CHAPTER I
ALLUVIAL SYSTEM
1.1.
Introduction
Alluvial fans are conical deposits of sediment that build up proximal to
mountains/canyons (Figure 1). Alluvial fans form when drainage basins transition into
a single feeder channel. The feeder channel exits the drainage basin and deposits
sediment onto flat/wide plains, resulting in a lose of stream competence and rapid
deposition of sediment (Blair and McPherson, 1994). Fans typically have a semicircular shape from map view, but appear convex up in cross section view.
Alluvial fans form when channels enter a valley or canyon.The fan shape forms due
to the change in channel morphology down slope. As fluids saturated with sediment
leave the confined channel flow, an increase in area will result in thinning of the flow
and velocity will decrease (Blair and McPherson, 1994). Sedimentation will occur
gradually down fan. Alluvial fans are typically found in tectonic settings which create
variations in topography, such as fans controlled by normal faulting in the Basin and
Range of Arizona/Nevada (Harvey, 2002).
Fans are commonly found in arid conditions, such as deserts. Alluvial fan
sedimentation vs dissection is dependent on climatic and tectonic conditions.
Aggradation will occur when water saturated with sediment is transported down fan
(typically wet conditions), whereas dissection occurs when fluids are sediment starved
(dry conditions) (Harvey, 2002). There are three main depositional processes that
form alluvial fans: debris flows, mudflow, and stream flow. Debris flow deposits are
dominated by gravitational processes, stream flow by fluvial processes, and mudflow
by a combination of both factors. Debris flow and sheet flood facies associations are
the most common depositional facies in alluvial fans (Miall, 1984).
Figure 1. Alluvial Fan, Taklamakan Desert, Ximjiang (China?) Photo Credit: University of Maryland.
1.2.
Geomorphology and Modern Analog
Alluvial Fan geomorphology and anatomy is described in Blair and McPhearson,
(1994), and Blair and McPhearson, (2009). Alluvial fans are found in the piedmont
zone proximal to high elevations (Figure 2). This can include mountain ranges, rift
margins, impact craters, etc. Alluvial fans require an inflow of sediment and fluids
from an upper catchment area, with occasionaal sporadic water discharge by flooding
to transport and deposit sediment down fan. Alluvial fans are fed by drainage basins,
which consist of high order fluvial channels that contain fluid and sediment. The
drainage basin drains into a central channel called the feeder channel. The point where
the feeder channel exits the mountain and enters the fan is called the apex. The feeder
channel cuts into the fan forming an incised channel, which can be a single channel or
expand into multiple channels. If the fan is incised enough, the channel can cut through
older alluvial fan deposits, depositing sediment further down fan (Blair, 1999). The
confined flow of the channel will eventually end down fan, and flow will expand at the
intersection point. As flow expands, velocity will decrease and sediment will be
deposited on the depositional lobe. The angle of the depositional lobes vary, and can
be between between 15 and 180 degrees. When alluvial fans intersect each other, they
merge into what is called a Bajada, which form a broad apron of alluvial sediment.
This will typically vary the angle of the depositional lobe of the fan, making it difficult
to determine where one fan begins and another ends. Eventually active erosion may
occur on the surface, leaving debris flow lobes (Blair, 1999). Alluvial fans tend to
aggrade upward, and prograde away from the site of deposition. Typically alluvial fans
will be bounded by aeolian, marine, lacustrine, or fluvial environments at their distal
extent (Harvey, 2002).
Figure 2. Aerial photograph of alluvian fan surface. Alluvial fans are conical in shape. They are fed from drainage
basins at high elevations, typically mountains (top). The fan spreads out at the apex, and sediment is deposited due
to a rapid loss in veolocity, forming the depositional lobe. Photo from Blair, McPhearson, (2009).
1.3.
Modern Analog (Warm Spring Canyon Alluvial Fan, California.
The sedimentology of the Warn Spring Canyon alluvial fan was described in Bair, T,
(1999). Death valley is formed in a north south trending active rift basin. It consists of
multiple half grabens, with the hanging wall block down dropping to the west along
the oblique- slip North and South Death Valley fault zone. Alluvial fans are common
along the Panamint Range, which feeds in the badwater Playa. The Warm Spring
Canyon Alluvial Fan is located in Death Valley, and has an area of 32.6 square
kilometers. It is an example of an arid alluvial fan, with annual rainfall of 42 mm a
year. The fan is conical in shape similar to most alluvial fans, but it is influenced by
several strike slip faults, which have offset incised channels along the fan (Figure 3).
The fan is fed from catchments in the Panamint Range, which overlies andesites,
dolomites, shale, and quartzite.
The alluvial fan contains two major sections: An uplifted older section, and a distal
younger section with active deposition in the salt playa. The incised channel passes
through the older section. The older fan surface has been segmented due to active
faulting. Desert pavement and soil development has started to form on the older fan
section.The incised channel trends parallel to the fan apex, until it is offset by a
transform fault along the fan surface. Deposition on the fan lobe is characterized by
coarse cobbles. The fan terminates at the Badwater playa.
4 facies associations were developed by Bair, T, (1999). to describe the Warn Spring
alluvial fan. Facies association 1 consists of debris flow and washed debris flow
depositions, which dominated the alluvial fan surface. Facies ranged from A (matrix
supported, muddy, pebble gravel) , to B (clast supported, gravel bed deposits). Facies
Association 2 are incised channel deposits that are present within the incised fan
surface. Facies ranged from poorly sorted, pebble-cobble beds (C), to poorly sorted,
gravely-sandy mud with some planar beds (D). Incised channel deposits are eroded
into the Facies association 1. Facies association 3 are lake Manly shoreline deposits
influenced by wave action along the playa lake, which includes well sorted gravel
sands will low angle planar beds.
The Warm Springs Canyon Alluvial fan was interpreted to have been dominated by
debris flows during its history, with constant winnowing of fines due to flood waters
(Blair, T, 1999). Older segments of the fan are separated by an incised channel. A
marine transgression in the late Pleistocene deposited beach influenced sediment up
fan and a barrier beach system formed parallel to the fan. Eventually water level fell,
and distal fan deposition continued. The Warm Spring Canyon Alluvial Fan serves as
a model for alluvial fan deposition in arid climates, with variable changes due to
climate and tectonics.
Figure 3. Morphology of the debris flow dominated Warm Spring Canyon Alluvial Fan. White represents
Depositional load, where sediment exits the confinement of the channel walls, and flow expands, resulting in
deposition. Former depositional lobes border the active lobe. These deposits were pushed aside as newer deposits
enter the fan. The shoreline represents the maximum lake level of the Lake Manly shoreline. Active transform and
normal faults cut perpendicular to the fan surface, often trapping sediment within the channel. Photo from Blair,
T, (1999).
1.4.
Depositional Processes and Depositional Facies
1.4.1. Depositional Processes
Alluvial fans require an inflow of sediment and fluids from a drainage basin, with
occasional overland flow by high discharge events to build an alluvial fan. Sediment is
derived from the drainage basin or proximal lithology. Flow conditions required to
move large volumes of sediment can typically come from heavy precipitation, rapid
snowmelt, or anthropogenically through human induced flood events (Miall, 1981) .
1.4.2. Flow Regine
Deposition on the fan surface will occur from either from a decrease in fan slope,
a decrease in flow depth/velocity, or an increase in the channel volume as the fluid
leaves the confined flow (Blair, and McPherson, 1994). Alluvial fans are conical in
shape, with a gradual transition from high angle (up to 15 degrees) that decreases down
fan. Slope is dependent on source material, with larger clasts supporting steeper cliffs.
Alluvial fans typically transport sediment in super critical flow (turbulent flow, high
Reynolds number).Supercritical flow will be more prevalent at higher angles, with
lower water depth. As competance is lost downslope, the coarser materials will be
deposited up fan, while the finer material is deposited down fan (Blair, and McPherson,
1994).
Figure 4. Model of subcritical vs supercritical flow conditions. Subcritical flow
(laminar flow conditions) occur at lower water depths, decreased slope, and low water
velocities. Supercritical flow typically occurs at steep gradients, deep water depth, and
high velocities. Alluvial fans are almost always super critical, and occupy the top left
portion of the graph (large slope, low water depth). Photo from Blair, T., McPhearson,
1994).
1.4.3. Processes on Alluvial Fans (Primary and Secondary)
Primary Processes on Alluvial Fans include processes that deposit colluvium and
eroded rocks downslope, often due to failure on the fan surface. The material is
transported down fan by either water or gravity. Primary and Secondary processes on
Alluvial fan development are explored in Hooke, A., (1967), Wells and Harvey,
(1987), and Blair and McPhearson, (2009). Depositional processes on a fan include
1.3.3. Deposits due to gravity
Rockfall/rock slides/rock avalanche: Rockfalls occur due to the erosion of bedrock
material and transportation due to gravity. Failure can occur for a number of reasons,
but is often due to gravity/weathering. Rock slides can be differentiated from rock falls
due to their larger block size, and sliding motion along a curved surface. When large
boulders are disintegrated during transport downslope, it is called a rock avalanche.
Rock Fall deposits are typically massive, with large clasts and brecciated texture.
Earth flows: Earthflows occur to due a combination and gravity and muddy colluvium.
Earthflows can occur when water percolates into bedrock, and lowers the internal
friction. Further loading and the force of gravity may induce failure on the surface
along a basal plane. Earthflow deposits are slow processes that move material downfan.
When the transported material consits of colluvium, it is called a colluvial slip.
1.3.4. Deposits due to water
Braided stream deposits: The upper surface of an alluvial fan is dominated by braided
stream deposition. These channels are incised, but overbank flooding can occur during
high discharge events. It typically contains well sorted, well stratified, and cross
bedded sandstone with coarse grained material at the channel thalweg.
Debris Flows: A debris flows occurs when a viscous combination of sediment saturated
with water moves and is transported down fan and is deposited. Failure occurs when
hydrostatic pore pressure increases due to water saturation, which lowers the shear
stress. Sediment varies in size, althought ypically contains large pebbles and boulders.
Debris composed predominately of mud are called mudflows. Debris flows are
believed to behave as a non-newtonian fluid, and will migrate down slope as a laminar
flow with little erosion. They are deposited as conglomerate facies with little to no
bedding (Figure 5). Reverse grading often forms due to sieving and density
differentials during transport, which forces large clasts to the top. The bottom of the
fan is slowed due to friction, and the coarse part on top will have a higher velocity,
depositing down fan in front of the slower flow. Debris flows are typically deposited
as clast or mud rich levees that give way to lobes down fan as energy decreases. Levees
are typically coarse grained, and are deposited as coarse grained material is pushed out
of the way as the material moves down fan. Coarse grained levees will dominate on
high angle fans, where coarse grained and fine grained lobes will dominate on low
angle fans. Debris flow deposits can be either mud rich or clast rich.
Figure 5. Example of a debris flow deposit. Taken from University of Maryland.
Sheet flow: Sheet flows form from shallow, short-lived, unconfined flow that moves
across an inclined surface (Figure 6). Sheet flows are often deposited as flood water
over channel levees, leading to unconfined flow.The decrease in water depth, and
expansion of area will result in sediment deposition down fan as slope decreases. Sheet
flow deposits are typically stratified with sand ripples and cross beds. Alternating low
angle beds of pebble/sand couplets in the direction of flow are common. Back dipping
beds are sometimes present due to supercritical flow. In some instances, sheet floods
with low sediment composition can errode the fan, forming sinuous troughs/crests with
no sediment infill. These are called transverse ribs.
Figure 6. Typical sheet flood deposit. stratified sandstone. May contain cross beds and
ripples. Typically coarse grained deposits are present at the bottom of deposits. Photo
from the University of Maryland.
1.5.
Controls on Depositional System Evolution
1.5.1. Tectonics
Alluvial fans typically form in regions of large vertical relief. They are often found in
tectonically active areas, including foreland basins, rift zones, and mountain belts
(DeCelles et al, 1991) (Blair, 1999). Tectonically areas actively create and maintain
relief. Fans can have short or long lifespans, depending on the episode of tectonics.
Convergent zones create relief that is constantly modified, where rift basins result in
relief in fans that can aggrade for millions of years (Blair, 1999). Fans adjacent to
the tectonically active side of a rift fan will be larger due to increased subsidence.
1.5.2 Climate
Alluvial fans have proven to be useful indicators of climate (Hooke, 1967)
(Harvey, 2002) (Doom, 2009). Some authors have speculated on how climate may
influence depositional processes, with wet climates dominated by sheet floods, and
arid conditions dominated by debris flow deposits. This has been disproven to be
uniformly untrue, as debris flows can occur in any fan environment, as well as sheet
floods. Alluvial fan models must consider both gravitational and fluid origin for
alluvial fan facies.
Authors speculate that fan aggradation occurs during moist periods due to greater
sediment production, where fan erosian occurs during arid periods (Doom, 2009). It is
argued that fan erosian occurs due to fluids exiting the catchment area without
sediment. Arid conditions are dominated by rock fall deposits. The lack of rainfall also
results in fewer episodes of channel breaching, resulting in fewer episodes of
deposition. Decreased vegetation during arid periods will result in lower slope stability
and increased incision. Secondary processes on alluvial fans are believed to form
irrespective of climate.
1.6.
Facies Models
Two general facies models exist for alluvial fans, depending on if the the alluvial fan
is dominated by debris flow or sheet flood deposits (Figure 7). This is typically a direct
result of climate (see above). Debris flows dominate in arid climate, while sheet floods
dominate in wet climates.
Figure 7. Model of debris flow dominated alluvial fan (A) vs sheet flood dominated alluvial fan (B). Debris
flow dominated fans form as a result of gravitational processes. They are dominated by coarse grained, poorly
sorted deposits. Sheet floods form from fluid dominated processes, and form fine-coarse slightly bedded
material. Photo from Blair, T., McPherson, J., (2009).
1.6.1. Tellheim Type
The Trollheim fan from Deep Springs Valley California has been used in the past for
idealized alluvial fan facies models in an arid environment. It is dominated by debris
flow deposits. The fan was initially studied by Hooke, who described the
geomorphology and characterized the sedimentology of the fan. The fan formed as a
result of dip slip motion in the Basin and Range of western California (Miall, 1981).
The Trollheim fan was deposited under steep flow, abundant sediment
supply, and infrequent flood conditions.The Trollheim fan consists of debris flow
dominated fans, as well as braided stream and sheet flood deposits (Figure 8). The fan
overlies stream flow channel deposits.Channel fill deposits are characterised by clast
supported gravel lenses. Debris flow deposits facies consist of Gm(gravel debris flow
deposits, massive or bedded gravel with some horizontal stratification) and Gms
(channel gravels) (Miall, 1981) (Blair and McPhearson, 1993). Gm deposits are
composed of poorly sorted, matrix supported coarse-fine grained matrial. It can be
either gravel or matrix supported. Gravel supported are more prevalent proximal to the
fan due to the transportation of the finer material down fan. Gms is characterized by
flat, lobate geometry. Scours are infilled with finer grained Gm.
Minor sheet floods result in deposition of St (cross bedded sand), Sr (ripple bedded
sand), and Fm(overbank clay). These sheet floods are characterized by fining upward
sequences. Some authors have speculated that the finer grained deposits were
constructed from clay rich debris flows instead of sheet floods (Blair and McPhearson
1993). The surface is topped by Hummocky gravels. Fine grained sandsheets are also
common near the base of the fan, formed due to aeolian processes.
Figure 8. Ideal model of debris flow dominated fan, as proposed based on the Tollheim Alluvial Fan. Consists of
massive boulders-mud, with possible reverse grading. Bedded sandstone-cobbles are present in sheet flood
deposits. Photo Miall, A., (1981).
1.6.2. Scott Type
The Scott type alluvial fan applies to fans beyound the limit of debris flows, or fans
that lack debris flows. Unlike the Tellheim type, the Scott Type is dominated by fluid
processes, and can also be applied to fluvial systems (Miall, 1981). It is dominated by
Gm (massive, crudly bedded gravel with some horizontal stratification), forming
longitudinal bars during floods (Figure 9). Gt (trough cross bedded gravel), and Gp
(planar crossbedded gravel) are common during channel fill deposits on the fan. These
are common debris flow deposits, similar to the Trollheim fan. It also contains Sp
(planar crossbedded sand), Sh (horizontally laminated sand) and Sr (sand with ripples).
These are commonly deposited during sheet floods, during high discharge events
(Nichols and Fisher, 2007). after the discharge decreases. Unlike the Trollheim fan,
sheet flood deposits dominate in the Scott Type. The Scott type accurately seperates
debris flow from sheet flood deposits, however many of the facies seen in the Scott
type are also apparent in other facies models describing coarse grained rivers, including
the Donjek distal gravelly river model (Miall, 1981).
Figure 9. Ideal model of sheet flood dominated alluvial fan. Consists of primarily sand-coarse cobble, bedded
conglomerates. Photo from Miall, A., (1981).
CHAPTER II
EOLIAN DEPOSITIONAL SYSTEM
2.1. Introduction
Figure: Crest of sand dune with traces of insect footsteps (Photo courtesy: http://www.wallpaperswa.com)
The term eolian (or aeolian in European usage) represents the process of transporting
sediments up to sand size by wind (Glennie, 1970; Nichols, 1999). Eolian depositional
system is responsible for the deposits dominated by wind-driven sediments where the
wind is strong enough to destabilize any surface. This depositional environment
prevailed before the appearance of vegetation on earth surface and also active in
modern beaches, glacial outwash plains and, both cold and hot climatic deserts
(Greeley & Iverson, 1985). This website is concentrated towards the desert eolian
depositional environment will provide a preliminary overview. “Deserts are vast areas
of windblown sand” this popular concept proved incorrect today. Diverse tectonic
settings, location, local climate, and antecedent condition facilitates a diverse array of
desert environments. Modern day deserts are concentrated within 30° latitude belts,
centered on Tropics of Cancer and Capricorn. These deserts are dominated by
subtropical high-pressure wind cells. Another concentration of deserts occurred within
the interior of the large continents, away from the oceanic moisture sources. Sandy
eolian systems with dunes, erg (eolian sand sea) covers 20% of modern deserts.
Figure: Distribution of modern deserts around the world ( Photo courtesy: Pearson Prentice Hall, Inc.)
2.2. Geomorphology & Modern Analog
Desert environments range from sand-rich deserts of central Asia to sand-deficient
deserts of North America. The desert plain is floored by exposed basement rocks or
pavement where sand deposition ceased for a while. These pavement rocks are known
as a different term in different geographic locations as reg, serir, hammada, gobi, or
gibber plain (Kocurek, 1998). Yardangs are streamlined hills formed by the wind
oriented bedrock deposits over the pavements. Irregular shaped hills are termed as
demoiselles. Fluvial features are common in precipitation prone deserts. Arid alluvial
fans formed with sediments derived from the upland. Ephemeral desert streams or
wadis carry the sediments and they can extend up to the basin (Kocurek, 1998).
Prevailing wind deflates fine-grained sediments and forms loess deposits which
actually covers the 10 % of the earth surfaces.
Figure: Processe of sediment accumulation to form dunes (Photo courtesy: www.geocoaching.com)
Figure: Large scale cross-beddings generated by dune migration in Navajo Sandstone, Utah, USA
(Photo
courtesy: http://web.ncf.ca/aa456/sand/overview/index.html)
Eolian bed forms are in some way similar to their subaqueous counterparts. Based on
the particle size three bed forms are dominant in the deserts, they are eolian ripples,
dunes, and drass (Wilson, 1972). Eolian ripples are series of an equally spaced pile of
grains formed due to selective pickup and saltation by the wind (Nichols, 1998).
Coarser grains concentrated on the crest and form inverse grading as the wind blow
finer grains while the ripple migrate. The ripple crests are aligned perpendicular to
wind direction. Ripple wavelength varies from few centimeters to several meters
whereas the height range is between less than a centimeters to more than ten
centimeters. Eolian dunes are larger bed forms with wavelengths ranges from 3 meters
to 600 meters and 10 cm to 100 meters height ranges. The dunes migrate by saltation
of sand up the stoss side where the saltation form ripples. Unstable grains cascade
downs on the lee side initiating avalanches or grain flow. Multiple layers of avalanches
will form trough to planar-cross bedding depends on the migration of different dune
shape. Migration of transverse, linear, and star dunes form planar cross bedding
whereas barchans dune migration form trough cross bedding. Darrs are large scale
dunes featuring large sand sea or erg. These large scale undulations show wavelength
of hundreds of meters to kilometers and height of tens to hundreds of meters. Darrs
comprises of superimposed dunes on the stoss and lee sides.
Figure: Types of eolian dunes
2.3. Depositional Process and Depositional facies
Wind is the dominant process in the deserts. The wind flowing over loose sediment
grains exerts a lifting force on the particles. With increasing velocity the force gain
enough energy to roll or saltate the grains (Nichols, 1998). The average normal wind
speed that flows over land is around 30 m/s and this velocity is strong enough to carry
average grain size around half a millimeter in diameter (Pye, 1987; Nickling, 1994).
This is the main reason behind the dominance of grain size less than coarse sand in the
eolian deposits. Constant wind velocity will pick up the medium-grained sand and
deposit them in equal distance forming eolian ripple crests. Well-developed ripple crest
facilitates grain avalanche developing cross-lamination, less significant than
subaqueous deposits. Repeated avalanche develop a set of large scale cross beddings
which have ripple laminations on the lee side of the dune. Large trough and planar
beddings are the significant structure of the eolian deposits. Such large-scale crossbedding is rare in the subaqueous deposits. All of these above-mentioned bed forms
construct the arid zone facies dominated by eolian sand.
Arid zone facies also includes ephemeral lake deposits and alluvial fan and/or
ephemeral river sediments. These sediments generate by the weathering of the
surrounding catchment areas and deposited as poorly sorted detritus carried by the
rivers on an alluvial fan. Ephemeral channels or wadis also carry and deposits
sediments over extended areas. These deposits are reworked subsequently by the wind
and redeposit as eolian dune complexes in other parts of the basin. Ephemeral lakes in
this extreme arid condition dry up and leave evaporate and mud deposits. Positions of
the ephemeral lakes, sand dunes and the alluvial fans deposits in the stratigraphic
record will change with time. These three sub-facies will be preserved as intercalated
beds in succession and will comprise arid zone facies.
Figure: Depositional environments in arid region (After Nichols, 1999).
2.4. Controls on Depositional System Evolution
Like other depositional systems eolian system is vulnerable to tectonic changes, sea
level, and climate. Any change in these factors will affect the overall stability and the
whole system will change to maintain the balance resulting some unique deposits.
Figure: Depositional environments in arid region (After Nichols, 1999)
2.5. Controls on Depositional System Evolution
Like other depositional systems eolian system is vulnerable to tectonic changes, sea
level, and climate. Any change in these factors will affect the overall stability and the
whole system will change to maintain the balance resulting some unique deposits.
Figure:
Effects
of
wind
on
different
courtesy: http://www.slideshare.net/wwlittle/eolian-systems)
arid
depositional
deposits
Photo
The dominant factor in the eolian depositional system for distribution and extent of
sandy deserts is climate. Aridity inhibits the development of plants and soil that would
stabilize loose sediment. Moreover, an absence of abundant surface water constrain
sediment reworking and removal by fluvial processes. The relation between wind
speed and substrate susceptibility is not only depends on aridity but also wind energy
and sand supply (Kocurek, 1998). Some large vegetated ergs will be an active eolian
system under high energy wind (Wasson, 1984). Coastal dune field will develop on
humid condition with a high supply of sand associated with higher wind energy.
Sediment supply determines the degree of sand development in arid deserts, where
depletion of sand supply will develop reg or desert pavement exposing the underlying
basement rock.
Figure: Isla Cancun barrier island off Yucatan Peninsula, Mexico with Holocene eolian dune development (
Loucks and Ward, 2001).
Adjacent depositional environments will prevail over arid desert if waning of sand
continued over time without any external force. Interaction between arid and other
adjacent environments varies on different factors. The slope, nature of surface run-off,
and sand extension dictates the degree of interaction between fluvial and arid
environment. Marine-arid interaction relies on the marine processes (wave and tide),
extension and development of eolian sand, and wind energy as well as direction.
Facies Models
Figure:
Simplified
model
of
an
eolian
facies
dominated
by
trough
cross-bedding
(
Photo
courtesy: http://www.slideshare.net/wwlittle/eolian-systems)
Eolian facies model composed of three sub-facies representing ephemeral lakes, sand
dunes and the alluvial fans deposits in the stratigraphic record. Although dominated by
large scale planar and trough cross-bedding generated by dune migration, these three
sub-facies will be intercalated in stratigraphic sections. Dunes and inter-dunes deposits
show marked variation in texture, but in both deposits sorting is very well. Alluvial
deposits are characterized by poorly sorted grains whereas lake deposits show a
prominence of evaporates.
Figure: Idealized eolian facies model with both dune and interdune deposits (Morad, 2010)
References
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