MOTIVATION
Motivation is the driving force within individuals that they use to achieve some goal
to fulfil some need or expectation.
It is the process of moving oneself and others to work towards the achievement of
individual and organizational goals.
Motivational theories can fall within two categories:
1. Content theories
2. Process theories
The content theories place emphasis on the identification of inward drives also
known as needs. These needs are responsible for making individuals behave in a
given way. Some of the major needs’ theorist are:
1. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
2. McClelland Power Achievement Affiliation Needs
3. Herzberg Two Factor Theory
The secondary category of motivation theories is known as the Process Theories.
Process Theories place emphasis primarily on how people behave the way they do.
Incorporating such factors as perception and learning. The major Process Theories
are:
1. Expectancy Theory
2. Equity Theory
3. Porter-Lawler Model
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It is important to understand needs and rewards within the context of motivation.
Needs can be regarded as a psychological or physiological deficiency. Needs can
either be primary or secondary.
Primary needs are physiological and inborn e.g., need for sex, food, sleep, whereas
secondary needs are social psychological in nature e.g., need for affection,
belonging, power etc.
Intrinsic Reward
Primary needs are genetically determined whereas secondary needs are learned
through experience. Needs often act as energizers and create tension within the
individual and allows the individual to be goal driven. Once the goal is achieved the
need is satisfied only if partially.
Needs
The motivation process begins with identifying a person’s needs.
Needs are
deficiencies that a person experiences at a particular time.
Deficiencies maybe physiological, psychological, and social. Needs often act as
energizers. They create tension within the individual and allows the individual to be
a goal driver. Once the goal is achieved, the need is satisfied even if partially.
Rewards can be referred to as anything that an individual perceives as valuable.
Rewards vary for individuals since individual’s perception is different. Managers
are concerned with intrinsic and extrinsic rewards.
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Intrinsic Reward
This is related to psychological rewards such as the opportunity to use one’s ability,
a sense of challenge and achievement, receiving appreciation, positive recognition
and being treated in a caring and considerate manner.
Extrinsic Rewards
This is related to tangible rewards such as salary and fringe benefits, security,
promotion, contract of service, the work environment, and conditions of work. Such
tangible rewards are determined at the organizational level and are outside the
control of the individual unlike intrinsic rewards.
Content Theory
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
The most widely recognized model of motivation is the needs hierarchy model.
Abraham Maslow suggested that people have a complex set of exceptionally strong
needs, that can be arranged in a hierarchy.
This model states that a person has five types of needs, physiological, safety, social,
esteem and self-actualization.
It is important to note that a content Theory identifies the needs that drive people to
act in a particular manner in the work setting.
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ABRAHAM MASLOW’S NEEDS THEORY
Fulfillment of Maslow’s Needs on the Job
➢ Physiological needs (most basic needs) – conducive working environment and
base salary to ensure survival e.g. medical care, ability to care for family, food,
shelter, sex, sleep etc.
➢ Safety needs – safe work environment, short and long term job security, fringe
benefits and in a working environment where health and safety is paramount.
➢ Social needs (belongingness and love) – participating in the decision making
process. Teamwork, company picnics etc. This need focuses on the social
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aspects of work and non-work activities since all individuals have a desire for
affectionate relationships and regular interaction with persons.
➢ Esteems needs – this refers to the need to master one’s work, build a reputation
as being outstanding, and demonstrate a high level of competence.
Recognition, challenging work, high status jobs (position of prestige),
leadership positions and training.
➢ Self-actualization – The individual’s desire to grow and develop and reach the
full potential. Providing opportunities for growth and development, training,
creativity, seeking opportunities to have challenging work and autonomy.
Strengths of Maslow’s Theory
➢ Maslow’s Needs theory has received wide recognition especially among
managers because it is easy to understand and managers can benefit from
understanding their employees’ basic needs of friendship, job security and
recognition for a task well done.
Weakness of Maslow’s Theory
➢ In the hierarchy of needs, Maslow’s studied only a narrow segment of the
human population.
➢ Terms such as “self-esteem and security” have different definitions in cultures
around the world. Therefore, it is hard for researchers to measure these needs.
➢ There is no evidence to indicate that human being experiences the need in the
order Maslow specified.
Are all needs met in the same order?
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➢ Maslow did not provide any empirical evidence for his theory. Therefore,
validation was impossible. For example, there is no way to measure exactly
how satisfied one level of need must be before the higher need becomes
operative.
➢ The model is too culture bound: it lacks valaditiy across different cultures and
asumptions of the hierarchy maybe restricted to western cultures.
Process Theories
Expectancy Theory
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The theory suggests that having a need is not the only prerequisite to be motivated
but the individual must expect that behavior will lead to satisfaction or some desire
of the individual.
The theory has three factors:
1. Effort leads to performance.
2. Performance leads to outcome.
3. Valence Of the outcome
Number one deals with the relationship between effort and performance or the
achievement of objectives leading to a particular reward. Where individuals do not
see a direct relationship between the effort given and performance, motivation will
decrease. The converse holds true. E.g., to fill prescription quickly and dealing with
customers in a courteous way can result in increased business, hence that is the
behavior you will exhibit.
Number two deals with the expectation that a specific outcome, i.e., some reward
will be the result of a given level of expectation. If the individual does not perceive
that there is a strong relationship between their performance and the desired outcome
i.e., a reward, the motivation to perform will decrease. If the individual expects the
performance will be rewarded but does not believe that a reasonable effort will lead
to that level of performance, motivation will also decrease. The converse holds in
both situations. Reasons, lazy person, not having adequate authority, low selfesteem in the performance of duties.
Valence is the value of the outcome or the reward to be achieved. Value is the
anticipated relative satisfaction or dissatisfaction from a given outcome.
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Note, individuals have different needs and performs for rewards given in exchange
for performance e.g. some individuals might want a promotion/increase in pay or a
new task considered prestigious to do.
(E
P)
Expecting that
performance
is possible
(P
X
(Valence)
O)
Expecting that
reward will
result
X
Value of the
reward
Motivation
=
Usefulness of the theory to management
i.
Management should try to match rewards to the needs of employees since
employees have different needs and place different value on a specific reward.
ii.
Management should provide rewards for effective performance only and not
give for poor performance. Therefore, management should ensure that there
is a strong correlation between performance and rewards.
iii.
Employees usually perceive themselves based on their managers’
expectations about their behaviors. Therefore, managers should set realistic
expectations of their subordinates and help them believe that they are capable
of the anticipated performance.
Equity Theory
This theory suggest that employees subjectively determine the ratio of the reward
received to the effort given and compare that ratio to other people doing similar
work.
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If the comparison indicates inequity i.e., the person gets a reward and perceives the
reward that is given to another person for comparable work is greater hence inequity
occurs. This causes the individual to experience psychological tension.
The
individual is then motivated to restore equity by changing their level of effort or
changing the reward anticipated. This can be achieved by working harder.
Note, employees who are overpaid are unlikely to work harder.
Usefulness of the theory to management
i.
Unless employees believe that their rewards are equitable, they would put in
less effort in the job.
ii.
Employees should be made aware why individuals doing similar work might
be receiving greater pay. It may be due to being more qualified, having
specialized training etc.
iii.
If it is a case where greater output causes greater reward to be given, then
other employees should be made aware that the level of output leads to higher
rewards.
iv.
Keeping salaries confidential might lead to suspicion that there is inequity
even if it does not exist. A policy of making knowledge of salaries available,
would avert this.
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