., 2016).
Asphaltene deposition management is very crucial in petroleum industry and diverse management stratagems can be applied. These management stratagems may be categorised into two choices i.e. mitigation
and prevention.
2.4.1. Mitigation stratagem
Mitigation alternative comprises of the separation the asphaltene deposits from the impaired locations regions. This alternative involves mechanical, microbial, chemical soaking and thermochemical cleaning approaches.
i Mechanical removal approach.
Under mechanical approach, pigging and wireline asphaltene cutting, and heating/thermal techniques are identified (Vargas and
Tavakkoli, 2021).
(a) Pigging and wireline asphaltene cutting technique
These compliment techniques are being used frequently by Shell
Petroleum Development Company, to separate asphaltene deposits from the affected regions. These techniques possess some
demerits viz; pig traps are commonly employed on pipelines that
are ought to mitigate asphaltene predicaments, while asphaltene
cutting could produce output break or complete halt and which
can accrue high capital intensive. Wireline disappointments are
typically common, while achieving in-depth clearance of the
pipes may be tall goal. The technique is better used for up-keep
of a pipeline that is not absolutely blocked. In this technique, asphaltene deposits are detached from the affected areas physically
through scratching the interior of the affected pipelines by pigging. The pigging technique attainment hinges on the pig process
and other pigging influences. This technique is a principal oldest
one acknowledged for the abstraction of asphaltene deposit. It
is a manual scratching the pipes, while soluble or insoluble pigs
are typically used for flow-line cleaning. The pigs separate the
regions of asphaltene impairment as they pass on the pipelines.
Riding asphaltene deposits by manual process is known to oner424
F.M. Adebiyi
Journal of Pipeline Science and Engineering 1 (2021) 419–427
iv Thermochemical approach. This approach is also referred to as
Nitrogen-generating process and it includes a thermochemical cleaning system. This approach makes use of mechanical, chemical,
and thermal properties by adjusting nitrogen gas generation to restrain the reversible fluidity of asphaltene deposits. This exothermal chemical reaction prompts the asphaltene deposits to melt
(Sakthipriya et al., 2017; Adebiyi, 2020).
v Application of blend of approaches. These approaches integrate two
or more of the aforementioned diverse procedures. The application of a mitigation stratagem is built on the gravity as well as nature of the challenge, operational setting, the domicile of the flow
scheme where asphaltene deposition takes place and the expenses
(Adebiyi, 2020; Fulford, 1975).
been observed that the expenses of chemical additive introduction in
the Middle Eastern oilfields varies USD $ 31,000–$ 46,000 per well per
annum (Abdallah, 2012; Alhreez and Wen, 2018).
One of the promising approaches to avert asphaltene precipitation
and eventual deposition is by the addition of any asphaltene stabilizer.
Asphaltene stabilizers are generally referred to as asphaltene inhibitors.
Examples of the inhibitors are commercial inhibitors such as triton X100, sodium dodecyl sulfate, cetyl terimethyl ammonium bromide, and
non-commercial inhibitors such as benzoic acid, benzene, naphthalene,
salicylic acid e.t.c. Asphaltene inhibitors behaves like resins, they peptize the asphaltenes and retain them in the solution (Fig. 7). Generally,
the structural and chemical properties of an inhibitor offer its effectiveness. Nonetheless, the capability of an inhibitor to make asphaltenes stabile is also hinged on the solvent and dispersion medium (Farooq et al.,
2021; Shadman et al., 2012; Rogel, 2010).
Asphaltene inhibitors are employed to decrease or totally remove the
carbonaceous asphaltene deposits on the exteriors of petroleum production facilities. The operational mechanism of framed inhibitor packages
is usually multidimensional. Inhibitor as an additive could be operational in the petroleum fluid by averting asphaltenes accumulation or
adhesion on the wall of the facilities (Campen et al., 2020; Breen, 2001).
2.4.2. Prevention stratagem
Prevention stratagem includes handling the asphaltenes before its
precipitation and eventual deposition. A paramount challenge linked to
asphaltenes is instability, that produces precipitation in wells, pipelines
and other facilities, negatively affecting the petroleum production quantity, value and finances. Instability of asphaltene commences with the
inception of insolvability, then the generation of colloidal scale fragments, that amassed and eventually separate out of solution as solid deposits. Asphaltene accumulation is credited to intermolecular possible
interactions resulting from charges on the molecular rings of asphaltene due to the occurrence of basic as well as acidic functional groups
comprising nitrogen, sulphur and oxygen heteroatoms. Nitrogen heteroatom principally exists as pyridinic structures (basic) and pyrrolic
structures (acidic) inside the rings, while S heteroatom exists in thiophenic structures and O hetaroatom occurs in hydroxyl, carbonyl as
well as carboxylic groups (Vargas and Tavakkoli, 2021). Opposite exterior charges exist on asphaltenes due to the dissociation of charged ions.
Hydroxyl groups that occur in carboxylic acids, alcohols, phenols, mercapto groups and organic sulfides generate positive charges, while basic
functional groups (e.g., pyridinic groups) produce negative charges in
nonpolar medium. The period necessary for asphaltenes to completely
precipitated out could be prolonged using divers chemical solvent formations thus showing that the suspension of asphaltene instability is
readily probable (Mullins, 2010; Wang et al., 2009; Bouts et al., 1995;
Abdallah, 2012; Alhreez and Wen, 2018). Chemical usage is recognized
as a supreme corporate approach to avert asphaltene precipitation and
deposition. Asphaltene inhibitors are planned to react with asphaltene
so as to hinder precipitation, accumulation of precipitates and deposition of the precipitates as solid deposits, as well guarantee improved
fluid flow rate. Despite the fact that this approach is effective and extensively employed in petroleum industry, its key shortcoming the cost of
losing huge volume of chemicals used as asphaltene inhibitor in reservoir, this will accrue huge handling expenditure. For example, it has
3. Conclusion and recommendation
3.1. Conclusion
Asphaltenes are ascribed to be a high molecular weight molecules
occurring in petroleum that largely comprise of H, C, and N, S, O heteroatoms. They are referred to as molecules of carbonaceous material
origin such as bitumen or crude oil that are soluble in aromatic solvents such as xylene and toluene, but rather insoluble in paraffinic solvents such as pentane and n-heptane. Ascertaining the smooth flow of
petroleum through the flow-lines and wellbores during the production
of oil and also in monitoring asphaltene instability during petroleum
production are germane cases of attention to pipeline operators in the
areas of petroleum development. The precipitation and eventual deposition of asphaltene flocculates are a major factor of plugging in
petroleum reservoirs and other petroleum transport facilities. Several
varieties of researches have been executed in the areas of asphaltene
precipitation, growth and deposition so as to foretell, model and manage
the asphaltene deposition menaces in the petroleum industry. Asphaltene deposition threat is a universal common challenge in petroleum
industry because its deposition blocks, damages petroleum transportation wells, pipelines, pumps, and other petroleum production facilities
thereby, causing production and financial losses. Based on the configuration of asphaltenes within petroleum fluids, at decreased temperatures asphaltenes precipitate out, aggregate and form solid deposits. The
Fig. 7. An asphaltene inhibitor mechanism in diverse deposition settings indicating the effect of colloid stability (ScienceDirect, 2021).
425
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Journal of Pipeline Science and Engineering 1 (2021) 419–427
quantity of asphaltene deposits is usually worsen by many factors such
as solvent ratio and elevated cooling time. Fundamentally, petroleum
viscosity and pour point are affected by asphaltene deposits; this ultimately impairs the flow rate of the petroleum fluids, which will definitely cause the petroleum fluid to be jelly-like. The situation will trigger
austere challenges like loss of petroleum and plugging of flow lines, and
at long last upsurge petroleum production expenditures.
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3.2. Recommendation
Exertion needed to be strengthened on investigations such as asphaltene precipitation/deposition threats in multi-stage flow, turbulent flow,
e.t.c. These can offer information on the prospective asphaltene deposition management and flow line maintenance. Those investigations that
should be able to propose information on recognising, lowering and
averting asphaltene precipitation, aggregation and deposition. Varied
stratagems are required to foresee, discover and measure asphaltene deposits in petroleum flow lines and other facilities due to the fact that they
frequently get severe asphaltene deposition challenges predominantly in
winter times. Further operational activities to be observed are consistent
sampling and analysis of petroleum for total asphaltene composition and
dissolved solids of water-floc, etc; temperature check-ups based on depth
in six months’ interval should be done as well as suitable enlightening
of asphaltene flocculate depths. It is also vital to obtain inclusive fiscal
evaluation of management stratagems of asphaltene deposition affected
petroleum in order to expand petroleum and profits productions, augment earnings and attain commendable products by the establishment.
The diverse management stratagems to employed have to be evaluated
for financial and execution viability prior to their implementation. Likewise, it is vital to take to a dynamic approach to ascertain the threat of
asphaltene precipitation and deposition in any petroleum production
facility and execute operational stratagem prior to the handling of any
identified challenge. Widespread researches ought to be done at the field
sites to envisage the nature of the oil field and prospect usage in order
to tender elucidations to asphaltene precipitation and deposition.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The author declares no conflict of interest.
Acknowledgement
The author, Prof. Festus M. Adebiyi sincerely acknowledges the support of Dangote Oil Refinery CO Ltd, Lagos, Nigeria for awarding him a
Fellowship.
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