SIMPLIFIED
INTRODUCTION TO
COMMUNICATION SKILLS
COURSE GUIDE - 1
Compiled & Prepared by Alex Simpande
2022
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Contents
Communication Skills .......................................................................................................................... 3
1.1 Definition and Functions of Communication .............................................................................. 3
Learning Objectives: ................................................................................................................. 3
1.2 Purpose of Communication Skills ............................................................................................... 5
Learning Objectives: ..................................................................................................................... 5
1.3 The Communication Process....................................................................................................... 7
Learning Objectives: ..................................................................................................................... 7
1.4 Elements of Communication .................................................................................................. 10
Learning Objectives: ............................................................................................................... 10
1.5 Barriers in Communication ......................................................................................................... 12
Learning Objectives: ................................................................................................................... 12
1.6 Nonverbal Communication ......................................................................................................... 15
Learning Objectives: ................................................................................................................... 15
1.7 Types and forms of communication .......................................................................................... 17
Learning Objectives: ................................................................................................................... 17
1.8 Audience and Purpose in Communication .............................................................................. 18
Learning Objectives: ................................................................................................................... 18
1.9 Listening and note-taking ........................................................................................................... 19
Learning Objectives: ................................................................................................................... 19
1.10 Reading and note-making ........................................................................................................ 22
Learning Objectives: ................................................................................................................... 22
Communication Skillsi
1.1 Definition and Functions of Communication
Learning Objectives:
1. Define communication
2. State the functions of communication
Introduction
The word communication has its origin in the Latin word 'communis' that means 'to
make common'. Communication facilitates sharing of common experiences with
others. It involves sharing of an idea, thought, feeling or information with others,
which includes thinking, dreaming, speaking, arguing and so on. Thus the scope of
communication is very wide. All this makes communication a complex process. To
understand the concept of communication, let us examine the various definitions of
communication as given by different scholars.
Definitions of Communication
Different scholars have defined communication in various ways. Some of them
describe it as 'the transfer of meaning', 'transmission of stimuli', 'one mind affecting
other' or 'sharing of experiences on the basis of commonness'. Communication has
also been defined as a scientific study which involves the art of communication so
that skilled communication can be produced.
Communication is not a static act but a dynamic process, which is continuous in
nature and vital for teaching and learning. It involves the usage of a channel. This
channel could be signs, symbols or verbal/written language. For communication to
be complete and effective it has to achieve the desired objectives as intended by the
communicator. For example, in a classroom situation, the teacher has to make
special efforts to convey the message to the learners. S/he has to clearly define the
objectives of the lesson and the message has to be conveyed with the help of
appropriate oral and written signs, symbols and body language. Only when the
meaning has been understood by the learners and in the same way as intended by
the teacher, we can say that the communication has been successful. Thus,
communication can be defined as a process of sharing or exchange of ideas,
information, knowledge, attitudes or feelings among two or more persons through
certain signs and symbols leading to a desired response as intended by the
communicator. Even our behaviour can communicate messages. For instance
warmth towards someone or indifference can be conveyed even without speech or
written messages just through gestures, facial expressions and body language.
The following definition will be used for purposes of this course. Communication is a
systemic process in which people interact with and through symbols to create and
interpret meaning (Mood, 2004).
Definition of communication skills
Communication skills are skills, abilities and tools that enable individuals to send and
receive messages effectively. Tools/skills refer to listening, reading, speaking and
writing. The word ‘effectively’ in the definition means to interpret and get the desired
feedback as intended by the sender. For communication to be effective there must
be well defined objectives.
Functions of Communication
There are four major functions of communication. These are control, motivation,
emotional expression, and information sharing/education. Other functions are sub
types of the major ones and they include socialisation, entertainment, persuasion,
and preservation of culture.
Reflection
What is your definition of communication?
1.2 Purpose of Communication Skills
Learning Objectives:
1. State the place and purpose of communication skills in science and engineering.
2. Explain the reasons why scientists and engineers should study communication.
Introduction
Communication skills are particularly important to engineers and scientists because
of the need to share new findings, technologies and products, etc. For example,
without a common understanding of the specific skills, competences and standards
that engineers and scientists should have, collaboration would be impossible as
there would be chaos. .
The purpose and value of communication skills
1. Social and Ethical reasons
Human beings live in communities and larger societies and there are many
possibilities for miscommunication. Knowing the social expectations of any
communication act is a necessary requirement for harmonious living. This also
prevents careless disregard for social rules regarding communication. Societies have
defined what is wrong and what is right. It is within these bounds and constraints that
communication takes place be it at home, work, church, sports ground or even with
yourself. Further, our world is interactive so communication has become diverse due
to commerce which cuts across geographical, occupational, cultural and linguistic
boundaries. Ethical technical communication helps to mediate conflicts that may
arise.
2. Legal Considerations
Failure to appreciate the ethical dimensions of technical communication can have
serious human and legal consequences. For example, products usually come with
documentation in the form of manuals. These manuals provide instructions on how
to use the product, how to assemble or disassemble, trouble shoot, etc. There is
always the danger of accidents in the home or workplace through these products.
Technical documents help to alleviate possible flare ups between consumer and
producer. However, where this cannot happen, there are legal implications for both
manufacturer and consumer. The value of communication lies in its ability to provide
clear interpretation of messages contained in documentation.
3. The Frequency of technical communication. Communication varies from place to
place, and from job to job. The workplace is characterised by meetings with all
manner of conversing and writing. Communication is unavoidable and individuals
need to keep up with its frequency. Therefore, its value in getting things done is
important.
4. The Collaborative nature of technical communication: Collaboration takes place
across geographical areas and involves planning, writing, meeting, negotiating,
designing, and decision-making, and making proposals. There is a great level of
interaction among people of diverse backgrounds.
5. The Computerisation of technical communication: Technical communication has
been made easier and at the same time complex because of the computer.
Production of complex documents with embedded and editable pictures, graphs,
spread sheets, mathematical expressions, charts etc. is now the most valuable way
to disseminate information.
6. The international nature of technical communication: As the world moves towards
a single global economy called ‘the information age’, good writing skills are
necessary for the internationalised world. The job of communication is to facilitate
this process.
So, communication skills are important because, according to research, they rank
above any other type of skill. The critical skills of communication are technical
writing, public speaking, working with individuals, working with groups and talking
with people (Huckin & Olsen, 1991: 4). In professional settings, writing ability is
considered in promotion decisions.
Reflection
Consider your chosen field of study here at CBU, at what point will you need
technical writing skills? Be specific.
1.3 The Communication Process
Learning Objectives:
1. Define communication and explain the different communication models
2. Apply communication models to understand real life communication
3. Apply any model of your choice to solve a communication problem
Introduction
A model is a graphic representation designed to explain the way a variable works. It
is a pattern, plan, representation, or description designed to show the structure or
workings of an object, system, or concept”.
Models
The Greek philosopher Aristotle looked at communication from the rhetorical
perspective i.e. speaking to the masses to influence them and thus persuade them.
Aristotle constructed a model with the following elements: Speaker-SpeechAudience-Effect in which the basic function of communication was to persuade the
other party. This is accepted by many as the first model of communication.
Twentieth century - many more models came up. In the latter part of the century, the
concept of communication changed due to the advent of various mass
communication media such as newspapers, radio, and television. During the First
and Second World Wars, communication was also used for propaganda and it was
perceived as a magic bullet that transferred ideas and knowledge automatically from
one mind to another. However, this was later found to be a very simplistic model
which showed communication as a linear one-way flow of communication.
Sociologists, political scientists and psychologists who joined the debate around this
time argued that communication was a complex process which was dynamic and
two-way in nature.
The Lasswell Model (1948). One of the early models of communication was
developed by the political scientist Harold D. Lasswell who looked at communication
in the form of a question: Who, Says What, In Which Channel, To Whom, With
What Effect
Source: https://www.elcomblus.com/linear-models-of-communication/
Shannon and Weaver Model (1949). This model of Claude Shannon and Warren
Weaver has been considered as one of the most important models of communication
and it has led to the development of many other models. It is referred to as the
transmission model of communication as it involves signal transmission for
communication.
Charles Osgood (1954). In his model, he showed communication, as a dynamic
process in which there is an interactive relationship between the source and the
receiver of the message (M). An individual engaged in the communication process
sends as well as receives messages and as such encodes, decodes and interprets
messages through a number of feedback mechanisms. Osgood stressed the social
nature of communication. This model was found to be more applicable in
interpersonal communication in which the source and receiver were physically
present. For example when a teacher teaches, the learners interact by raising
queries, answering questions, etc. The role of interpretation of the message has also
been highlighted in this model for decoding a message.
Source: https://studymasscommunication.wordpress.com/2019/09/08/the-osgood-schramm-model/
Schramm Model (1954). Wilbur Schramm, a well-known communication expert did
not make a sharp distinction between technical and non-technical communication.
But drawing upon the ideas of Shannon and Osgoods, Schramm proceeded from a
simple human communication model to a more complicated one. His first model has
a lot of similarity with Shannon and Weaver Model. In the second model, Schramm
visualized the process of communication as a process of sharing of experience and
commonality of experience of those communicating. It introduced the concept of
shared orientation between sender and receiver. The circles in this model indicate
the accumulated experience of two individuals engaged in communication. The
source can encode and the destination can decode in terms of the experience.
In summary, models of communication are classified as linear, interactional, and
transactional. West and Turner (2007) state that models highlight the different parts of the
communication process.
Reflection
Choose one model above and apply it to the teaching/learning environment in the
classroom. Does the model effectively explain what happens in a classroom? Explain.
Further reading:
https://ecampusontario.pressbooks.pub/evolutionhumancommunication/chapter/chapter-1
1.4 Elements of Communication
Learning Objectives:
1. Identify the elements of communication
2. Explain each element with reference to its position in the communication process
3. Identify types of ‘noise’ associated with each element
Introduction
In the preceding discussion, you would have observed that the process of
communication is dynamic, ongoing and ever changing. We also used some terms
such as sender, message, channel, receiver, noise and feedback. These are known
as Elements of Communication that make communication a continuous process.
Source: https://newsmoor.com/communication-elements-9-components-of-basic-communication-process/
Now let us examine these elements in some detail and understand the type of
interrelationship that exists among them.
Elements of Communication
Source/Sender: The source of communication is the sender who has a message to
impart. The sender has to decide how to communicate a message, which channel is
to be selected for the message and what type of strategies should be planned so
that the message makes the desired response. The sender provides verbal or nonverbal cues that can be received, interpreted and responded to by the receiver.
Message: Message is a set of signs and symbols which are given by the source to
create meanings for the receiver. Simply put, message is the content which is shared
between the participants in the communication process. To make the message
effective, the sender has to understand the nature and profile of the receiver of the
message, his/her needs and expectations and possible response to the message.
This is important in both face-to-face as well as mediated situations.
Channel/Medium: Channel is the medium used to communicate a message from
the sender to receiver. The channel could be spoken word, printed word, electronic
media, or even non-verbal cues such as signs, gestures, body language, facial
expressions, etc. In modern communication parlance, the word 'channel' mostly
refers to mass communication media such as newspapers, radio, television,
telephone, computers, internet etc. The selection of an appropriate channel is crucial
for the success of communication.
Receiver: Communication cannot take place without a receiver for whom the
message is meant. We receive a message, interpret it and derive meaning from it.
You have already studied that for successful communication, the receiver should
receive the message in the same way it was meant by the sender. In interpersonal
communication, the receiver shares a close relationship with the sender which
gradually gets diluted in group and mass communication.
Noise: Noise is distortion in a message which affects the flow of communication.
Noise could be due to internal as well as external sources. Noise creates barriers in
communication and it could be of many types. There are various types of noises
which have implication in the process of communication and how these can be
overcome for facilitating effective communication are discussed in the next section.
Feedback: The response given by the receiver to the message of the sender is
known as feedback. Communication being a two-way process, without the element
of feedback any discussion on the process of communication is incomplete.
Interpersonal communication allows greater scope for feedback as both sender and
receiver can decipher the facial expressions, body movements and cross question
each other to remove their doubts/queries. In fact, their roles are intertwined and
cannot be distinguished. The element of feedback gets gradually diluted when the
number of participants in communication activity increases.
Reflection
1. There are other elements of communication such as context and environment.
Explain.
2. Of all the years you have spent communicating to people and vice versa,
which model or models better explain(s) human communication? Why?
1.5 Barriers in Communication
Learning Objectives:
1. Define communication barriers and explain the different types of barriers
2. Identify and reduce barriers in a communication act
Introduction
We have referred to the term 'Noise' while discussing the models and elements of
communication in the previous sections. The concept of noise is used to express any
interference in communication between the source or sender and the receiver. This
noise is also called barriers. Successful communication is one in which the message
is conveyed undiminished with least distortion. However, it is not always possible as
a number of barriers make the process of communication complex. Some of these
barriers could be physical, psychological, cultural, linguistic (semantic), technical or
due to information overload.
Source: www.communicationtheory.org
Physical barriers
If the source is not visible to the receiver and s/he is not comfortable in the
environment, it may create barriers in communication. Geographical distance may
also create barriers, as people may like to communicate with one another but due to
physical distances may not be able to do so. For example, people may be interested
to communicate with an expert in a particular area who is not available in other
areas/regions as there is physical barrier.
Psychological barriers
Due to individual differences, attitudes, interest and motivation levels, we perceive
things and situations differently. Apart from this, the varied levels of anxiety, inherent
prejudices and previous experiences also create barriers in communication. Studies
have revealed that due to the process of selective perception, selective recall and
selective retention, we perceive, retain as well as recall a message selectively thus
creating barriers in communication. See explanation of these on the next page.
Socio-cultural barriers
In communication process, socio-cultural barriers also operate. To illustrate, some
women may not like to discuss their health related problems with a male health
worker. Similarly, some issues may be perceived as personal and not fit for
discussion outside the realm of family, thus creating barriers. Some societies are
less vocal which may affect their level of communication with those from other
cultures who are more vocal or aggressive in behaviour.
Linguistic/Language barriers
During the process of communication, faulty expressions, poor translation, verbosity,
ambiguous words and inappropriate vocabulary create barriers. Moreover, words
and symbols used to communicate facts and information may mean different things
to different persons. This is due to the fact that meanings are in the minds of people
who perceive and interpret meanings in different ways according to their individual
frame of mind. Age, education, and cultural background are three of the more
obvious variables that influence the language a person uses and the definitions
he/she gives to words.
In an organization employees usually come from diverse backgrounds. So, grouping
employees into departments creates specialists who develop their own jargon or
technical language. In large organizations members are also frequently widely
dispersed geographically. This can lead to miscommunication. The existence of
vertical levels can also cause language problems. Speaking a common language,
English, does not prevent differences in usage of that language.
Technical barriers
While using technology, technical barriers also make the process of communication
complex. When audio quality is poor or video signals are weak, the message may
not clearly reach the target group. Erratic power supply also creates barriers in
communication.
Information overload
Individuals have a finite capacity for processing data. When individuals have more
information than they can sort and use, they tend to weed out, ignore, pass over, or
forget information. At times too much information is imparted which we may not able
to comprehend and assimilate, thus creating a barrier in communication. To
illustrate, in a meeting when a speaker provides information at a fast pace for
considerable period of time many of the issues and concepts may get lost at the end.
While using media, this type of barrier can greatly affect the level of comprehension
and utilisation of the message. Hence, great care needs to be taken while deciding
the amount of information in a communication transaction.
1. Filtering
a. Filtering refers to a sender’s purposely manipulating information so that the
receiver will see it more favourably.
b. The major determinant of filtering is the number of levels in an organisation's structure.
a) The more vertical levels, the more filtering.
b) Filtering occurs wherever there are status differences between communicators.
2. Selective Perception
a. Selective perception occurs when the receiver in the communication process sees and hears
things in a selective way based on his needs, motivations, experience/background, and other
personal characteristics.
b. The receiver also projects his interests and expectations into communications as he/she decodes
them.
4. Gender related barriers
a. Robin Lakoff, author of “Language and a Woman’s Place,” studied differences in how boys and
girls in the United States are taught to communicate throughout their early childhood
development. Essentially, Lakoff observed that girls are taught to use passive, empathetic voices
and are more encouraged toward active listening. Boys, however, are encouraged toward
competition, using forceful, active tones.
b. Men and women use oral communication in different ways for different reasons.
c. Men use talk to emphasize status; women use it to create connection.
a. For many men conversations are primarily a means to preserve independence and
maintain status in a hierarchical social order.
b. For many women conversations are negotiations for closeness in which people try to
seek and give confirmation and support.
c. When men hear a problem, they want to assert their desire for independence and control
by providing solutions.
d. The women present the problem to gain support and connection.
5. Emotions
a. How the receiver feels at the time of receipt of a communication message will influence how he
or she interprets it.
b. Extreme emotions are most likely to hinder effective communication.
Reflection
Identify the common barriers that crop up every time you are communicating with
someone or a group of people. What do you do to reduce and/or remove them?
1.6 Nonverbal Communication
Learning Objectives:
1. Distinguish verbal and nonverbal communication
2. Explain the six functions of nonverbal communication
3. Describe the different categories of nonverbal communication
Introduction
Gillespie and Leffler (1983) summarise the theories of nonverbal behaviour as follows:
“The ethological paradigm asserts that nonverbal behaviour is at least partly innate or
genetically determined, with certain general patterns inflexible within species. The
enculturation paradigm claims that nonverbal behaviour reflects contingent, somewhat
arbitrary, but individually stable norms inculcated in all members of a society through
socialization. The internal states paradigm contends that nonverbal behaviour, whether
innate or learned, fluctuates as a function of ego's individual attributes or internal
psychological states. Finally, the situational resource paradigm asserts that nonverbal
behaviour is learned but varies within cultures and across internal states, depending on
the statuses of all those concerned and on the constraints of the situation”. There are
many other theories such as Burgeon’s Expectancy violations theory, Andersen’s
cognitive valence theory and Capella and Greene’s discrepancy-arousal theory, among
others. Although nonverbal behaviour may vary from culture to culture, there are six
nonverbal behaviours that are considered universal: Sadness, Anger, Disgust, Fear,
Interest, Surprise, Happiness + Love.
Categories of nonverbal messages
1. Physical appearance, dress, artefacts
2. Gestures and movements (kinesics)
3. Face and eye behaviour (oculesics)
4. Vocal behaviour (vocalics and paralanguage)
5. Space and distance (proxemics)
6. Touch (haptics/tactile)
7. Time (chronemics)
Functions of nonverbal messages
1. Complementing
2. Contradicting
3. Repeating
4. Regulating
5. Substituting
6. Accenting
Nonverbal Communication and public speaking
1. Using eye contact to engage the audience
2. Emphasising gestures, posture and movements
3. Using the voice: to vary rhythm, emphasize, mark transition
4. Using your appearance as a communicative point
Reflection
Which nonverbal form of behaviour from your culture do you think is under threat of
extinction? What purposes does it (did it) serve?
1.7 Types and forms of communication
Learning Objectives:
1. Explain with examples the different types of communication
2. Describe in context the different forms of communication
Introduction
Effective communication involves a sender, receiver and desired result. This can
happen at individual or group level.
Types of communication
There are five basic types or levels of communication. These are:
1. Intrapersonal communication
2. Interpersonal communication
3. Group communication
4. Public Communication
5. Mass communication
Forms of communication
Forms of communication have broadly been categorised into different types as
shown below:
The level of formality of each type can be affected by factors such as context and the
environment.
Reflection
Consider these different types and forms of communication. Provide details for each
one, with examples, to help you understand and see the connections, similarities
and/or differences. Watch the lecture video for additional information.
1.8 Audience and Purpose in Communication
Learning Objectives:
1. Determine the purpose for communicating
2. Identify different types of audiences
3. Produce an analysis of each type of audience
4. Prepare a short presentation or article for a particular audience
Introduction
For communication to be effective, you should consider the audience (receivers) and
purpose (reasons why you communicate).
Determining your purpose
Knowing the purpose or reason(s) for communicating will help you to decide the tone
and presentation strategy. A purpose can be to inform, persuade, entertain, and or
motivate. The purpose helps you to figure out what you want your speech or
document to accomplish. You state your purpose by using ‘TO’. For example: to
evaluate, to illustrate, to assess, to recommend, etc.
Knowing your audience
Developing audience awareness will help to focus your message. Your audience
may be primary or secondary. The primary audience is the intended recipient of the
message – the ones who should respond and give you feedback. The secondary
audience are receivers who need to be aware of the message but do not need to
respond directly.
For every written or spoken document that you produce, you should begin by
completing an audience analysis. Once you have a clear description of the person(s)
who will be receiving your communication, you can prepare a document that
answers the specific needs of your audience.
Types of audiences
Your audience may be any of the following: laypersons / public or general readers,
superiors, executives, technical, peers, employees, an organization e.g. school,
business or company, etc.
How to analyse an audience
Among others, focus on the following characteristics of the audience: age range,
educational level, motives, decision-making power, educational background, cultural
background, professional experience, knowledge of topic, personal characteristics,
and preconceptions of the topic.
Also consider these practical features: size of audience, speaking time available,
room size, secondary audience, time audience has to devote to your document,
genre of document, document parameters (that is page length), and desired action.
1.9 Listening and note-taking
Learning Objectives:
1. Distinguish listening and hearing
2. Explain how to be an active, effective listener and the role of nonverbal
communication in the process
3. Take notes using different methods when listening
Introduction
People listen for different reasons such as to learn, show empathy, be entertained, build
relationships and persuade others. Listening is a form of receiving information. It places
certain demands on the part of the listener and requires particular skills. As long as there is
back and forth feedback between the sender and the receiver, listening occurs.
Listening and Hearing
Listening is paying attention to what is being said or interpreting a sound. This process is
deliberate or intentional, and deliberate. Listening to understand or comprehend is called
active listening. Hearing is the perception of physical sounds. This activity is involuntary and
ongoing. It does not involve interpretation or finding meaning to the sounds received.
Becoming an active listener requires engaging and applying the mind to find meaning.
Listening is a temporal activity and its duration may differ depending on the purpose,
occasion, subject matter and the environment, among other factors.
Verbal messages require interpretation. To be able to understand a verbal message, the
listener should activate comprehension skills. Comprehension is measured by the quality of
the feedback received. The meaning of a verbal message is found in the words that
interlocutors choose. A verbal message is carried through words and these form the content
of the exchange. To understand the content of a verbal message, the interlocutors should
know the parts of speech or word classes to which the words they use belong.
In English, there are open word classes and closed word classes. Open word classes
include nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs and are also called content words. Closed
word classes consist of pronouns, determiners, conjunctions, prepositions and interjections
and they are sometimes referred to as grammatical words. The meaning of a verbal
message is contained in the content words, that is, the open word classes. The connections
between the open word classes are facilitated by grammatical words which determine
among other things, the structure of the sentence.
Therefore, listening requires that to understand a message, the receiver of information
should pay particular attention to the content or open word classes. This is critical because it
is the content words that determine understanding. Understanding can be measured by the
listener’s ability to paraphrase – saying something in your own words. To paraphrase, a
listener can replace the content words with synonyms or change the structure of the
sentence without repeating the original word for word. For example, I am sorry can be
paraphrased as please forgive me.
Another aspect of active listening is the use of nonverbal communication. As a listener, selfawareness or knowledge of your own nonverbal behaviour when listening is a key factor in
your ability to negotiate meaning with others. Knowledge of what you do when you listen,
such as facial expressions, sitting posture, position or placement of your hands plays a
significant role in facilitating proper listening behaviour.
In addition to paraphrase, note taking is another important form of active listening. Note
taking is the writing down of key ideas, concepts and issues during a listening activity.
Contexts for listening activities could include the classroom, church meeting, business
meeting, seminar presentation, etc. Below are two ways of taking notes when listening.
Cornell Method/Cornell Notes
Source: https://www.quora.com/How-do-I-write-Cornell-Notes
Mind mapping
Source: https://www.mindmapping.com/mind-map
The central idea or topic of discussion is placed in the centre. Branches which indicate sub
concepts or explanations are drawn to create a ‘tree’. The complete ‘tree’ represents the
interrelations of the ideas associated with a topic.
Cornell notes and mind maps work well when listening to a presentation such as a lecture.
Writing everything that a speaker says is not the definition of taking notes. That falls under
the category of transcription. Active note taking is selective and brief.
1.10 Reading and note-making
Learning Objectives:
1. Explain the reading process
2. Understand the types of reading skills
3. Make notes from any written text (critical reading)
Introduction
Reading, like listening, is a cognitive process and is a form of receiving information. It
involves decoding written symbols to provide meaning. Smith (1995) defines reading as "an
interactive process in which the reader's prior knowledge of the world interacts with the
message conveyed directly or indirectly by the text" (p. 23). This definition means that when
a reader comes to a text, his or her world knowledge is activated and it is this knowledge
that will interact with the text to create meaning for the reader. The reader’s knowledge is
applied in understanding the text. Since reading is a process, it means that there are
activities before reading, during reading and after reading that should take place. In the prereading stage, the reader employs the skills of skimming (survey) and scanning to get a
rough idea of what the text is about. This stage helps to connect the reader’s prior
knowledge to the new information before the actual reading takes place and make
deductions about the general content of the text (https://teamtomeducation.com/teachingreading/). During reading, the reader will engage strategies of questioning, underlining key or
unfamiliar words, and making comments to bring ‘life’ to the text. In the post reading stage,
the reader will go over the work (another survey) by reciting and reviewing the text.
Types of reading skills
The first reading skill is skimming, which is quick reading. This type of reading is selective.
The goal is to find the main idea of the whole text. Skimming is done by reading the title,
headings and subheadings, italicised/bold letters, and images. It also involves recognition of
the organisational pattern or rhetorical mode of the text, e.g. cause and effect, problemsolution, descriptive, etc. The second reading skill is scanning is the process of searching for
specific information in a text. This is true for scientific texts, technical documents such as
manuals, directories, etc. Searching for a particular step in a fridge assembly manual does
not require reading the entire document. To be able to do this, the reader should identify the
order in which the material in the text is organised. The next skill is light reading which is
reading for leisure. This mainly applies to reading novels and other creative and non-creative
works. This is a slow paced form of reading. In fourth place is close reading. Burke (n.d.)
defines close reading as a ‘thoughtful, critical analysis of a text that focuses on significant
details or patterns in order to develop a deep, precise understanding of the text’s form, craft,
meanings, etc. (https://nieonline.com/tbtimes/downloads/CCSS_reading.pdf)’. The types of
materials are usually short texts and excerpts (Ibid). Although close reading may be similar
to word by word reading, it is a far better method for a learning new material. Lastly, there is
SQ3R/SQ4R. SQ3R stand for survey, question, read, recite and review. The SQ3R was
revised and gave rise to an addition of a fourth R (Reflect or Record) between read and
recite. Surveying involves skimming; question means to ask questions that you predict need
answering by the text; read is to engage with the material by reading it; reflecting is to make
notes of main ideas/issues; recite involves committing to memory and repeating information
read; review is the act of rereading all or important sections or points and answering your
questions
to
strengthen
understanding
(http://www.edpsycinteractive.org/topics/cognition/sq4r.html) .
Making notes
Note-making is the process of writing down main points, arguments and or ideas from written
materials. To be able to make notes, the reader should identify the thesis statement and
topic sentences. The thesis statement is the main idea of the text or essay while the topic
sentence is the main idea of a paragraph within a text or essay.
Example:
Thesis statement: My house is the best (this is the main idea).
Topic sentence: It uses state of the art technology (this supports the main idea).
Notes from a text are written in form of an outline. They have a title, headings and
subheadings, and they are numbered and indented. Different numbering systems can be
used but consistency for each set of notes is required. Below are examples of the structure
of notes.
Example 1
Example 2
Title
I.
II.
III.
Heading 1
A. Subheading 1
B. Subheading 2
1. Sub sub point 1
2. Sub sub point 2
a. Point
b. point
Heading 2
A. Subheading
B. Repeat process
Heading 3
Key words/Abbreviations
Title
1.1 Heading 1
1.1.1 Subheading 1
1.1.2 Subheading 2
1.1.2.1 Sub sub point 1
1.1.2.2 Sub sub point 2
1.1.2.2.1
Point
1.1.2.2.2
Point
2.1 Heading 2
2.1.1 Subheading
2.1.2 Repeat process
3.1 Heading 3
3.1.1 Repeat as above
Key Words/Abbreviations
To write notes, a reader should be able to identify transitional markers between sentences
and paragraphs. Transitional markers link sentences and paragraphs. They are also called
linking words. Transitional markers or linking words are found at the beginning of a sentence
or a paragraph. These markers show different types of relations such as:




Comparison and contrast: Mupeta is the best student in Physics. However, her Biology
grades are terrible.
Chronology: Firstly, the student deposits a registration fee in the school bank account.
Secondly, he or she should make a copy of the deposit slip and attach it to the registration
form. Thirdly, s/he should present this information at the academic office.
Cause and effect: Failing mathematics has become a major problem at GCE O level.
Consequently, the Ministry of Education is in the process of revising the pass point.
Conclusion: In conclusion, there should be equal opportunities between men and women.
Transitional markers also show coordination and subordination. Coordination and
subordination are techniques that distinguish main points and dependant points in a text.
Coordinating conjunctions or coordinators include and, but, or, yet, for etc. while
subordinating conjunctions include because, since, while, unless, whereas, in spite of, etc.
For example (coordinators):
I study every night at 8pm, so I don’t really care what I time I sleep (result or effect).
The university should enrol male and female students every academic year.
I wanted to study medicine but I failed Biology (contrast).
Mwape does not come to class, nor does he write tests (showing negation).
For example (subordinators):
Although there are many first year students, I will be top of the class.
The students came late to class because it was raining.
Transitional markers or linking words provide effective movement from one thought to
another. Academic writing and other forms of writing use these markers in their simple and
complex forms depending on the nature of the text. As a reader, knowing transitional
markers will help you identify the main points of an argument in a written text.
Example of note making passage
I remember my childhood as being generally happy and can recall experiencing some of the most
carefree times of my life. But I can also remember, even more vividly, moments of being deeply
frightened. As a child, I was truly -terrified of the dark and getting lost. These fears were very real and
caused me some extremely uncomfortable moments.
Maybe it was the strange way things looked and sounded in my familiar room at night that scared me
so much. There was never total darkness, but a street light or passing car lights made clothes hung
over a chair take on the shape of an unknown beast. Out of the corner of my eye, I saw curtains move
when there was no breeze. A tiny creak in the floor would sound a hundred times louder than in the
daylight and my imagination would take over, creating burglars and monsters. Darkness always made
me feel helpless. My heart would pound and I would lie very still so that ‘the enemy’ wouldn’t discover
me.
Another childhood fear of mine was that I would get lost, especially on the way home from school.
Every morning, I got on the school bus right near my home—that was no problem. After school,
though, when all the buses were lined up along the curve, I was terrified that I would get on the wrong
one and be taken to some unfamiliar neighbourhood. I would scan the bus for the faces of my friends,
make sure that the bus driver was the same one that had been there in the morning, and even then
ask the others over and over again to be sure I was in the right bus. On school or family trips to an
amusement park or a museum, I wouldn’t let the leaders out of my sight. And of course, I was never
very adventurous when it came to taking walks or hikes because I would go only where I was sure I
would never get lost.
Perhaps, one of the worst fears I had as a child was that of not being liked or accepted by others.
First of all, I was quite shy. Secondly, I worried constantly about my looks, thinking people wouldn’t
like me because I was too fat or wore braces. I tried to wear ‘the right clothes’ and had intense
arguments with my mother over the importance of wearing flats instead of saddled shoes to school.
Being popular was very important to me then and the fear of not being liked was a powerful one.
One of the processes of evolving from a child to an adult is being able to recognise and overcome our
fears. I have learnt that darkness does not have to take on a life of its own, that others can help me
when I am lost and that friendliness and sincerity will encourage people to like me. Understanding the
things that scared us as children helps to cope with our lives as adults.
Questions:
1. On the basis of your reading of the above passage, make notes using headings and subheadings.
2. Write a summary of the passage in not more than 80 words using the notes.
Source of passage: https://www.cbsetuts.com/cbse-class-12-english-comprehension-passages-note-makingsummarising/
Note:
Below is an example of notes written from the passage following the outline structure of format
presented. Take note that it is only possible to write a summary of the passage after the notes have
been written. The points in the notes are the ‘meat’ of the summary.
NOTES
TITLE: Memories of Childhood
1. Remembering childhood moments
1.1 happy and carefree
1.2 terrified of the dark and getting lost
2. Childhood fears
2.1 Feeling helpless in dark
2.1.1 Moving curtains
2.1.2 Creaking sounds
2.1.3 Creating burglars and monsters
2.2 Fear of getting lost (on the way home from school)
2.2.1 Scanning of school buses—friendly faces, same bus driver
2.2.2 Not letting leaders out of sight
2.2.3 Taken to some unfamiliar neighbourhood
2.2.4 Surety of not being lost
2.3 Fear of disliking
2.3.1 Quite shy
2.3.2 worried about looks
2.3.4 wear the right clothes
2.3.4 Imp. of popularity
3. Overcoming childhood fears
3.1 Undg. evolution process
3.2 Recognising and overcoming fears
3.3 Accepting help from others
3.4 Unds. things that scared
SUMMARY
My childhood moment was the happiest and carefree moment. Darkness scared me with its
shadows, moving of curtains, and creaking sounds. It made me quite helpless and I used to
lie still with a pounding heart. I had the fear of getting lost while on way from home to school.
Before getting in school bus, I scanned it for friendly faces. I had the fear of being disliked by
others. During the course of evolution from a child to an adult, I realised those things that
scared me as a child. I was always expecting help from others.
Source:
https://www.cbsetuts.com/cbse-class-12-english-comprehension-passages-note-makingsummarising/https://www.cbsetuts.com/cbse-class-12-english-comprehension-passages-note-makingsummarising/
References
Purpose of communication skills, Technical English and common core English
 Huckin T.N., Olsen L.A., 1991. Technical Writing and Professional Communication
for Nonnative Speakers of English. New York: McGraw-Hill, Inc., pp 4-11
Communication models,
Types and Forms of communication
Barriers in communication
 http://www.answers.com/topic/communication Retrieved on 18.4.06
 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Model Retrieved on 18.4.06
 http://www.cultsock.ndirect.co.uk/MUHome/cshtml/introductory/schro1.html
Retrieved on 18.4.06
 http://www.nvcc.edu/home/aeldridge/communication/nature/models.htm
Retrieved
on 19.4.06
 depssa.ignou.ac.in/wiki/images/0/0a/Unit1kiron_ed.doc‎
Nonverbal communication
 Adapted from Monica Rothschild-Boros’.
Text: Nonverbal Communication Behavior in Interpersonal Relations, by V. Richmond
& J. McCroskey, 5th edition
Listening and note-taking
https://www.quora.com/How-do-I-write-Cornell-Notes
https://www.mindmapping.com/mind-map
Reading and note-making
 Smith, B. D. (1995). Breaking through college reading (4th ed.). New York:
HarperCollins Publishers .
 https://teamtomeducation.com/teachingreading/).https://teamtomeducation.com/teaching-reading/).
 (https://nieonline.com/tbtimes/downloads/CCSS_reading.pdf)
 http://www.edpsycinteractive.org/topics/cognition/sq4r.html)
 https://www.cbsetuts.com/cbse-class-12-english-comprehension-passages-note-making-summarising/
https://www.cbsetuts.com/cbse-class-12-english-comprehension-passages-note-making-summarising/
i
Most statements in the text appear as verbatim from the original source listed above. Refer to original for full
context. The writer of this document can be contacted at consultalex01@gmail.com