JOHN BOWLBY: Attachment Theory




British Child Psychiatrist & Psychoanalyst.
First attachment theorist who described attachment as a “lasting
psychological connectedness b/w humans”. He gave the famous
theory known as “John Bowlby Attachment Theory”, which is
discussed below.
Believed that the earliest bonds formed by children with their
caregivers have a tremendous impact that continues throughout life.
According to him,the attachment tends to keep the infant close to the
mother ultimately improving the child’s chances of survival.
What is Attachment?
A strong & affectionate tie we have, with special people in our lives gives us
pleasure whenever we interact with them and provides a sense of comfort in
times of stress.
Through psychoanalytic and behaviorist perspective, feeding can be seen as
a central context, where the care-giver and babies develop attachment.
BOWLBY’S ETHOLOGICAL THEORY




Ethological Theory of Attachment recognizes infant’s emotional tie to
the caregiver as an evolved response that promotes survival.
John Bowlby induced this idea for infant-caregiver bond.
He retained the psychoanalyst idea that the quality of attachment
with the caregiver has profound implication for child’s security and
capacity to form trustworthy relationship. He said ‘FEEDING IS NOT
THE BASIS FOR ATTACHMENT’.
The central theme of this theory is that the mothers who are available
and responsive to their infant’s needs create a sense of security
among their children. Knowing the dependability of the caretaker on
them creates a secure base for the child to then explore the world.
PHASES OF ATTACHMENT DEVELOPMENT:
Attachment Theory:
Babies are born with behaviors like crying, babbling and laughing to gain adult
attention & on the other side, adults are biologically programmed to respond
to their signals.
First relationship of a child is a love relationship that will have profound
everlasting influence on an individual’s mental development.
He viewed the first 3 years as the most sensitive period for the attachment.


Mothers (Caregivers) who are available and responsive, establish a
sense of security in the infants such that they know that the
caregiver is dependable, creating a secure base for the child to
explore the world.
Attachments must build a good foundation for being able to form
other secure relationships.
Components of Attachment:




Safe Haven: A child can return to the caregiver for comfort and
soothing whenever the child feels threatened or afraid.
Secure Base: A secure and dependable base is provided by the
caretaker for the child to explore the world.
Proximity Maintenance: The child strives to stay around the
caregiver, which provides safety.
Separation Distress: The child will become upset and distressed
during the separation from the caretaker.
According to Bowlby, following are the 4 phases of attachment:
 Pre attachment Phase (Birth – 6 Weeks)
 “Attachment in Making” Phase ( 6 Weeks – 6 to 8 Months)
 “Clear Cut” Attachment Phase ( 6-8 Months to 18 Months-2 Years)
 Formation Of Reciprocal Relationship (18 Months – 2 Years and on.
1. PRE ATTACHMENT PHASE (BIRTH -6 WEEKS)
 The innate signals attract the caregiver (grasping, gazing, crying,
smiling while looking into the adult’s eyes).
 When the baby responds in a positive manner ,the caregivers remain
close by.
 The infants get encouraged by the adults to remain close as it
comforts them.
 Babies recognize the mother’s fragrance, voice and face.
QUENIE DE BAERE
1

They are not yet attached to the mother and don’t mind being left with
unfamiliar adults as they have no fear of strangers.
JEAN PIAGET: Cognitive Development Theory
2. “ATTACHMENT IN MAKING” PHASE (6 Weeks – 6 to 8 Months)




Infants responds differently to familiar caregivers than to strangers.
The baby would smile more to the mother and babble to her and will
become quiet more quickly, whenever picked by the mother.
The infant learns that his/her actions affect the behavior of those
around.
They tend to develop a “Sense of Trust” where they expect the
response of caregiver, when signalled.
They do not protest when they get separated from the caregiver.
3. “CLEAR CUT” ATTACHMENT PHASE (6-8 Months to 18 Months -2
Years)
 The attachment to familiar caregiver becomes evident.
 Babies show “separation anxiety”, and get upset when an adult on
whom they rely, leaves them.
 This anxiety increases b/w 6 -15 months, and its occurrence depends
on the temperament and the context of the infant and the behavior of
the adult.
 The child would show signs of distress, in case the mother leaves, but
with the supportive and sensitive nature of the caretaker, this anxiety
could be reduced.
4. FORMATION OF RECIPROCAL RELATIONSHIP (18 Months – 2 Years and
on)
With rapid growth in representation and language by 2 years, the toddler is
able to understand few factors that influence parent’s coming and going, and
can predict their return. Thus leading to a decline in separation protests.


The child can negotiate with the caregiver to alter his/her goals via
requests and persuasions.
Child depends less on the caregiver along with the age.
Jean Piaget's theory of cognitive development suggests that children move
through four different stages of learning. His theory focuses not only on
understanding how children acquire knowledge, but also on understanding
the nature of intelligence. 1 Piaget's stages are:




Sensorimotor stage: Birth to 2 years
Preoperational stage: Ages 2 to 7
Concrete operational stage: Ages 7 to 11
Formal operational stage: Ages 12 and up
Piaget believed that children take an active role in the learning process,
acting much like little scientists as they perform experiments, make
observations, and learn about the world. As kids interact with the world
around them, they continually add new knowledge, build upon existing
knowledge, and adapt previously held ideas to accommodate new information.
History of Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development
STYLES OF ATTACHMENT




Secure attachment
Avoidant Attachment
Resistant Attachment
Disorganized/Disoriented attachment
→ STRENGTHS
 Dominant explanation of why the attachment develops and how?
 Bowlby suggests that attachment evolved as an aid to the survival. In
case its true, then attachment and care giving behavior must be
universal in all cultures irrespective of the differences in the
practices of child rearing.
→ WEAKNESSES
 Evolutionary ideas are very difficult for testing and also difficult to
prove or disprove.
 Bowlby’s attachment theory focuses on the mother’s role. There is
evidence that in two parent families, father’s quality of attachment
can also have a big impact on the child’s behavior and development.
Piaget was born in Switzerland in the late 1800s and was a precocious
student, publishing his first scientific paper when he was just 11 years old. His
early exposure to the intellectual development of children came when he
worked as an assistant to Alfred Binet and Theodore Simon as they worked
to standardize their famous IQ test.
Piaget vs. Vygotsky
Piaget's theory differs in important ways from those of Lev Vygotsky, another
influential figure in the field of child development. Vygotsky acknowledged the
roles that curiosity and active involvement play in learning, but placed
greater emphasis on society and culture.
Piaget felt that development is largely fueled from within, while Vygotsky
believed that external factors (such as culture) and people (such as parents,
caregivers, and peers) play a more significant role.
Much of Piaget's interest in the cognitive development of children was
inspired by his observations of his own nephew and daughter. These
observations reinforced his budding hypothesis that children's minds were
not merely smaller versions of adult minds.
QUENIE DE BAERE
2
Until this point in history, children were largely treated simply as smaller
versions of adults. Piaget was one of the first to identify that the way that
children think is different from the way adults think.
Piaget proposed that intelligence grows and develops through a series of
stages. Older children do not just think more quickly than younger children.
Instead, there are both qualitative and quantitative differences between the
thinking of young children versus older children.
Based on his observations, he concluded that children were not less
intelligent than adults—they simply think differently. Albert Einstein called
Piaget's discovery "so simple only a genius could have thought of it."
Piaget's stage theory describes the cognitive development of
children. Cognitive development involves changes in cognitive process and
abilities.2 In Piaget's view, early cognitive development involves processes
based upon actions and later progresses to changes in mental operations.
1.
The Sensorimotor Stage
During this earliest stage of cognitive development, infants and toddlers
acquire knowledge through sensory experiences and manipulating objects. A
child's entire experience at the earliest period of this stage occurs through
basic reflexes, senses, and motor responses.
2.
Birth to 2 Years
Major characteristics and developmental changes during this stage:





Know the world through movements and sensations
Learn about the world through basic actions such as sucking,
grasping, looking, and listening
Learn that things continue to exist even when they cannot be
seen (object permanence).
Realize that they are separate beings from the people and
objects around them
Realize that their actions can cause things to happen in the world
around them
During the sensorimotor stage, children go through a period of dramatic
growth and learning. As kids interact with their environment, they continually
make new discoveries about how the world works.
The cognitive development that occurs during this period takes place over a
relatively short time and involves a great deal of growth. Children not only
learn how to perform physical actions such as crawling and walking; they also
learn a great deal about language from the people with whom they interact.
Piaget also broke this stage down into substages. Early representational
thought emerges during the final part of the sensorimotor stage.
Piaget believed that developing object permanence or object constancy, the
understanding that objects continue to exist even when they cannot be seen,
was an important element at this point of development.
By learning that objects are separate and distinct entities and that they have
an existence of their own outside of individual perception, children are then
able to begin to attach names and words to objects.
3.
The Preoperational Stage
The foundations of language development may have been laid during the
previous stage, but the emergence of language is one of the major hallmarks
of the preoperational stage of development. 3
2 to 7 Years
Major characteristics and developmental changes during this stage:



Begin to think symbolically and learn to use words and pictures
to represent objects
Tend to be egocentric and struggle to see things from the
perspective of others
Getting better with language and thinking, but still tend to think
in very concrete terms
At this stage, kids learn through pretend play but still struggle with logic and
taking the point of view of other people. They also often struggle with
understanding the idea of constancy.
Children become much more skilled at pretend play during this stage of
development, yet they continue to think very concretely about the world
around them.
For example, a researcher might take a lump of clay, divide it into two equal
pieces, and then give a child the choice between two pieces of clay to play
with. One piece of clay is rolled into a compact ball while the other is smashed
into a flat pancake shape. Because the flat shape looks larger, the
preoperational child will likely choose that piece, even though the two pieces
are exactly the same size.
4.
The Concrete Operational Stage
While children are still very concrete and literal in their thinking at this point
in development, they become much more adept at using logic. The
egocentrism of the previous stage begins to disappear as kids become better
at thinking about how other people might view a situation.
7 to 11 Years
Major characteristics and developmental changes during this stage:




Begin to think logically about concrete events
Begin to understand the concept of conservation; that the
amount of liquid in a short, wide cup is equal to that in a tall,
skinny glass, for example
Thinking becomes more logical and organized, but still very
concrete
Begin using inductive logic, or reasoning from specific
information to a general principle
QUENIE DE BAERE
3
While thinking becomes much more logical during the concrete operational
state, it can also be very rigid. Kids at this point in development tend to
struggle with abstract and hypothetical concepts.
In Piaget's view, a schema includes both a category of knowledge and the
process of obtaining that knowledge.3 As experiences happen, this new
information is used to modify, add to, or change previously existing schemas.
During this stage, children also become less egocentric and begin to think
about how other people might think and feel. Kids in the concrete operational
stage also begin to understand that their thoughts are unique to them and
that not everyone else necessarily shares their thoughts, feelings, and
opinions.
For example, a child may have a schema about a type of animal, such as a
dog. If the child's sole experience has been with small dogs, a child might
believe that all dogs are small, furry, and have four legs. Suppose then that
the child encounters an enormous dog. The child will take in this new
information, modifying the previously existing schema to include these new
observations.
5.
The Formal Operational Stage

The final stage of Piaget's theory involves an increase in logic, the ability to
use deductive reasoning, and an understanding of abstract ideas. 3 At this
point, adolescents and young adults become capable of seeing multiple
potential solutions to problems and think more scientifically about the world
around them.
Age 12 and Up
Major characteristics and developmental changes during this time:



Begins to think abstractly and reason about hypothetical
problems
Begins to think more about moral, philosophical, ethical, social,
and political issues that require theoretical and abstract
reasoning
Begins to use deductive logic, or reasoning from a general
principle to specific information
The ability to thinking about abstract ideas and situations is the key hallmark
of the formal operational stage of cognitive development. The ability to
systematically plan for the future and reason about hypothetical situations
are also critical abilities that emerge during this stage.
The Formal Operational Stage of Cognitive Development
What Is a Schema in Psychology?
Assimilation
The process of taking in new information into our already existing schemas
is known as assimilation. The process is somewhat subjective because we
tend to modify experiences and information slightly to fit in with our
preexisting beliefs. In the example above, seeing a dog and labeling it "dog"
is a case of assimilating the animal into the child's dog schema.
Accommodation
Another part of adaptation is the ability to change existing schemas in light
of new information; this process is known as accommodation.5 New schemas
may also be developed during this process.
Equilibration
As children progress through the stages of cognitive development, it is
important to maintain a balance between applying previous knowledge
(assimilation) and changing behavior to account for new knowledge
(accommodation).
Piaget believed that all children try to strike a balance between assimilation
and accommodation using a mechanism he called equilibration. Equilibration
helps explain how children can move from one stage of thought to the next.
Important Concepts:
It is important to note that Piaget did not view children's intellectual
development as a quantitative process. That is, kids do not just add more
information and knowledge to their existing knowledge as they get older.
Lev Vygotsky: Sociocultural Theory of Cognitive Development
Zone of Proximal Development
Sociocultural Theory Of Cognitive Development
Instead, Piaget suggested that there is a qualitative change in how children
think as they gradually process through these four stages. 4 At age 7, children
don't just have more information about the world than they did at age 2; there
is a fundamental change in how they think about the world.
Piaget suggested several factors that influence how children learn and grow.
Schemas
A schema describes both the mental and physical actions involved in
understanding and knowing. Schemas are categories of knowledge that help
us to interpret and understand the world.
QUENIE DE BAERE
4
Vygotsky’s theory focuses on the role of culture in the development of mental
abilities e.g. speech and reasoning in children.
According to Vygotsky, adults in society foster children’s cognitive
development by engaging them in challenging and meaningful activities.
Adults convey to children the way their culture interprets and responds to
the world.
Vygotsky stated that language has two functions. Inner speech is used for
mental reasoning and external speech is used to converse with others. These
operations occur separately. Indeed, before the age of two, a child employs
words socially; they possess no internal language. Once thought and language
merge, however, the social language is internalized and assists the child with
their reasoning. Thus, the social environment is ingrained within the child’s
learning.
Vygotsky's Theory:
i.
Says cultural differences have a dramatic effect on development
ii.
Emphasizes the importance of more knowledgeable others
iii.
Heavily stresses language's role in development
Piaget's Theory:
i.
Breaks development into a series of predetermined stages
ii.
Suggests development is largely universal
iii.
Focuses on peer interaction
iv.
Largely ignores the role of language
Sigmund Freud: Psychosexual Stages Theory
Zone of Proximal Development
One of Vygotsky's well-known concepts was the zone of proximal
development. He defined it as "[The] distance between the actual
developmental level as determined by independent problem solving and the
level of potential development as determined through problem-solving under
adult guidance or in collaboration with more capable peers."
In other words, the zone is the gap between what a child knows and what they
do not. Acquiring the missing information requires skills that a child does not
yet possess or cannot use independently, but can with the help of a "more
knowledgeable other."
Difference between Vygotsky and Piaget's Theory:
The 5 Psychosexual Stages of Development by Age:
According to the famous psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud, children go through
a series of psychosexual stages that lead to the development of the adult
personality. Freud's stages of human development, which consisted of five
psychosexual stages of development, described how personality developed
over the course of childhood.
While Freud's theory of personality development is well-known in psychology,
it has always been quite controversial, both during Freud's time and in
modern psychology.
One important thing to note is that contemporary psychoanalytic
theories of personality development have incorporated and emphasized
ideas about internalized relationships and interactions and the complex ways
in which we maintain our sense of self into the models that began with Freud.
Overview of Freud's Psychosexual Stages of Development
Freud believed that personality developed through a series of childhood
stages in which the pleasure-seeking energies of the id become focused on
certain erogenous areas. An erogenous zone is characterized as an area of
the body that is particularly sensitive to stimulation.
QUENIE DE BAERE
5
During the five psychosexual stages, which are the oral, anal, phallic, latent,
and genital stages, the erogenous zone associated with each stage serves as
a source of pleasure.
using the toilet at the appropriate time encourage positive outcomes and help
children feel capable and productive.
Psychosexual energy, or the libido, was described as the driving force behind
behavior.
Freud believed that positive experiences during the toilet training stage serve
as the basis for people to become competent, productive,
and creative adults.
Psychoanalytic theory suggested that personality is mostly established by
the age of five. Early experiences play a large role in personality development
and continue to influence behavior later in life.
However, not all parents provide the support and encouragement that
children need during this stage. Some parents punish, ridicule, or shame a
child for accidents.
Each stage of development is marked by conflicts that can help build growth
or stifle development, depending upon how they are resolved. If these
psychosexual stages are completed successfully, a healthy personality is the
result.
According to Freud, inappropriate parental responses can result in negative
outcomes. If parents take an approach that is too lenient, Freud suggested
that an anal-expulsive personality could develop in which the individual has a
messy, wasteful, or destructive personality.
If certain issues are not resolved at the appropriate stage, fixations can
occur. A fixation is a persistent focus on an earlier psychosexual stage. Until
this conflict is resolved, the individual will remain "stuck" in this stage. A
person who is fixated at the oral stage, for example, may be over-dependent
on others and may seek oral stimulation through smoking, drinking, or eating.
If parents are too strict or begin toilet training too early, Freud believed that
an anal-retentive personality develops in which the individual is stringent,
orderly, rigid, and obsessive.
1. The Oral Stage
Age Range: Birth to 1 Year
Erogenous Zone: Mouth
Erikson’s Theory: Trust vs. Mistrust: Psychosocial Stage 1
During the oral stage, the infant's primary source of interaction occurs
through the mouth, so the rooting and sucking reflex is especially
important. The mouth is vital for eating, and the infant derives pleasure from
oral stimulation through gratifying activities such as tasting and sucking.
Because the infant is entirely dependent upon caretakers (who are
responsible for feeding the child), the child also develops a sense of trust and
comfort through this oral stimulation.
The primary conflict at this stage is the weaning process--the child must
become less dependent upon caretakers. If fixation occurs at this stage,
Freud believed the individual would have issues with dependency
or aggression. Oral fixation can result in problems with drinking, eating,
smoking, or nail-biting.
2. The Anal Stage
Age Range: 1 to 3 years
Erogenous Zone: Bowel and Bladder Control
Erikson’s Theory: Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt
During the anal stage, Freud believed that the primary focus of the libido was
on controlling bladder and bowel movements. The major conflict at this stage
is toilet training—the child has to learn to control their bodily needs.
Developing this control leads to a sense of accomplishment and
independence.
According to Freud, success at this stage is dependent upon the way in which
parents approach toilet training. Parents who utilize praise and rewards for
3. The Phallic Stage
Age Range: 3 to 6 Years
Erogenous Zone: Genitals
Erikson’s Theory: Initiative vs. Guilt: Developing a Sense of Purpose
Freud suggested that during the phallic stage, the primary focus of the libido
is on the genitals. At this age, children also begin to discover the differences
between males and females.
Freud also believed that boys begin to view their fathers as a rival for the
mother’s affection. The Oedipus complex describes these feelings of wanting
to possess the mother and the desire to replace the father. However, the
child also fears that he will be punished by the father for these feelings, a
fear Freud termed castration anxiety.
The term Electra complex has been used to describe a similar set of feelings
experienced by young girls. Freud, however, believed that girls instead
experience penis envy.
Eventually, the child begins to identify with the same-sex parent as a means
of vicariously possessing the other parent. For girls, however, Freud believed
that penis envy was never fully resolved and that all women remain
somewhat fixated on this stage.
Psychologists such as Karen Horney disputed this theory, calling it both
inaccurate and demeaning to women. Instead, Horney proposed that men
experience feelings of inferiority because they cannot give birth to children,
a concept she referred to as womb envy.
4. The Latent Period
Age Range: 6 to Puberty
Erogenous Zone: Sexual Feelings Are Inactive
Erikson’s Theory: Industry vs. Inferiority During Child Development
QUENIE DE BAERE
6
During this stage, the superego continues to develop while the id's energies
are suppressed. Children develop social skills, values, and relationships with
peers and adults outside of the family.
In Erikson's view, these conflicts are centered on either developing a
psychological quality or failing to develop that quality. During these times, the
potential for personal growth is high but so is the potential for failure.
The development of the ego and superego contributes to this period of calm.
The stage begins around the time that children enter school and become
more concerned with peer relationships, hobbies, and other interests.
Stage 1: Trust vs. Mistrust (Infancy from birth to 18 months)
The latent period is a time of exploration in which the sexual energy
is repressed or dormant. This energy is still present, but it is sublimated into
other areas such as intellectual pursuits and social interactions. This stage
is important in the development of social and communication skills and selfconfidence.
As with the other psychosexual stages, Freud believed that it was possible
for children to become fixated or "stuck" in this phase. Fixation at this stage
can result in immaturity and an inability to form fulfilling relationships as an
adult.
Stage 2: Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt (Toddler years from 18
months to three years)
Stage 3: Initiative vs. Guilt (Preschool years from three to five)
Stage 4: Industry vs. Inferiority (Middle school years from six to 11)
Stage 5: Identity vs. Confusion (Teen years from 12 to 18)
Stage 6: Intimacy vs. Isolation (Young adult years from 18 to 40)
Stage 7: Generativity vs. Stagnation (Middle age from 40 to 65)
Stage 8: Integrity vs. Despair (Older adulthood from 65 to death)
5. The Genital Stage
Age Range: Puberty to Death
Erogenous Zone: Maturing Sexual Interests
Erikson’s Theory: Identity vs. Role Confusion in Psychosocial Development
The onset of puberty causes the libido to become active once again. During
the final stage of psychosexual development, the individual develops a strong
sexual interest in the opposite sex. This stage begins during puberty but last
throughout the rest of a person's life.
Where in earlier stages the focus was solely on individual needs, interest in
the welfare of others grows during this stage. The goal of this stage is to
establish a balance between the various life areas.
If the other stages have been completed successfully, the individual should
now be well-balanced, warm, and caring.
Unlike many of the earlier stages of development, Freud believed that the ego
and superego were fully formed and functioning at this point. Younger
children are ruled by the id, which demands immediate satisfaction of the
most basic needs and wants.
Teens in the genital stage of development are able to balance their most basic
urges against the need to conform to the demands of reality and social
norms.
ERIK ERIKSON: Psychosocial Stages
Erik Erikson was an ego psychologist who developed one of the most popular
and influential theories of development. While his theory was impacted by
psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud's work, Erikson's theory centered on
psychosocial development rather than psychosexual development.
Erikson's theory was based on what is known as the epigenetic principle. This
principle suggests that people grow in a sequence that occurs over time and
in the context of a larger community.
Stage 1: Trust vs. Mistrust (Infancy from birth to 18 months)
The first stage of Erikson's theory of psychosocial development occurs
between birth and 1 year of age and is the most fundamental stage in life.
Because an infant is utterly dependent, developing trust is based on the
dependability and quality of the child's caregivers.
At this point in development, the child is utterly dependent upon adult
caregivers for everything they need to survive including food, love, warmth,
safety, and nurturing. If a caregiver fails to provide adequate care and love,
the child will come to feel that they cannot trust or depend upon the adults in
their life.
During the first stage of psychosocial development, children develop a sense
of trust when caregivers provide reliability, care, and affection. A lack of this
will lead to mistrust.
Stage 2: Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt (Toddler years from 18
months to three years)
The second stage of Erikson's theory of psychosocial development takes
place during early childhood and is focused on children developing a greater
sense of personal control.
QUENIE DE BAERE
7
The Role of Independence
At this point in development, children are just starting to gain a little
independence. They are starting to perform basic actions on their own and
making simple decisions about what they prefer. By allowing kids to make
choices and gain control, parents and caregivers can help children develop a
sense of autonomy.
Potty Training
The essential theme of this stage is that children need to develop a sense of
personal control over physical skills and a sense of independence. Potty
training plays an important role in helping children develop this sense of
autonomy.
Like Freud, Erikson believed that toilet training was a vital part of this
process. However, Erikson's reasoning was quite different than that of
Freud's. Erikson believed that learning to control one's bodily functions leads
to a feeling of control and a sense of independence. Other important events
include gaining more control over food choices, toy preferences, and clothing
selection.
Outcomes
Children who struggle and who are shamed for their accidents may be left
without a sense of personal control. Success during this stage of
psychosocial development leads to feelings of autonomy; failure results in
feelings of shame and doubt.
Children who successfully complete this stage feel secure and confident,
while those who do not are left with a sense of inadequacy and self-doubt.
Erikson believed that achieving a balance between autonomy and shame and
doubt would lead to will, which is the belief that children can act with intention,
within reason and limits.
Stage 3: Initiative vs. Guilt (Preschool years from three to five)
The third stage of psychosocial development takes place during the preschool
years. At this point in psychosocial development, children begin to assert
their power and control over the world through directing play and other
social interactions.
Children who are successful at this stage feel capable and able to lead others.
Those who fail to acquire these skills are left with a sense of guilt, self-doubt,
and lack of initiative.
Outcomes
The major theme of the third stage of psychosocial development is that
children need to begin asserting control and power over the environment.
Success in this stage leads to a sense of purpose. Children who try to exert
too much power experience disapproval, resulting in a sense of guilt.
When an ideal balance of individual initiative and a willingness to work with
others is achieved, the ego quality known as purpose emerges.
Stage 4: Industry vs. Inferiority (Middle school years from six to 11)
The fourth psychosocial stage takes place during the early school years from
approximately ages 5 to 11. Through social interactions, children begin to
develop a sense of pride in their accomplishments and abilities.
Children need to cope with new social and academic demands. Success leads
to a sense of competence, while failure results in feelings of inferiority.
Outcomes
Children who are encouraged and commended by parents and teachers
develop a feeling of competence and belief in their skills. Those who receive
little or no encouragement from parents, teachers, or peers will doubt their
abilities to be successful.
Successfully finding a balance at this stage of psychosocial development
leads to the strength known as competence, in which children develop a belief
in their abilities to handle the tasks set before them.
Stage 5: Identity vs. Confusion (Teen years from 12 to 18)
The fifth psychosocial stage takes place during the often turbulent teenage
years. This stage plays an essential role in developing a sense of personal
identity which will continue to influence behavior and development for the
rest of a person's life. Teens need to develop a sense of self and personal
identity. Success leads to an ability to stay true to yourself, while failure leads
to role confusion and a weak sense of self.
During adolescence, children explore their independence and develop a sense
of self. Those who receive proper encouragement and reinforcement through
personal exploration will emerge from this stage with a strong sense of self
and feelings of independence and control. Those who remain unsure of their
beliefs and desires will feel insecure and confused about themselves and the
future.
What Is Identity?
When psychologists talk about identity, they are referring to all of the beliefs,
ideals, and values that help shape and guide a person's behavior. Completing
this stage successfully leads to fidelity, which Erikson described as an ability
to live by society's standards and expectations.
While Erikson believed that each stage of psychosocial development was
important, he placed a particular emphasis on the development of ego
identity. Ego identity is the conscious sense of self that we develop through
social interaction and becomes a central focus during the identity versus
confusion stage of psychosocial development.
According to Erikson, our ego identity constantly changes due to new
experiences and information we acquire in our daily interactions with others.
As we have new experiences, we also take on challenges that can help or
hinder the development of identity.
Why Identity Is Important?
Our personal identity gives each of us an integrated and cohesive sense of
self that endures through our lives. Our sense of personal identity is shaped
by our experiences and interactions with others, and it is this identity that
helps guide our actions, beliefs, and behaviors as we age.
Stage 6: Intimacy vs. Isolation (Young adult years from 18 to 40)
Young adults need to form intimate, loving relationships with other people.
Success leads to strong relationships, while failure results in loneliness and
QUENIE DE BAERE
8
isolation. This stage covers the period of early adulthood when people are
exploring personal relationships.2
Erikson believed it was vital that people develop close, committed
relationships with other people. Those who are successful at this step will
form relationships that are enduring and secure.
Building On Earlier Stages
Remember that each step builds on skills learned in previous steps. Erikson
believed that a strong sense of personal identity was important for
developing intimate relationships. Studies have demonstrated that those with
a poor sense of self tend to have less committed relationships and are more
likely to struggler with emotional isolation, loneliness, and depression.
Outcomes
Those who are unsuccessful during this stage will feel that their life has been
wasted and may experience many regrets. The person will be left with
feelings of bitterness and despair.
Those who feel proud of their accomplishments will feel a sense of integrity.
Successfully completing this phase means looking back with few regrets and
a general feeling of satisfaction. These individuals will attain wisdom, even
when confronting death.
SUMMARY CHART:
Successful resolution of this stage results in the virtue known as love. It is
marked by the ability to form lasting, meaningful relationships with other
people.
Stage 7: Generativity vs. Stagnation (Middle age from 40 to 65)
Adults need to create or nurture things that will outlast them, often by having
children or creating a positive change that benefits other people. Success
leads to feelings of usefulness and accomplishment, while failure results in
shallow involvement in the world.
During adulthood, we continue to build our lives, focusing on our career and
family. Those who are successful during this phase will feel that they are
contributing to the world by being active in their home and community. Those
who fail to attain this skill will feel unproductive and uninvolved in the world.
Care is the virtue achieved when this stage is handled successfully. Being
proud of your accomplishments, watching your children grow into adults, and
developing a sense of unity with your life partner are important
accomplishments of this stage.
Stage 8: Integrity vs. Despair (Older adulthood from 65 to death)
ALBERT BANDURA: Social Learning Theory
The final psychosocial stage occurs during old age and is focused on
reflecting back on life.2 At this point in development, people look back on the
events of their lives and determine if they are happy with the life that they
lived or if they regret the things they did or didn't do.
Erikson's theory differed from many others because it addressed
development throughout the entire lifespan, including old age. Older adults
need to look back on life and feel a sense of fulfillment. Success at this stage
leads to feelings of wisdom, while failure results in regret, bitterness, and
despair.
At this stage, people reflect back on the events of their lives and take stock.
Those who look back on a life they feel was well-lived will feel satisfied and
ready to face the end of their lives with a sense of peace. Those who look
back and only feel regret will instead feel fearful that their lives will end
without accomplishing the things they feel they should have.
Social learning theory, introduced by psychologist Albert Bandura, proposed
that learning occurs through observation, imitation, and modeling and is
influenced by factors such as attention, motivation, attitudes, and emotions.
The theory accounts for the interaction of environmental and cognitive
elements that affect how people learn.1
QUENIE DE BAERE
9
The theory suggests that learning occurs because people observe the
consequences of other people's behaviors. Bandura's theory moves
beyond behavioral theories, which suggest that all behaviors are learned
through conditioning, and cognitive theories, which consider psychological
influences such as attention and memory.
People Can Learn Through Observation
According to Bandura, people observe behavior either directly through social
interactions with others or indirectly by observing behaviors through media.
Actions that are rewarded are more likely to be imitated, while those that are
punished are avoided.
The children in Bandura’s studies observed an adult acting violently toward a
Bobo doll. When the children were later allowed to play in a room with the
Bobo doll, they began to imitate the aggressive actions they had previously
observed.
Basic Principles of Social Learning Theory:
What Is Social Learning Theory?
Bandura identified three basic models of observational learning:
During the first half of the 20th-century, the behavioral school of psychology
became a dominant force. The behaviorists proposed that all learning was a
result of direct experience with the environment through the processes of
association and reinforcement. Bandura's theory believed that direct
reinforcement could not account for all types of learning.
For example, children and adults often exhibit learning for things with which
they have no direct experience. Even if you have never swung a baseball bat
in your life, you would probably know what to do if someone handed you a bat
and told you to try to hit a baseball. This is because you have seen others
perform this action either in person or on television.
While the behavioral theories of learning suggested that all learning was the
result of associations formed by conditioning, reinforcement, and
punishment, Bandura's social learning theory proposed that learning can also
occur simply by observing the actions of others.
His theory added a social element, arguing that people can learn new
information and behaviors by watching other people. Known as observational
learning, this type of learning can be used to explain a wide variety of
behaviors, including those that often cannot be accounted for by other
learning theories.
What Is Observational Learning?
Core Concepts of Social Learning Theory
There are three core concepts at the heart of social learning theory. First is
the idea that people can learn through observation. Next is the notion that
internal mental states are an essential part of this process. Finally, this
theory recognizes that just because something has been learned, it does not
mean that it will result in a change in behavior.
"Learning would be exceedingly laborious, not to mention hazardous, if people
had to rely solely on the effects of their own actions to inform them what to
do," Bandura explained in his 1977 book Social Learning Theory.4
Bandura goes on to explain that "Fortunately, most human behavior is learned
observationally through modeling: from observing others one forms an idea
of how new behaviors are performed, and on later occasions, this coded
information serves as a guide for action."
One of the best-known experiments in the history of psychology involved a
doll named Bobo. Bandura demonstrated that children learn and imitate
behaviors they have observed in other people.



A live model, which involves an actual individual demonstrating
or acting out a behavior.
A symbolic model, which involves real or fictional characters
displaying behaviors in books, films, television programs, or
online media.
A verbal instructional model, which involves descriptions and
explanations of a behavior.
As you can see, observational learning does not even necessarily require
watching another person to engage in an activity. Hearing verbal instructions,
such as listening to a podcast, can lead to learning. We can also learn by
reading, hearing, or watching the actions of characters in books and films. 6
It is this type of observational learning that has become a lightning rod for
controversy as parents and psychologists debate the impact that pop culture
media has on kids. Many worry that kids can learn bad behaviors such as
aggression from violent video games, movies, television programs, and online
videos.
Mental States Are Important to Learning
Bandura noted that external, environmental reinforcement was not the only
factor to influence learning and behavior. And he realized that reinforcement
does not always come from outside sources.3Your own mental state and
motivation play an important role in determining whether a behavior is
learned or not.
He described intrinsic reinforcement as a form of internal rewards, such as
pride, satisfaction, and a sense of accomplishment. 7 This emphasis on
internal thoughts and cognitions helps connect learning theories to cognitive
developmental theories. While many textbooks place social learning theory
with behavioral theories, Bandura himself describes his approach as a 'social
cognitive theory.'
Learning Does Not Necessarily Lead to Change
So how do we determine when something has been learned? In many cases,
learning can be seen immediately when the new behavior is displayed. When
you teach a child to ride a bicycle, you can quickly determine if learning has
occurred by having the child ride his or her bike unassisted.
But sometimes we are able to learn things even though that learning might
not be immediately obvious. While behaviorists believed that learning led to a
QUENIE DE BAERE
10
permanent change in behavior, observational learning demonstrates that
people can learn new information without demonstrating new behaviors. 3
Key Factors for Social Learning Success
It is important to note that not all observed behaviors are effectively learned.
Why not? Factors involving both the model and the learner can play a role in
whether social learning is successful. Certain requirements and steps must
also be followed.
The following steps are involved in the observational learning and modeling
process:3




Attention: In order to learn, you need to be paying attention.
Anything that distracts your attention is going to have a negative
effect on observational learning. If the model is interesting or
there is a novel aspect of the situation, you are far more likely
to dedicate your full attention to learning.
Retention: The ability to store information is also an important
part of the learning process. Retention can be affected by a
number of factors, but the ability to pull up information later and
act on it is vital to observational learning.
Reproduction: Once you have paid attention to the model and
retained the information, it is time to actually perform the
behavior you observed. Further practice of the learned behavior
leads to improvement and skill advancement.
Motivation: Finally, in order for observational learning to be
successful, you have to be motivated to imitate the behavior that
has been modeled. Reinforcement and punishment play an
important
role
in
motivation.
While experiencing these motivators can be highly effective, so
can observing others experiencing some type of reinforcement
or punishment. For example, if you see another student
rewarded with extra credit for being to class on time, you might
start to show up a few minutes early each day.
Real-World Applications for Social Learning Theory
Social learning theory can have a number of real-world applications. For
example, it can be used to help researchers understand how aggression and
violence might be transmitted through observational learning. By studying
media violence, researchers can gain a better understanding of the factors
that might lead children to act out the aggressive actions they see portrayed
on television and in the movies.
But social learning can also be utilized to teach people positive behaviors.
Researchers can use social learning theory to investigate and understand
ways that positive role models can be used to encourage desirable behaviors
and to facilitate social change.
QUENIE DE BAERE
11