ELECTRICAL ENERGY
CONSERVATION AND
AUDIT (EEE327)
MODULE I
ENERGY CONSERVATION BASICS
LECTURE 1
WHAT IS ENERGY?
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Definition: Energy is the capacity of a physical system to perform work. Energy exists in
several forms such as heat, kinetic or mechanical energy, light, potential energy, electrical or
other forms.
According to the law of conservation of energy, the total energy of a system remains constant,
though energy may transform into another form.
For example, two billiard balls colliding, may come to rest, with the resulting energy
converting to sound and perhaps a little bit of heat, at the point of collision.
• TYPES OF ENERGY
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•
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Mechanical energy
movement , the sum of Kinetic and Potential Energy.
Thermal energy
Thermal energy =temperature diff. between two systems.
Nuclear energy
Nuclear energy =changes in the atomic nuclei
Chemical energy
Chemical energy =Chemical reactions between atoms.
Electromagnetic energy
Electromagnetic energy = energy from light or
electromagnetic waves.
World Energy Consumption
• World energy consumption refers to the total energy used by all of
human civilization. It involves all energy harnessed from every
energy source applied towards humanity's endeavours across every
industrial and technological sector, across every country.
• In general, Total Energy consumption indicate Electric energy
consumption and Energy consumed in terms of crude oil.
LECTURE 2
India's Energy Consumption
• The utility electricity sector in India has one National Grid with an installed
capacity of 345.5 GW as on 31 July 2018. Renewable power plants constituted
33.23% of total installed capacity. During the fiscal year 2016-17. India is the
world's third largest producer and third largest consumer of electricity. Electric
energy consumption in agriculture was recorded highest (17.89%) in 2015-16
among all.
India's Energy Consumption
LECTURE 3
Energy Conservation:
Energy conservation means reduction in energy consumption but without making
any sacrifice in the quality or quantity of production. In other words, it means
increasing the production from a given amount of energy input by reducing
losses/wastage and maximizing the efficiency.
Various Aspects/Advantages Energy Conservation:
There are three important aspects or energy conservation:
1. Economic Aspect:
(a) Reduction in Cost of Product: Energy conservation ultimately leads to
economic benefits as the cost of production is reduced. In some energyintensive industries like steel, aluminium, cement, fertilizer, pulp and paper,
the cost of energy forms a significant part of the total cost of the product. We
must strive for good energy economy using energy-efficient technologies. This
will reduce the manufacturing cost and lead to production of cheaper and
better-quality products.
(b) New Job Opportunities:
Energy conservation usually requires new
investments in more efficient equipments to replace old inefficient ones,
monitoring of energy consumption, training of manpower, etc. Thus, energy
conservation can result in new job opportunities.
2. Environmental Aspect: Every type of energy generation/utilization process
affects the environment to some extent, either directly or indirectly. Thus,
energy is generated and utilized at the expense of adverse environmental
impacts. Adoption of energy-conservation means can minimize this damage.
3. Conservation of Non-renewable Energy Assets: The vast bulk of energy
used in the world today comes from fossil fuels, which are non-renewable. This
finite, non-renewable asset is being used up very fast. We must abandon
wasteful practices in energy utilization and conserve this resource by all means
for future generations.
LECTURE 4
LIGHTING :COMPARISON CHART
LED LIGHTS VS. INCANDESCENT LIGHT BULBS VS. CFLS
Numerical
Q1. A 20-W LED bulb can provide the same amount of light output as the 100W incandescent bulb. What is the cost saving for using the LED bulb in place of
the incandescent bulb for one year, assuming Rs.6/kWh is the average energy
rate charged by the power company? Assume that the bulb is turned on for
three hours a day.
Solution:
Energy consumption by the bulbs in a year will be:
EINCANDESCENT = P x t = 100 x 365 x 3 = 109500 Wh = 109.5 kWh
ELED = P x t = 20 x 365 x 3 = 21900 Wh = 21.90 kWh
Yearly Energy Cost:
Incandescent = 109.5 x 6 = Rs. 657/LED = 21.90 x 6 = Rs. 131.40/Savings in Energy Cost = 657
- 131.40 = Rs. 525.60/-
Numerical
Q2. In a year, the power plants in India consumed 39.5 x 1015 Btu (British
Thermal Units) of energy and produced 3.675 x 1012 kWh of electricity. What is
the average efficiency of the power plants in India?
Solution:
Energy Input = 39.5 x 1015 Btu
Energy Output = 3.675 x 1012 kWh
Since 1 kWh = 3412 Btu
Therefore 3.675 x 1012 kWh = 12.539 x 1015 Btu
Efficiency, η
Therefore, η
Energy Output
=
x 100
Energy Input
12.539 x 1015
=
x 100
15
39.5 x 10
=
31.74 %
LECTURE 5
Principles of Energy Conservation:
Some general principles of energy conservation are explained below:
(a) Recycling of Waste: Reducing the waste and reclaiming the useful waste
material by its recycling can save that invisible energy which was used in
producing and processing the material. It has three benefits:
(i) Saving of energy as (in general) the energy spent in recycling is only a
fraction of the energy needed in extraction of fresh material from raw source.
Thus, recycling saves and recovers a part or energy that has already been spent
to process the fresh material.
(ii) Extraction of the same amount of new (virgin) material is also displaced.
(iii) It also solves the problem of waste disposal to a great extent.
(b) Modernization of Technology: Developed countries have been able to
reduce the energy consumption significantly compared to developing countries
by adopting energy-efficient modern technology. Therefore, modern energy
efficient technology should be adopted by replacing the existing old inefficient
equipment.
(c) Waste Heat Utilization: Various industrial processes require heat of different
grades. Waste heat from one process can serve the need of another, which
requires heat at a lower grade.
(d) Proper Housekeeping
(e) Judicial Use of Proper Types of Energy: For economic reasons, one should
never use a higher-grade energy than required. For example, electrical energy
should preferably not be used for heating purpose; instead, thermal energy,
which may be obtained directly by burning fuel or by solar thermal system, may
be used.
(g) Cogeneration: Cogeneration (generation of electricity and useful heat in a
single installation) should be used wherever feasible and economically viable,
instead of separate generation of electricity and heat. In some industries,
cogeneration may result in 30% lower fuel consumption as compared to that
where electricity and heat are generated separately.
LECTURE 6
Energy Conservation Act, 2001:
Considering the vast potential of energy savings and benefits of energy
efficiency, the Government of India (on 29 September 2001) enacted the
Energy Conservation Act, 2001. The Act provides the legal framework,
institutional arrangement, and a regulatory mechanism at the central
and state levels to embark upon an energy-efficiency drive in the
country. This act requires large energy consumers to adhere to energy
consumption norms, new buildings to follow the Energy Conservation
Building Code; and appliances to meet energy performance
consumption labels.
Salient Features of Energy Conservation Act, 2001:
• The establishment of a Bureau of Energy Efficiency (BEE) to
implement the provisions of the act.
• Declaration of a user or class of users of energy as a designated
consumer.
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To lay down minimum energy-consumption standards and labelling
for identified appliances/ equipment and norms for industrial
processes for energy intensive industries.
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Formation of energy consumption codes.
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Dissemination of information and best practices.
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Establishment of an Energy Conservation Fund, both at the central
and state levels.
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Provision of penalties and adjudication and creating the infrastructure
for implementing the act.
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BEE to act as a facilitator for the evolution of a self-regulatory system.
LECTURE 7
Energy Conservation Act-2001 Cont.
Energy Conservation Act-2001
Energy Conservation Act-2001 Cont.
LECTURE 8
Bureau of Energy Efficiency
• The Bureau of Energy Efficiency is an agency of the Government of
India, under the Ministry of Power created in March 2002 under the
provisions of the nation's 2001 Energy Conservation Act. The agency's
function is to develop programs which will increase the conservation and
efficient use of energy in India. The government has proposed to make it
mandatory for certain appliances in India to have ratings by the BEE
starting in January 2010.
Some Important Roles/Functions of BEE are as follows:
 Promote research and development in the field of energy conservation.
 Promote use of energy efficient processes, equipment, devices and
systems.
 Certification and testing of equipment and appliances for energy
consumption.
 Prescribe energy conservation building codes and direct the
builders/occupants to strictly follow the standards defined for
conservation of energy.
 Prepare curriculum on efficient use of energy and its conservation for
educational institutions.
 Give financial assistance to institutions for promoting efficient use of
energy and its conservation.
 Arrange and organize training of personnel and specialists in the
techniques for efficient use of energy.
Schemes of BEE under the Energy
Conservation Act-2001
LECTURE 9
Star Labelling of Appliances:
Star labelling of appliances is one of the most cost-effective policy tools for
improving energy efficiency and lowering energy cost of appliances/equipment for
the consumers. This program aims to provide consumers an informed choice about
the energy savings of high energy equipment and appliances and shifting the
markets toward increased sales of energy-efficient star labelled products.
Benefits of Star Labelling:
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Star rating schemes allow us to compare the operating cost and environmental
performance of similar products.
This allows us to make better choices and see the potential ongoing future costs
and greenhouse gas impacts our decisions may have.
Star labels affixed to manufactured products provide consumers with the data
necessary for making informed purchases.
Use of energy efficient appliances protects energy sources from depletion.
Decrease in the level of dependence on non-renewable energy sources.
LECTURE 10
Test/Assignment
Q1. What do you understand by energy conservation? Explain.
Q2. Discuss the Energy Conservation Act of 2001 in brief.
Q3. What do you understand by energy conservation? Discuss major aspects
of energy conservation.
Q4. What is energy conservation? Give the advantage of energy
conservation.
Q5. List the general principles of energy conservation. Discuss recycling of
waste and co-generation in brief.
Q6. Discuss any two principles of energy conservation in brief. (6)
Q7. Discuss any four important principles of energy conservation in brief.
Q8. Give the salient features of Energy Conservation Act of 2001.
Q9. What do you understand by star labelling of electrical appliances? Give
its advantages.
Q10. Discuss in detail the functions and responsibilities of Bureau of Energy
Efficiency.
MODULE II
ENERGY CONSERVATION IN
ELECTRICAL MACHINES
LECTURE 1
Need for Energy Conservation in Transformers:
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Power losses in machines leads to increased cost of electricity, so energy
conservation is necessary to reduce cost.
The use of energy efficient machines helps in achieving the goal of
sustainable energy and to reduce power generation.
Inefficient transformers need large power for the same output.
Transformers must work at higher efficiency to reduce losses.
To save power, therefore inefficient transformers should be replaced by
energy efficient transformers.
Energy Conservation Techniques in Transformers:
1. Load Sharing and Parallel Operation: Due to overloading, the efficiency of
transformer drops, and the secondary winding gets overheated, or it may
burn because of excess heat. Load sharing protects the transformer under
overload condition. This can be done by operating another transformer in
parallel with the main transformer.
2. Isolating Techniques: When transformers are operating in parallel to
share a particular load, it is necessary to remove some transformers when
load demand is less, so that other transformers will supply energy at
maximum efficiency. The transformer which is not sharing the load will
remain connected to the common bus so that it can be reconnected again in
parallel whenever required.
3. Periodic Maintenance: Periodic maintenance is a vital part of loss control
activities. Periodic maintenance of transformer monitors the deterioration.
It minimizes the power losses, and it also minimizes the risk of equipment
failure and the resulting problems of that failure.
4. Replacement by Energy Efficient Transformers: Energy efficient
transformers are an important means to reduce transmission and
distribution loss and to achieve higher efficiency.
LECTURE 2
Energy Efficient Transformers:
An energy efficient transformer is designed to be more efficient and reduce
the amount of power loss that occurs when the energy is transferred. An
energy efficient transformer accomplishes this by using extremely
conductive materials.
Amorphous Metal:
 Amorphous metal is an alloy rather than a pure metal.
 It is a magnetic material having high permeability.
 Amorphous cores allow smaller, lighter, and more efficient design in
many high frequency applications.
 They have superior magnetic qualities, such as lower core loss
compared with conventional magnetic materials.
Advantages of Amorphous Core Transformer:
 The core made up of amorphous can be easily magnetized and
demagnetized.
 Core loss by this metal can be reduced to 70-80% than traditional
transformer.
 This results into low electricity production and less CO2 emission at
generating plants using coal.
 Reduction in energy loss over conventional transformers is about 70%.
 They have increased efficiencies even at low loads i.e. 98.5% efficiency
at 35 % load.
 Its reliability is higher, and it requires less maintenance.
 The overall benefit towards energy savings will compensate for the
higher initial investment.
LECTURE 3
Energy Conservation in Motors:
Need for Energy Conservation in Motors:
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Power losses in machines leads to increased cost of electricity,
so energy conservation is necessary to reduce cost.
The use of energy efficient machines helps in achieving the
goal of sustainable energy and to reduce power generation.
Inefficient motors need large power for the same output.
Motors must work at higher efficiency to reduce losses.
To save power, therefore inefficient motors should be replaced
by energy efficient motors.
Energy Efficient Motors:
An energy efficient transformer is designed to be more efficient and reduce
the amount of power loss that occurs when the energy is transferred. An
energy efficient motor accomplishes this by improving the design of the
motors.
Advantages of Energy Efficient Motors:
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Better efficiency and power factor than standard induction motors.
The use of energy efficient motors reduces energy consumption of the
plant.
The payback period for energy efficiency motors is very less as
compared to standard motors.
The overall benefit towards energy savings will compensate for the
higher initial investment.
LECTURE 4
Energy Conservation Techniques in Motors:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Using Adjustable Speed Drives: Adjustable speed drives adjust the speed of motors
according to the load requirements which optimizes the energy consumption of the
motors leading to significant energy savings.
Rewinding of Motors: In some cases, it may be cost effective to rewind an existing
efficient motor instead of purchasing a new motor. If rewinding cost is less than 60%
of the cost of a new motor, rewinding of the motor may be a better choice.
Operation in Star Mode: In loads operating at less than 30 % of the full load, i.e. at
light loads, operation of "Delta' connected motor in "Star' connection can save energy.
This can save up to 5 to 15 % of power consumption.
Periodic Maintenance: Periodic maintenance is a vital part of loss control activities.
Periodic maintenance of motors monitors the deterioration. It minimizes the power
losses, and it also minimizes the risk of equipment failure and the resulting problems
of that failure.
Replacement by Energy Efficient Motors: Energy efficient motors are an important
means to reduce transmission and distribution loss and to achieve higher efficiency.
Numerical
Ques.1: A three phase 5 kW induction motor has a power factor of
0.75 lagging. A bank of capacitors is connected in delta across the
supply terminals and power factor is raised to 0.90 lagging. Determine
the kVAR rating of the capacitors connected in each phase.
Numerical
Ques.2: A three phase 1000 kW induction motor is running at a power
factor of 0.65 lagging. To improve the power factor, a capacitor bank is
connected in delta across the supply. The kVAR rating of capacitor bank
140 kVAR. What is the value new power factor?
Solution:
LECTURE 5
Energy Conservation
Equipment
Soft Starters
1
Increased Lifespan 🔧
2
Energy Savings 💰
3
Reduced Operational
Costs 🚀
Reduced stress on electrical
Gradual voltage increase
components leads to longer
reduces electricity consumption
Reduced wear and tear helps to
equipment lifespan.
and lowers energy bills.
reduce repair and maintenance
costs.
Automatic Star Delta Convertors
Improved Reliability
Energy Savings
Cost Savings
Reduces electrical stress on
Automatically switches from star to
Reduces energy bills and maintenance
equipment leading to fewer
delta configuration and vice versa,
costs.
breakdowns and less downtime.
reducing energy consumption.
LECTURE 6
Variable Frequency Drives
1
2
3
Energy Savings
Improved Performance
Reduced Mechanical Wear
Adjusts motor speed to meet load
Provides greater control over
Reduces mechanical stress on
requirements, saving energy and
motor speed, allowing for more
equipment components, leading to
reducing energy costs.
precise and efficient operation.
less wear and tear.
Automatic P.F. Controller (APFC)
Efficiency Optimization
Reduced Energy Bills
Improved Power Quality
Automatically adjusts operating
Decreases reactive power drawn
Regulates and balances voltage
parameters to maintain a near-
from the grid, reducing energy bills
levels, improving power quality
ideal power factor, optimizing
and improving overall energy
and protecting electrical
energy efficiency.
efficiency.
equipment.
Enhanced Equipment Lifespan
Reduces stress on electrical components, leading to longer equipment life and reduced maintenance costs.
LECTURE 7
Intelligent P.F. Controller (IPFC)
Benefit
Explanation
Smart Power Factor Correction
Corrects power factor and responds proactively to
changes, ensuring maximum energy savings.
Advanced Data Storage
Stores electrical data in real-time, creating a detailed
energy profile that helps to identify areas for
improvement.
Dynamic Load Compensation
Compensates for dynamic loads and reactive power,
providing greater stability and improved energy efficiency.
Advantages
Save Money
Protect the Environment
Happier Employees
Energy conservation equipment
Reduced energy consumption also
Comfortable and well-lit workspaces
reduces electricity consumption and
leads to a lower carbon footprint and
help create a better working
lowers energy expenses.
greater protection for the environment.
environment.
LECTURE 8
Why Pf Corrections ?
LECTURE 9
Test/Assignment
Q1: Explain in brief the need for energy conservation in motors.
Q2: Explain in brief the need for energy conservation in transformers.
Q3: Discuss the major advantages of using energy efficient motors.
Q4: Discuss the major advantages of using energy efficient transformers.
Q5: Explain in brief the need for energy conservation in motors and
transformers.
Q6: Discuss the major advantages of using energy efficient motors and
transformers.
Q7: Discuss in brief the techniques required to achieve energy efficiency in
motors. What are the advantages of using energy efficient motors and
transformers?
Q8: Discuss in brief the techniques required to achieve energy efficiency in
transformers.
Q9: Discuss in brief the techniques required to achieve energy efficiency in
motors and transformers.
Q9: Discuss the properties of amorphous metal. What are the advantages of
using amorphous core transformer?
MODULE III
ENERGY CONSERVATION IN
ELECTRICAL INSTALLATION
SYSTEMS
LECTURE 1
Reducing Aggregated
Technical and
Commercial Losses
(ATC)
The efficient management of the technical and
commercial losses of electricity is crucial for a
sustainable power grid. Here are measures to help
reduce ATC.
Technical Losses: Causes and Reduction Measures
1
Ageing Infrastructure
2
Vehicle Accidents
3
Measures to Reduce
Upgrading old equipment and
Interferes with electrical
Install AMI, SCADA, and
implementing modern
equipment and can cause
implement proper maintenance
technologies like Smart Grids
outages. Providing barriers and
procedures and training for
can greatly reduce electrical
regular maintenance can help
employees.
loss.
counteract these problems.
LECTURE 2
Commercial Losses: Pilferage, Causes and
Remedies
Causes
Remedies
•
Tampering with meters
•
Smart Meters
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Non-payment of electricity bills
•
Energy Audits
•
Unauthorized connections
•
Adequate training for staff to detect and prevent theft
Introduction to Aggregated Technical and
Commercial Losses (ATC)
Importance of Reducing ATC
Lowers technical losses and commercial losses due to
power theft and provides a more efficient and
sustainable grid.
1
2
3
ATC Definition
ATC Calculation
The combined loss of technical and commercial energy
Calculating the technical losses of the grid and the
in the power system.
commercial losses due to power theft can give you the
aggregated ATC losses of the system.
LECTURE 3
Overview of Energy Conservation Equipment
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Maximum Demand Controller
kVAR Controller
Power Factor Controller (APFC)
Regulates power consumption to avoid
Reduces losses from inefficient supply
Maximizes the efficiency of equipment
peak loads, reducing energy bills and
and improves the quality of power.
by adjusting the power factor of the
maintaining the integrity of the grid.
electric current.
Importance of Energy Conservation in Lighting
System
Energy-efficient bulbs
Motion sensors
Smart Lighting
The usage of energy-efficient
Sensors to detect motion can be
Smart systems to automate
bulbs would lower energy
installed to switch off lights when
lighting in homes and commercial
consumption significantly without
no one is present, reducing
malls can lower energy costs and
compromising lighting quality.
electrical usage.
provide a safer environment.
LECTURE 4
Increasing Energy
Efficiency
In this presentation, we will explore ways to improve
energy efficiency through controlling I2R losses,
optimizing distribution voltage, balancing phase currents,
compensating reactive power flow, and installing
separate transformers or servo stabilizers for lighting.
Controlling Power Losses
Improved Conductors
Cooling Fans
Data Centers
Replacing old, outdated conductors
Installing cooling fans in electrical
Modern data center designs can
with newer, more efficient wires can
panels and switchboards can help to
eliminate the need for large amounts of
help decrease the amount of energy
dissipate heat and prevent energy loss.
air conditioning, reducing energy
lost through resistance.
consumption and cost.
LECTURE 5
Optimizing Distribution Voltage
Load Balancing
Voltage Regulation
Distribution Automation
Distributing loads between phases
Keeping voltage consistent can
Automated distribution systems
can ensure that equipment is
help to prevent damage to
can reduce energy waste by
running at its optimal voltage.
equipment and reduce energy
improving from the conventional
waste.
systems.
Voltage Control
Voltage control equipment and smart electricity meters can help regulate voltage, saving energy and decreasing costs.
Balancing Phase Currents
Phase Balancers
Maintenance
Monitoring
Installing phase balancers can help
Regular maintenance of transformers
Real-time monitoring can detect phase
reduce iron losses in transformers and
and distribution lines can prevent
imbalances and help balance phase
balance phase currents across three-
imbalances and reduce energy waste.
currents, preventing energy loss.
phase networks.
LECTURE 6
Compensating Reactive Power Flow
Lagging Load
Unity Load
Leading Load
Low Power Factor
High Power Factor
High current, low voltage, low power
Balanced current, high voltage, high
factor
power factor
Balanced current, nominal voltage,
Balanced current, nominal voltage,
high power factor
high power factor
Balanced current, high voltage, high
Low current, high voltage, low
power factor
power factor
Compensating reactive power flow can help reduce energy waste and improve energy efficiency by balancing voltage and
current levels in electrical systems. In general, high power factors promote energy efficiency, while low power factors waste
energy.
Installation of Separate
Transformer/Servo Stabilizer
for Lighting
1
Energy Savings
2
Improved Lighting
Quality
Independent control of
lighting systems can reduce
A separate transformer can
overall energy costs and
reduce voltage fluctuations,
waste.
preventing damage to
lighting equipment and
improving quality.
3
Greater Flexibility
Separate switching and control systems can give users greater
flexibility and control over lighting systems.
LECTURE 7
Benefits of the Installation
1
2
3
Energy Savings
Lower Costs
Environmental Benefits
The installation of energy-efficient
Reducing energy consumption can
Reducing energy consumption can
technologies like LED lighting can
significantly lower the cost of
lower carbon emissions and limit
reduce energy consumption by up
running lighting systems, resulting
the environmental impact of
to 50%.
in significant long-term cost
lighting systems.
savings.
Conclusion
Start with the Basics
Consider New
Technologies
Controlling I2R losses, optimizing
Continued Improvement
Improving energy efficiency is an
distribution voltage, balancing phase
Investing in innovative new
ongoing process, and businesses
currents, and compensating reactive
technologies like smart meters,
and individuals alike must continue
power are all simple yet highly
automation systems, and LED
to evaluate and improve their energy
effective ways to boost energy
lighting can significantly boost
usage over time.
efficiency.
energy efficiency and reduce costs
over the long term.
LECTURE 8
Energy Audit
•The primary objective of Energy Audit is to determine ways to reduce energy
consumption per unit of product output or to lower operating costs. Energy Audit
provides a “ bench- mark” (Reference point) for managing energy in the organization
and also provides the basis for planning a more effective use of energy throughout
the organization.
Need for Energy Audit
• In Industries three top operating expenses are energy (both
electrical and thermal), labor and materials.
• Energy would emerge as a top ranker for cost reduction
• primary objective of Energy Audit is to determine ways to
reduce energy consumption per unit of product output or to
lower operating costs
• Energy Audit provides a “ bench-mark” (Reference point) for
managing energy in the organization
LECTURE 9
The Energy Management System
Definition of Energy Management
Energy Management is defined as “The strategy of adjusting and optimizing
energy, using systems and procedures so as to reduce energy requirements per
unit of output while holding constant or reducing total costs of producing the
output from these systems”
The Objectives of Energy Management
• To achieve and maintain optimum energy procurement and utilisation,
throughout the organization
• To minimise energy costs / waste without affecting production & quality
• To minimise environmental effects.
LECTURE 10
Test/Assignment
Q1: What are the major causes of low power factor in an electricity supply
system?
Q2: Explain the need for power factor improvement in an electricity supply
system.
Q3: What are the major causes of low power factor in an electricity supply
system? Discuss in brief the need for power factor correction in an electricity
supply system.
Q4: Discuss any one method of power factor improvement in electricity
distribution system. Also discuss its advantages and disadvantages.
Q5: Discuss the role of capacitor banks in improvement of power factor in a
distribution line. Also discuss their advantages and disadvantages.
Q6: How synchronous condenser improves the power factor in a power
system? Also discuss its advantages and disadvantages.
Q7: Discuss any two methods of power factor improvement in electricity
distribution system. Also discuss their advantages and disadvantages.
Q8: Discuss in brief the types of losses that occur in transmission and
distribution of electricity.
MODULE IV
ENERGY CONSERVATION THROUGH
COGENERATION AND TARIFF
LECTURE 1
Methods of Power Factor Improvement
1. Static Capacitor (Capacitor Bank)
2. Synchronous Condenser
3. Phase Advancer
Static Capacitor:

For Power factor improvement purpose, Static capacitors are connected in
parallel with those devices which work on low power factor.
 These static capacitors provide leading current which neutralize the lagging
inductive component of load current. Thus, power factor of the load circuit is
improved.
 These capacitors are installed in vicinity of large inductive load e.g., induction
motors and transformers etc., and improve the load circuit power factor to
improve the system efficiency.
Advantages:
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Losses are low in static capacitors.
There is no moving part, therefore need low maintenance.
It can work in normal conditions (i.e., ordinary atmospheric conditions).
Do not require a foundation for installation.
They are lightweight, so can be easily installed.
Disadvantages:
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The age of static capacitor bank is less (8 – 10 years).
With changing load, we have to ON or OFF the capacitor bank, which causes switching surges on
the system.
If the rated voltage increases, then the capacitors may get damaged.
Once the capacitor is damaged, then repairing is costly.
Synchronous Condenser:
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When an over-excited synchronous motor operates at no-load, then it’s called a synchronous
condenser.
Whenever a synchronous motor is over- excited then it provides leading current and works like a
capacitor.
When a synchronous condenser is connected in parallel to the system, then it draws leading
current and thus eliminates the reactive component of current leading to improvement in power
factor.
Generally, synchronous condenser is used to improve the power factor in large industries.
Advantages:
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Long life (almost 25 years).
High Reliability.
Step-less adjustment of power factor.
Does not generate harmonics or switching surges.
Require less maintenance (only periodic bearing greasing is necessary).
LECTURE 2
Phase Advancer:
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As the stator windings of induction motor takes lagging current 90° out of phase with
voltage, therefore the power factor of induction motor is low.
Phase advancer is a simple AC exciter which is connected on the main shaft of the
motor and operates with the motor’s rotor circuit for power factor improvement.
If the rotor circuit is excited by an external AC source, then there would be no effect
on stator winding current.
Advantages:


Lagging kVAR drawn by the motor is sufficiently reduced.
The phase advancer can be easily used where the use of synchronous motors is not
feasible.
Disadvantages:


Using phase advancer is not economical for motors below 200 H.P. (about 150 kW).
Phase advancer is used mostly in large industries only.
LECTURE 3
Electricity Tariff:
The rate at which electrical energy is supplied to a consumer is termed as
‘electricity tariff.’
Factors Involved in Deciding an Electricity Tariff:
Keeping in mind the following factors, various types of tariffs have been
designed:
 The tariff should be such that the total cost of generation,
transmission, and distribution is recovered.
 It should earn a reasonable profit.
 It must be fair and at a reasonable to the consumers.
 It should be simple and easy to apply.
 The tariff should be competitive.
Types of Tariffs:
Flat Rate Tariff:
 In this tariff, different types of consumers are charged at different rates of cost per
unit (1kWh) of electrical energy consumed.
 Different consumers are grouped under different categories. Then, each category is
charged money at a fixed rate.
 The different rates are decided according to the consumers, their loads and load
factors.
 This type of tariff is generally applied to domestic consumers.

Advantages:
Fairer to different consumers.

Simple calculations.


Disadvantages:
Since different rates are decided according to different loads, separate meters need to
be installed for different loads such as light loads, power loads, etc. This makes the
whole arrangement complicated and expensive.
All the consumers in a particular “category” are charged at the same rates. However, it
is fairer if the consumers that utilize more energy be charged at lower fixed rates.
LECTURE 4
Two Part Tariff:
 In this tariff scheme, the total costs charged to the consumers consist of
two components: fixed charges and running charges.
 The fixed charges will depend upon maximum demand of the consumer
and the running charge will depend upon the energy (units) consumed.
 It can be expressed as:
Total Cost = [A (kW) + B (kWh)] Rs.
Where, A = charge per kW of max demand (i.e. A is a constant which
when multiplied with max demand (kW) gives the total fixed costs.)
B = charge per kWh of energy consumed (i.e. B is a constant which
when multiplied with units consumed (kWh), gives total running
charges.)
 This type of tariff is generally applied to industrial consumers.
Advantages:

In a particular month, if consumer’s consumption is zero,
consumer has to pay only fixed charges.
Disadvantages:

Even if a consumer does not use any electricity, he has to
pay the fixed charges regularly.

The maximum demand of the consumer is not
determined. Hence, there is error of assessment of max
demand and hence conflict between the supplier and the
consumer.
LECTURE 5
What is Cogeneration?



Cogeneration
is
an
energy-efficient,
environmentally friendly method of producing
electricity (power), steam and/or hot water at the
same time, in one process, with one fuel.
Cogeneration is a process in which an industrial
facility uses its waste energy to produce heat or
electricity.
The heat produced by cogeneration can be delivered
through various mediums, including warm water
(e.g., for space heating and hot water systems),
steam or hot air (e.g., for commercial and industrial
uses).
Importance or Need of Cogeneration
• Thermal
•
•
•
•
•
power plants are major sources of
electricity supply in India.
In conventional power plant, efficiency is only 33%
and remaining 65% of energy is lost.
Major loss in the conversion process
heat
rejected to surrounding water or air.
Further losses of around 10-15% are transmission
and distribution.
Through the utilization of the heat, the efficiency of
the co-generation plant can reach 90% or more.
Co-generation therefore offers energy savings
ranging between 15-40%.
LECTURE 6
Advantages of Cogeneration










Operational advantages:
Security of supply
Steam raising capabilities
Financial advantages:
Reduced primary energy cost
Stabilized electricity cost over a fixed period
Environmental advantages:
Improved fuel efficiency
Reduced CO2 emissions
Lower SOX emissions with the use of Natural gas
as a fuel
Combined Heat and Power (CHP)




It is the use of a power station to
simultaneously generate both heat and
electricity.
Conventional power plants emit the heat created
as a byproduct of electricity generation into the
environment through cooling towers, as flue gas,
or by other means.
CHP captures the excess heat for domestic or
industrial heating purposes.
C H P Recycles the Waste Heat from Power
Generation achievingefficiencies of over 80%.
LECTURE 7
CHPand Conventional Generation
Fuel input
Separate
generation
81
53
Total 134
Fuel input
Output
Power station
43%
Boiler house
95%
CHP
Electricity
35
Heat
50
Electricity
35%
Useful heat
50%
134 100
Primary energy savings 
 25%
134
100
Total 100
Benefits of CHP
Improved Reliability of power supply.
CO2 emissions reduced by 75%-90% (44-54 thousand Tonnes/year)
Overall efficiency in CHP mode is 89%
Removes requirement for back-up diesels (Conserve Natural Resources)
Usually cost-effective
Facilitates Deployment of New Clean Energy Technologies
LECTURE 8
Losses in Electricity Transmission and Distribution:
Power generated in power stations pass through large and complex networks
like transformers, overhead lines, cables, and other equipment and then
reaches at the end users. The electric energy generated by power station does
not match with the units delivered to the consumers because some percentage
of the units is lost in the distribution network. This difference in the generated
& distributed units is known as transmission and distribution loss. Transmission
and distribution (T&D) loss are amounts that are not paid for by users.
There are two types of transmission and distribution losses:
1. Technical Losses
2. Non-Technical Losses (Commercial Losses)
1. Technical Losses: The technical losses are due to energy dissipated in the
conductors, equipment used for transmission line, transformer, subtransmission line and distribution line and magnetic losses in transformers. A
major part of losses in a power system is in primary and secondary distribution
lines. There are two types of technical losses:
(a) Permanent / Fixed Technical Losses: Fixed losses do not vary according to current.
Some examples of fixed losses on a network are as follows:






Corona Losses.
Leakage Current Losses.
Dielectric Losses.
Open-Circuit Losses.
Losses caused by continuous load of measuring elements.
Losses caused by continuous load of control elements.
(b) Variable Technical Losses: Variable losses vary with the amount of electricity
distributed and are, more precisely, proportional to the square of the current.
Main Reasons for Technical Losses:






Lengthy transmission and distribution lines.
Inadequate size of conductors.
Installation of distribution transformers away from load centres.
Low power factor of primary and secondary distribution system.
Inadequate sizing and wrong selection of transformers.
Unbalanced three phase loads.
LECTURE 9
2. Non-Technical Losses (Commercial Losses): Non-technical losses are
related to metering, billing of customer, administration, financial
constraints, and estimation of unmetered supply of energy.
Main Reasons for Non-Technical Losses:

Power theft.

Error in meter reading.

Billing problems.

Error in meters.

Unmetered supply.

Unmetered losses for very small Load
Test/Assignment
Q1. What do you understand by Cogeneration? Discuss the operational,
financial, and environmental advantages of Cogeneration.
Q2. What cogeneration is important? Discuss.
Q3. What do you understand by Combined Heat and Power (CHP) plant?
What are its advantages?
Q5. Give comparison chart between a conventional power plant and a CHP
plant.
Q6. Give comparison chart between a conventional power plant and a CHP
plant. Also discuss the benefits of CHP.
Q7. What is electricity tariff? Discuss the factors involved in deciding
electricity tariff.
Q8. What do you understand by two-part electricity tariff? Discuss its
advantages and disadvantages.
Q9. What is a flat rate electricity tariff? Discuss its advantages and
disadvantages.
MODULE IV
ENERGY AUDIT OF ELECTRICAL
SYSTEMS
LECTURE 1
Types of Energy Audit
•
Type of Energy Audit
The type of Energy Audit to be performed depends on:
-
Function and type of industry
-
Depth to which final audit is needed, and
-
Potential and magnitude of cost reduction desired
Thus Energy Audit can be classified into the following three types:
i)
Preliminary Audit
ii)
Targeted Energy Au.
iii) Detailed Audit
LECTURE 2
Preliminary Audit
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Preliminary energy audit uses existing or easily obtained data
Establishes the energy consumption in the organization
Estimates the scope for saving
Identifies the most likely areas for attention
Identifies immediate(no cost or low cost) improvements
Sets a ‘reference point’
Identifies areas for more detailed study/measurement
Preliminary Audit Cont.
LECTURE 3
Ten Steps Methodology for conducting Detail
Energy Audit
Questions which an Energy Auditor should ask?
What function does this system serve?
How does this system serve its function?
What is the energy consumption of this system?
What are the indications that this system is working properly ?
If this system is not working, how can it be restored to good working conditions/
How can the energy cost of this system be reduced?
LECTURE 4
DETAILED ENERGY AUDITA TYPICAL INDUSTRIAL FORMAT
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Energy Audit Team
Executive Summary –Scope & Purpose
Energy Audit Options & Recommendations
1.0 Introduction about the plant
– 1.1 General Plant details and descriptions
– 1.2 Component of production cost (Raw materials, energy, chemicals,
• manpower, overhead, others)
1.3 Major Energy use and Areas
2.0 Production Process Description
– 2.1 Brief description of manufacturing process
– 2.2 Process flow diagram and Major Unit operations
– 2.3 Major Raw material Inputs, Quantity and Costs
3.0 Energy and Utility System Description
– 3.1 List of Utilities
– 3.2 Brief Description of each utility
– 3.2.1 Electricity
– 3.2.2 Steam
– 3.2.3 Water
– 3.2.4 Compressed air
– 3.2.5 Chilled water
– 3.2.6 Cooling water
1. Detailed Process flow diagram and Energy& Material balance
2.Flow chart showing flow rate, temperature, pressures of all inputOutput streams
4Water balance for entire industry
1. Energy efficiency in utility and process systems
2. Specific Energy consumption
3. Boiler efficiency assessment
4. Thermic Fluid Heater performance assessments
5. Furnace efficiency Analysis
6. Cooling water system performance assessment
7. DG set performance assessment
8. Refrigeration system performance
9. Compressed air system performance
10. Electric motor load analysis
11. Lighting system
12. Energy Conservation Options & Recommendations
13. List of options in terms of no cost, low cost, medium cost and high cost, annual energy
savings and payback
2. Implementation plan for energy saving measures/Projects
ANNEXURE
Al. List of instruments
A2. List of Vendors and Other Technical details
LECTURE 5
Instruments Used in Energy Audit
LECTURE 6
LECTURE 7
Energy consumption break down Sankey diagram
Nitro gen facto ry
26 0 [kW]
Ligh ting
Compressed air
80 [k W]
19 0 [kW]
Ventilation
Air cooling
22 0 [kW]
Other
20 0 [kW]
65 [k W]
Electrici ty
31 65 [kW]
22 0 [kW]
50 [k W]
53 0 [kW]
Heat recov ery
26 00 [k W]
30 [k W]
Heat recov ery bo iler
69 00 [k W]
Direct p rocess remov als
40 00 [kW]
Raw material
preprocessing
14 00 [kW]
52 0 [kW]
Oxyg en burn er
55 0 [kW]
16 30 [kW]
Lehr
Float bath
13 20 [kW]
11 10 [k W]
Water cooling
Melti ng
36 00 [kW]
13 00 [k W]
13 80 [k W]
Natu ral gas
17 73 0 [kW]
12 20 [k W]
10 62 0 [kW]
Room
Energy Analyses in Industry Report Model
(MOTIVA)
7. Saving
measures
and economy
6. Process
4. Building
5. Process
services
3. Consum
ption,
costs
2. Basic info
TABLE 2
Savings
€
TABLE 1
Kauppa- jateollisuusministeriön
tukema energiakatselmushanke
DNro: 333/954/93
Päätöksen pvm30.12.1993
ENERGY ANALYSES REPORT
Company Ltd
recyclingmaterialfromclients
stock
electr. water
chruchedaggregate
compressed
electr. air N
cooling2 N2 H2
warter
natural gas O2 electr.
SO
hot air
natural gas
water
electr.
a-powder
electr.
electr. electr.
compr.air
2
na tural gas
Prehandling
of raw
material
Smelt
ing
Tinbath
Cooling
hot
combustion
air gas
lime sand
Na2SO4 air
compr.air
compr.air
cooling
cooling.cooling
air compr.air
Regen. air water
soda
Washing
and
checking
Cutting
and
bundling
dryingair
Delivering
+ stock
heat
copr. air electr.
heatingwater
waste heat
boiler
Continued
handling
combustiongas
Helsinki
5.9.1999
Invest.
€
Jaakko Pöyry Group
Pay back
period
Saving
Cons. Saving Invest. measur. 1
now
pot.
Saving
measur. 2
Electr.
:
:
Fuels
recycling material from clients
Total
Water
stock
Total
N it r o g e n
L i g h ti n g
C o m p ress e d a i r
fact o ry
2 6 0 [ kW ]
8 0 [ kW ]
1 9 0 [ kW ]
chruchedaggregate
compressed
air
electr.
N
cooling 2N
H2 2
warter
natural gas O2
SO
electr.
V e n t il a t i o n
Ai r c o o lin g
electr. water
2 2 0 [ kW ]
E le c t r i c it y
3 1 6 5 [ kW ]
Prehandling
of raw
material
3 0 [ kW ]
Savings
€
4 0 0 0 [ kW ]
O xy gen
lime
b ur ner
Na2SO4
Fl o a t ba t h
hot combustion
air
gas
sand
5 5 0 [ kW ]
1 3 2 0 [ kW ]
Tinbath
Smelt
ing
H e a t r e c ov e r y b oi le r
6 9 0 0 [ kW ]
R a w m aterial
pr e pr o c e ss ing
Regen.air water
1 6 3 0 [ kW ]
1
2 3- 4
5-
natural gas a-powder
water
electr.electr.
Cooling
2 6 0 0 [ kW ]
D ir e c t p r o c e ss r e m o va l s
Washing
and
checking
Cutting
and
bundling
compr.air
compr.air
cooling
dryingair
cooling. cooling
mpr.air
air co air
M e l ti n g
heat
copr. airelectr.
1 1 1 0 [ kW ]
3 6 0 0 [ kW ]
boiler
wasteheat
1 3 0 0 [ kW ]
heating water
1 7 7 30
Delivering
+stock
5 2 0 [ kW ]
Leh r
W a t e r c o o lin g
N a tu r a l g a s
electr.
compr.air
H eat r ecov ery
1 4 0 0 [ kW ]
soda
0
electr.
2
natural gas
2 2 0 [ kW ]
5 0 [ kW ]
5 3 0 [ kW ]
hotair
O th e r
2 0 0 [ kW ]
6 5 [ kW ]
Continued
handling
1 3 8 0 [ kW ]
[ kW ]
1 2 2 0 [ kW ]
combustion gas
Company Oy
PL 27, 00131 HELSINKI
Puh. 09 - 46911
Fax. 09 - 4691 311
1. Summary
- text
- tables 1,2
- econ.prof.
- Sankey
diagram
- process
block diagr.
A
p
p.
1 0 6 20
[ kW ]
R o o m
LECTURE 8
HOME OR RESIDENTIAL ENERGY
AUDIT
• A home energy audit (or survey) evaluates an existing home to
determine where and how energy is being lost, what systems are
operating inefficiently and what cost-effective improvements can be
implemented to enhance occupant comfort, make the home more
durable and lower utility costs
• Area includes under residential energy audit :• Building envelope features (windows, doors, insulation, ducts) and
ages
• Heating, cooling and ventilation equipment types, characteristics
and ages
• Appliance and lighting characteristics
• Comfort complaints
• Visible moisture issues
• Visible health and safety issues
Benefits of energy audit for energy savings
potentials in industries
INDUSTRY
8/21/201
8
SAVING POTENTIAL %
Iron and Steel
10
Fertilizer
15
Textile
25
Cement
15
Paper
25
Aluminum
10
Sugar,
Petrochemicals
Refineries
20
15
10
7
5
Potential for Energy Conservation
Residential Sector
END USE
SAVING ESTIMATE %
Lighting
20 - 50
Cooling / Ventilation
15 -50
Refrigeration
15 - 40
Water heating equipment
20 -70
Miscellaneous Equipment
10
LECTURE 9
ISO standards for energy audit
• Iso 9001 : 2008 – quality management system
• Iso 14001 :2004 – environmental management systems
• OHSAS 18001 – Occupational health and safety management
systems
• Iso 22000 – food safety
• Iso TS/16949 :2002 – quality management system for design and
development , production.
• Iso 50001 – energy management
• Iso 50001 :2011 – energy management system
Areas covered under Electrical audit
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Electrical System :
Electrical Distribution system (substation & feeders study)
PF Improvement study
Capacitor performance
Transformer optimization
Cable sizing & loss reduction
Motor loading survey
Lighting system
Electrical heating & melting furnaces
Electric ovens
LECTURE 10
Test/Assignment
Q1. What do you understand by energy audit and what are its primary
objectives?
Q2. What is an energy audit? Discuss the need of energy auditing.
Q3. Discuss the following types of energy audits in detail:
i)
Preliminary Audit
ii)
Detailed Audit
Q4. What is a smart energy meter? Discuss in brief
Q5- Discuss the steps in Phase-I (Pre-Audit Phase) for conducting detailed
energy audit.
Q6. Discuss the first two steps in Phase -II (Audit Phase) for conducting
detailed energy audit.
Q7. Discuss any four important instruments used in energy auditing.
THANK YOU