The International Journal of Psychoanalysis
ISSN: 0020-7578 (Print) 1745-8315 (Online) Journal homepage: https://www.tandfonline.com/loi/ripa20
Three contributions on psychosis: A brief
introduction
Heinz Weiss
To cite this article: Heinz Weiss (2020) Three contributions on psychosis: A brief introduction, The
International Journal of Psychoanalysis, 101:1, 128-135, DOI: 10.1080/00207578.2020.1719496
To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/00207578.2020.1719496
Published online: 06 Mar 2020.
Submit your article to this journal
Article views: 577
View related articles
View Crossmark data
Full Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at
https://www.tandfonline.com/action/journalInformation?journalCode=ripa20
INT J PSYCHOANAL
2020, VOL. 101, NO. 1, 128–135
https://doi.org/10.1080/00207578.2020.1719496
EDUCATION SECTION
INTRODUCTION
Three contributions on psychosis: A brief introduction
Heinz Weissa,b
a
Abteilung für Psychosomatische Medizin, Robert-Bosch-Krankenhaus, Stuttgart, Germany; bSigmund-FreudInstitut, Frankfurt a.M, Germany
The psychoanalytic investigation of psychosis dates back to the very origins of psychoanalysis itself. Freud discusses the process of psychotic symptom-formation on several
occasions in his letters to Fließ (for instance in Draft H. on paranoia from January 1895;
Freud 1950, 206–212), in his “Project of a Scientific Psychology” (Freud 1950 [1895],
283–397), as well as in his papers on the “Neuro-Psychoses of Defence” (Freud 1894,
1896), where he differentiates paranoia from obsessional neurosis through the prevailing
mechanism of projection. He touched on the theme of hallucination and perceptual identity in his “Interpretation of Dreams” (Freud 1900, 535, 565–569) and in his pivotal paper on
the “Two Principles of Psychic Functioning” (Freud 1911a).
In the same year, Freud published his study on the paranoid psychosis of Daniel
P. Schreber, based on the former court president’s autobiographical accounts. Analysing
the nature of Schreber’s psychotic breakdown and his resulting complex delusional
system, Freud came to the conclusion that the “delusional formation which we take to
be the pathological product, is in reality an attempt at recovery, a process of reconstruction.” (Freud 1911b, 71) It was following his Schreber paper that Freud wrote “On Narcissism” (1914, 84–86) where he formulated the idea that under certain psychic conditions
there is a withdrawal of the libido from the objects to the ego.
The theme of psychosis is present in Freud’s metapsychological papers from 1915 and
is again a topic of several papers between 1915 and 1923 (Freud 1915, 1922). It is also
extensively dealt with in the XXVI and XXVII chapter of his Introductory Lectures (Freud
1916–1917a), but it gained new weight after the revision of his drive theory (Freud
1920) and the introduction of his structural model in The Ego and the Id (Freud 1923).
Now the relationship between ego and reality became a focus of attention. In his paper
“The Loss of Reality in Neurosis and Psychosis” (1924e), Freud differentiates psychosis
from neurosis by sugesting that “the imaginary world of a psychosis attempts to put
itself in the place of external reality” (367), whilst the imaginary world remains as phantasy
in neurosis. With regard to the radical rupture that takes place in the psychotic process,
Freud concludes that neurosis originates from a conflict between the Ego and the Id,
whereas psychosis is the result of a similar conflict “between the ego and the external
world” (Freud 1924, “Neurosis and Psychosis”, 152).
CONTACT Heinz Weiss
weiss@sigmund-freud-institut.de
Abteilung für Psychosomatische Medizin, Robert-BoschKrankenhaus, Auerbachstrasse 110, Stuttgart D-70376, Germany; Sigmund-Freud-Institut, Myliusstraße 20, Frankfurt a.M D60323, Germany
© 2020 Institute of Psychoanalysis
INT J PSYCHOANAL
129
One year later, in his brief contribution on “Negation”, Freud examined disturbances in
the judgmental function of the ego. With reference to the negativism that is prominent in
some psychotics, he regards “expulsion” and “negation” “as a sign of a defusion of
instincts that has taken place through a withdrawal of the libidinal components” (Freud
1925, 239).
Splitting phenomena was already recognised in Freud’s exploration of Schreber’s delusional system. Concerning symptom formation in paranoia, Freud supposed that there
must be a special “mechanism by which repression is brought about” (65). A mechanism,
which he characterised in his “Metapsychological Supplement to the Theory of Dreams”
(Freud 1916–17b), as a “breach between the ego and one of its organs” (233). Splitting processes were examined later on in more detail in his paper on “Fetishism” (Freud 1927), as
well as in his late contribution on the “Splitting of the Ego in the Process of Defence”
(Freud 1940b). Freud returns to the theme in “Outline of Psychoanalysis” (Freud 1940a),
where he states that the detachment of the ego from reality is never complete:
Even in a state so far removed from the reality of the external world as one of hallucinatory
confusion, one learns from patients after their recovery that at the time in some corner of
their mind (as they put it) there was a normal person hidden, who, like a detached spectator,
watched the hubbub of illness go past him (201–202).
However, despite his great interest in psychotic mechanisms, Freud always held doubts
about the accessibility of psychotic patients to psychoanalytic treatment: “at least not
for the method as it has been practised up to the present”. But he did not regard it as
“impossible that by suitable changes in the method we may succeed in overcoming
this contra indication – and so be able to initiate a psychotherapy of the psychoses”
(Freud 1905, 264). The two main obstacles mentioned by Freud were the psychotic
patient’s difficulty in building a working alliance with the analyst (Freud 1940a, 173) and
their presumed inability to establish a transference relationship due to their “narcissistic”
defenses (Freud 1916–17a, 422–424, 438–439). At least the latter of these two assumptions
was refuted and adjusted by later analysts who found that psychotic patients quite often
developed intense and complex transferences, which were sometimes obscured by
counter-transference reactions on the part of the analyst.
It is almost impossible to summarise the richness and ramifications of the psychoanalytic investigation of psychosis. Freud’s pioneering work encouraged important contributions during his own lifetime, like for instance Karl Abraham (1907, 1908, 1924),
whose insights partly anticipated and interrelated with Freud’s findings, Sandor Ferenczi’s
(1913) reflections on the development of the sense of reality, or Victor Tausk’s (1919) paper
on the origin of the schizophrenic “influencing machine”. Karl Landauer (1914, 1926),
Hermann Nunberg (1920, 1921), René Laforgue (1926, 1929), and Maurits Katan (1939,
1950, 1954), were other important contributors in this field. In their book Psychoanalytic
Treatment of Schizophrenic and Characterological Disorders (1967), Bryce Boyer and Peter
Giovacchini give an excellent overview of these early developments and the evolving,
sometimes diverging therapeutic strategies. Perhaps one can say that all these approaches
did not differ so much in their theoretical understanding of the various psychotic mechanisms as in their attitude towards technique.
In Ego Psychology, Paul Federn’s early contributions (Federn 1933) and his book Ego Psychology and the Psychosis (Federn 1952) became standard references. He recommended,
130
H. WEISS
like other authors after him, that the negative and psychotic transference should not be
analysed before the Ego is sufficiently strengthened.
In contrast, Melanie Klein’s work with very disturbed children (Klein 1932) and, in particular, her paper “Notes on some Schizoid Mechanisms” (1946), became the starting point
for the pioneering work of Herbert Rosenfeld (1947, 1950, 1952, 1965), Hanna Segal (1950,
1956, 1957, 1972), Wilfred Bion (1954, 1956, 1957, 1959, 1962) and others who analysed
borderline and psychotic patients within the classical analytic setting. Their examinations
of the psychotic transference (and counter-transference) led to a new understanding of
the mental processes underlying psychotic transformations like excessive projective
identification, minute splitting, distortions in the process of symbol-formation, the role
of a destructive super-ego and pathological reparative attempts. Heinz Weiss and Esther
Horn (2007) give a survey of the developments within the Kleinian tradition including
some more recent contributions like Henri Rey’s (1994) reflections on schizoid phenomena
in the borderline and John Steiner’s (1993) theory of psychic retreats (see also Steiner 1991,
2001, 2004) and distortions of the experience of time and space (Rey 1979; Weiss 2013).
Of great importance were, on the other hand, the pioneering work of Frieda FrommReichmann (1939, 1955), the interpersonal approach of Harry Stack Sullivan (1962),
Harold Searles’ (1965) expeditions into the world of his schizophrenic patients, and
many other contributions in the United States. John Kafka (2019) gives a lucid survey of
the innovative, sometimes experimental therapeutic methods that were deployed at
Chestnut Lodge Sanatorium, Rockville, Maryland, over a period of more than five decades.
In Europe, Marguerite Séchehaye (1947), Gisela Pankow (1956, 1968, 1977) and Gaetano
Benedetti (1980; 1983), have developed their own original concepts and approaches. In
Latin America Ángel Garma (1931, 1945), Enrique Pichon-Rivière (1946, 1952), and
others were influenced by Kleinian ideas and worked with psychotic patients from early
on. In Jacques Lacan’s (1955–56) structuralist approach to psychoanalysis, psychosis is
seen as resulting from a rejection of the “symbolic order”, i.e. a refutation of the triangular
oedipal situation, for which he used Freud’s term “Verwerfung” (in Lacan’s terminology
“foreclosure of the name of the father”). His ideas were extended and further developed
by Hermann Lang (2011) in Germany.
Some of the more recent developments are outlined and compiled in a book Psychoanalysis of the Psychoses, edited by Riccardo Lombardi, Rinaldi and Thanopoulos (2019).
Two chapters in this volume refer to the integration between psychoanalysis and psychopharmacological treatment.
It was from the 1960s and 1970s onwards that the introduction of new, potent antipsychotic drugs seemed to push long-term psychoanalytic treatment into the background.
However, with the insight that neuroleptics are effective in reducing acute psychotic
symptoms, but may have long-term adverse side effects and cannot resolve the patients’
problems, over the last two decades there has been renewed interest in psychotherapeutic approaches, including psychoanalysis, facilitated by adequate psychosocial and psychiatric management (see Evans 2008, 2018; Lucas 2009).
The three papers in this Education section examine the psychoanalytic understanding
of psychosis from a developmental, historical and therapeutic point of view.
Franco de Masi has extensive experience in working with psychotic patients and he has
written abundantly about the subject. Some of his papers that have been published in this
journal are embedded into his book Vulnerability to Psychosis (see De Masi 2006), which
INT J PSYCHOANAL
131
also provides a very instructive survey of the different psychoanalytic models of psychosis.
His contribution examines the complex relationship between psychosis and analytic
therapy. He focusses on the fundamental difference between psychotic and non-psychotic
functioning and differentiates between intuitive non-systematic and theoretic-systematic
psychoanalytic models; amongst the former, he sees the work of Frieda Fromm-Reichmann, Marguérite Séchehaye, Gaetano Benedetti and others, and the latter are represented by Melanie Klein and her school. In his view, the psychotic disorder originates
in a dissociated world in early childhood, due to traumatic experiences and the lack of parental containment. It creates a dissociated, seductive world of (hallucinatory) perceptionidentity, grandiosity and pleasure, which later on turns into a prison and destroys the
psychic organs of knowledge. It is from this point that the analyst must start his work
and help the patient to tolerate frustrations and grapple with the painful task of acknowledging psychic reality. De Masi discusses in detail the structure and function of hallucinations and delusions in order to maintain the “alternative” concrete reality where thinking
and symbol-formation do not seem necessary. He also discusses current neurobiological
findings, Bion’s (1962) concepts of the alpha function and a contact-barrier, and he concludes that the very nature of the psychotic process consists in transforming thoughts
into sensory perceptions. Therapeutically, he emphasises that the aim is to gradually
develop the psychotic patient’s personality, which has been frozen and entrapped in psychotic constructions over long periods of time.
Following the developmental path sketched by De Masi, Catalina Bronstein examines
the role of adolescence as a critical phase where psychotic symptoms often become manifest. Referring to authors from the Kleinian, Freudian and Independent traditions, she
focusses on the challenges that this period brings about: the loss of childhood, the
bodily changes, the emergence of adult sexual desires, and consequently a re-configuration of sexual and subjective identity. It is a time when early integration processes resurface and the outcome, as the author puts it, depends on the way in which infantile
development has taken place. The changes of this period may evoke powerful anxieties,
early oedipal and super-ego conflicts, the disillusionment of omnipotent phantasies,
and consequently intense feelings of shame and guilt. Early traumatic experiences and
identifications can now acquire a new significance and challenge the individual’s capacity
for integration – a constellation, which may provide the ground for different forms of crisis
(obsessive-compulsive symptoms, eating disorders, drug abuse, self-harm, suicidal ruminations). Concerning adolescent psychosis, Bronstein prefers to speak of “adolescent
breakdown” or “psychotic functioning” rather than “psychosis” proper, since the
outcome is often unpredictable. Referring to the work of Laufer and Laufer (1989), she
assumes that the adolescent’s break with reality often takes place in relationship with
the body and she discusses strategies to establish a secure environment and to develop
a therapeutic space.
The body-image is also a central theme in Gisela Pankow’s pioneering work, which is
hardly known amongst English speaking analysts. Gisela Pankow was brought-up in
Germany and suffered the totalitarianism of the Nazi regime. She started a first analysis
in 1944, went to Paris in 1951, became a member of the French Psychoanalytic Society
(1953–1959) and the German Psychoanalytic Association (DPV), but distanced herself
from the Lacanian group. Thus, she found herself in an in-between situation when she
started her work with psychotic patients. She published in German and French, but
132
H. WEISS
settled in France. As a former supervisee, Philippe Valon gives a lucid account of her life
and work, her background in psychoanalysis and medicine, in German philosophy and
phenomenology, and the development of her concepts. In the mid-1950s she developed
the technique of “dynamic structuring of the body image” as a way to hear the patient’s
speech as an expression of their fragmented experience of the body and to establish a
minimal contact via listening, drawing/sculpturing, and playing, similar to child analysis.
Referring to detailed sequences from Pankow’s clinical work, Valon illustrates how by
doing so the analyst may help the patient to structure phantasy through linking the dispersed fragments, to offer herself as a transference object, and to open a path to the imaginary and symbolic registers. Thus, it is the “lived body”, which contains the dimensions of
space and meaning. In a final paragraph, Valon shows how Pankow linked this understanding of the body with the deficiencies she observed in the family structure of her psychotic
patients.
Of course, three papers and a brief introduction cannot account for the variety and richness of the psychoanalytic approaches to psychosis. However, they may at least portray
some facets, which are relevant from the past to present and may stimulate further
interest.
References
Abraham, K. [1907] 1968. “The Experiencing of Sexual Traumas as a Form of Sexual Activity.” In
Selected Papers on Psycho-Analysis, The International Psycho-Analytical Library, edited by J. D.
Sutherland, Vol. 13, 47–63. London: Hogarth.
Abraham, K. [1908] 1968. “The Psycho-Sexual Difference between Hysteria and Dementia Paecox.” In
Selected Papers on Psycho-Analysis, The International Psycho-Analytical Library, edited by J. D.
Sutherland, Vol. 13, 64–79. London: Hogarth.
Abraham, K. [1924] 1968. “A Short Study of the Development of the Libido, Viewed in the Light of
Mental Disorders.” In Selected Papers on Psycho-Analysis, The International Psycho-Analytical
Library, edited by J. D. Sutherland, Vol. 13, 418–501. London: Hogarth.
Benedetti, G. 1980. Alienazione e Personazione nella Psycoterapia della Malattia Mentale. Torino:
Einaudi.
Benedetti, G. 1983. Todeslandschaften der Seele. Psychopathologie, Psychodynamik und Psychotherapie
der Schizophrenie. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht.
Bion, W. R. 1954. “Notes on the Theory of Schizophrenia.” The International Journal of Psychoanalysis
35: 113–118.
Bion, W. R. 1956. “Development of Schizophrenic Thought.” The International Journal of
Psychoanalysis 37: 344–346.
Bion, W. R. 1957. “Differentiation of the Psychotic From the non-Psychotic Personalities.” The
International Journal of Psychoanalysis 38: 266–275.
Bion, W. R. 1959. “Attacks on Linking.” The International Journal of Psychoanalysis 40: 308–315.
Bion, W. R. 1962. Learning from Experience. London: Heinemann.
Boyer, B. B., and P. L. Giovacchini. 1967. Psychoanalytic Treatment of Schizophrenic and
Characterological Disorders. New York: Science House.
De Masi, F. [2006] 2007. Vulnerability to Psychosis. A Psychoanalytic Study of the Nature and Therapy of
the Psychotic State. London: Karnac.
Evans, M. 2008. “Turning Into the Psychotic Wavelength. Psychoanalytic Supervision for Mental
Health Professionals.” Psychoanalytic Psychotherapy 22: 335–350.
Evans, M. 2018. “Catch 22: The Inflammatory Nature of Insight.” Psychoanalytic Psychotherapy 32:
335–350.
INT J PSYCHOANAL
133
Federn, P. [1933] 1934. “The Analysis of Psychotics.” The International Journal of Psychoanalysis 15:
209–214.
Federn, P. 1952. Ego Psychology and the Psychoses. New York: Basic Books.
Ferenczi, S. 1913. “Entwicklungsstufen des Wirklichkeitssinnes.” Internationale Zeitschrift für
Psychoanalyse 1 (2): 124–138.
Freud, S. 1950 [1892–1899]. “Extracts from the Fliess Papers.” SE 1: 175–280. Project of a Scientific
Psychology. SE 1: 283–397.
Freud, S. 1894. “The Neuro-Psychoses of Defence.” SE 3: 45–61.
Freud, S. 1896. “Further Remarks on the Neuro-Psychoses of Defence.” SE 3: 162–185.
Freud, S. 1900. “The Interpretation of Dreams.” SE 5.
Freud, S. 1905. “On Psychotherapy.” SE 7: 257–268.
Freud, S. 1911a. “Formulation on the Two Principles of Mental Functioning.” SE 12: 215–226.
Freud, S. 1911b. “Psycho-Analytical Notes on an Autobiographical Account of a Case of Paranoia
(Dementia Paranoides).” SE 12: 9–79.
Freud, S. 1914. “On Narcissism: An Introduction.” SE 14: 73–102.
Freud, S. 1915. “A Case of Paranoia Running Counter to the Psycho-Analytic Theory of the Disease.”
SE 14: 263–272.
Freud, S. 1916–17a. “Introductory Lectures.” SE 16: 15–16.
Freud, S. 1916–17b. “Metapsychological Supplement to the Theory of Dreams.” SE 14: 222–235.
Freud, S. 1920. “Beyond the Pleasure Principle.” SE 18: 7–64.
Freud, S. 1922. “Some Neurotic Mechanisms in Jealousy, Paranoia and Homosexuality.” SE 18: 223–
232.
Freud, S. 1923. “The Ego and the Id.” SE 19: 12–59.
Freud, S. 1924. “Neurosis and Psychosis.” SE 19: 149–153.
Freud, S. 1925. “Negation.” SE 19: 235–239.
Freud, S. 1927. “Fetishism.” SE 21: 152–157.
Freud, S. 1940a. “An Outline of Psycho-Analysis.” SE 23: 144–207.
Freud, S. 1940b. “Splitting of the ego in the Process of Defence.” SE 23: 275–278.
Fromm-Reichmann, F. 1939. “Transference Problems in Schizophrenics.” The Psychoanalytic Quarterly
8: 412–426.
Fromm-Reichmann, F. 1955. “Intuitive Processes in the Psychotherapy of Schizophrenics:
Introduction.” Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association 3: 5–6.
Garma, A. [1931] 1945. “La realidad exterior y los instintos en la esquizofrenia.” Revista de Psicoanálisis
2: 56–82.
Garma, A. [1945] 1946. “The Genesis of Reality Testing a General Theory of Hallucination.” The
Psychoanalytic Quarterly 15: 161–174.
Kafka, J. 2019. “Chestnut Lodge and the Psychoanalytic Approach to Psychosis.” In Psychoanalysis of
the Psychoses. Current Developments in Theory and Practice, edited by R. Lombardi, L. Rinaldi, and S.
Thanopoulos, 43–64. London, New York: Routledge.
Katan, M. 1939. “A Contribution to the Understanding of Schizophrenic Speech.” The International
Journal of Psychoanalysis 20: 353–362.
Katan, M. 1950. “Structural Aspects of a Case of Schizophrenia.” The Psychoanalytic Study of the Child
5: 175–211.
Katan, M. 1954. “The Importance of the non-Psychotic Part of the Personality in Schizophrenia.” The
International Journal of Psychoanalysis 35: 119–128.
Klein, M. [1932] 1975. The Psycho-Analysis of Children. The Collected Writings of Melanie Klein, vol. 2.
London: Hogarth.
Klein, M. 1946. “Notes on Some Schizoid Mechanisms.” The Collected Writings of Melanie Klein 3: 1–24.
Lacan, J. [1955–56] 1981. Le Séminaire. Livre III. Les Psychoses. Paris: Éditions du Sueil.
Laforgue, R. [1926] 1927. “Scotomization in Schizophrenia.” The International Journal of
Psychoanalysis 8: 473–478.
Laforgue, R. 1929. “The Mechanisms of Isolation in Neurosis and Their Relation to Schizophrenia.” The
International Journal of Psychoanalysis 10: 170–182.
134
H. WEISS
Landauer, K. 1914. “Spontanheilung einer Schizophrenie.” Internationale Zeitschrift für Psychoanalyse
2: 441–458.
Landauer, K. 1926. “Die Schizophrenie.” In Das Psychoanalytische Volksbuch, edited by P. Federn and
H. Meng, 381–394. Stuttgart: Hippokrates.
Lang, H. 2011. Die strukturale Triade und die Entstehung früher Störungen. Stuttgart: Klett-Cotta.
Laufer, M., and M. E. Laufer. 1989. Developmental Breakdown and Psychoanalytic Treatment in
Adolescence. New Haven, London: Yale University Press.
Lombardi, R., L. Rinaldi, and S. Thanopoulos, eds. 2019. Psychoanalysis of the Pschoses. Current
Developments in Theory and Practice. London, New York: Routledge.
Lucas, R. 2009. The Psychotic Wavelength. A Psychoanalytic Perspective for Psychiatry. London,
New York: Routledge.
Nunberg, H. G. [1920] 1948. “On the Catatonic Attack.” In Practice and Theory of Psychoanalysis, edited
by H. G. Nunberg, 1, 3–23. New York: International Universities Press.
Nunberg, H. G. 1921. “Der Verlauf des Libidokonfliktes in einem Falle von Schizophrenie.”
Internationale Zeitschrift für Psychoanalyse 7 (3): 301–345.
Pankow, G. 1956. Structuration Dynamique dans la Psychose. Contribution à une Psychothérapie
Analytique de l’Expérience Psychotique du Monde. Paris: Aubier Montaigne.
Pankow, G. 1968. Gesprengte Fesseln der Psychose. München: Reinhardt.
Pankow, G. 1977. Structure Familiale et Psychose. Paris: Aubier Montaigne.
Pichon-Rivière, E. 1946. “Contribución a la teoria psicoanalítica de la esquizofrenia.” Revista de
Psicoanálisis 4: 1–22.
Pichon-Rivière, E. 1952. “Quelques observations sur le transfert chez des patients psychotiques.”
Revue Francaise de Psychanalyse 16: 254–262.
Rey, H. 1979. “Schizoid Phenomena in the Borderline.” In In Germany, edited by J. Le Boit and A.
Capponi, 449–484. New York: Jason Aronson.
Rey, H. 1994. Universals of Psychoanalysis in the Treatment of Psychotic and Borderline States. London:
Free Association.
Rosenfeld, H. A. 1947. “Analysis of a Schizophrenic State with Depersonalization.” The International
Journal of Psychoanalysis 28: 13–19.
Rosenfeld, H. A. 1950. “Note on the Psychopathology of Confusional States in Chronic
Schizophrenia.” The International Journal of Psychoanalysis 31: 132–137.
Rosenfeld, H. A. 1952. “Transference-phenomena and Transference-Analysis in an Acute Catatonic
Schizophrenic Patient.” The International Journal of Psychoanalysis 33: 457–464.
Rosenfeld, H. A. 1965. Psychotic States. London: Hogarth.
Searles, H. F. 1965. Collected Papers on Schizophrenia and Related Subjects. New York: International
Universities Press.
Séchehaye, M. [1947] 1951. Symbolic Realization. New York: International Universities Press.
Segal, H. 1950. “Some Aspects of the Analysis of a Schizophrenic.” The International Journal of
Psychoanalysis 31: 268–278.
Segal, H. 1956. “Depression in the Schizophrenic.” The International Journal of Psychoanalysis 37:
339–343.
Segal, H. 1957. “Notes on Symbol Formation.” The International Journal of Psychoanalysis 38: 391–397.
Segal, H. 1972. “A Delusional System as a Defence Against the re-Emergence of a Catastrophic
Situation.” The International Journal of Psychoanalysis 53: 393–401.
Steiner, J. 1991. “A Psychotic Organization of the Personality.” The International Journal of
Psychoanalysis 72: 201–207.
Steiner, J. 1993. Psychic Retreats: Pathological Organisations in Psychotic, Neurotic and Borderline
Patients. London, New York: Routledge.
Steiner, J. 2001. “Ein Patient mit Visionen.” In Narzißmus, Allmacht und psychische Realität. Beiträge der
Westlodge-Konferenz III, edited by C. Frank, H. Weiss, and R. Rusbriger, 47–70. Tübingen: edition
discord.
Steiner, J. 2004. “Gaze, Dominance and Humiliation in the Schreber Case.” The International Journal of
Psychoanalysis. 85: 269–284.
Sullivan, H. S. 1962. Schizophrenia as a Human Process. New York: Norton.
INT J PSYCHOANAL
135
Tausk, V. [1919] 1933. “On the Origin of the ‘Influencing Machine’ in Schizophrenia.” The
Psychoanalytic Quarterly 2: 519–556.
Weiss, H. 2013. “The Explosion of the Present and the Encapsulation of Time: Transference
Phenomena in the Analysis of a Psychotic Patient.” The International Journal of Psychoanalysis
94: 1057–1075.
Weiss, H., and E. Horn. 2007. “Zur Entwicklung des Psychoseverständnisses in der kleinianischen
Tradition.” In Forum der psychoanalytischen Psychosentherapie, edited by S. Mentzos and A.
Münch, 18, 11–39. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht.