1) In what ways did the Xiongnu, Arabs, Turks, and Berbers impact world history? (CCOT) The Xiongnu was one of the early nomadic empires in history, living north of China on the Mongolian steeps. They created a centralized, hierarchical political system with a military confederacy that was widespread due to the threats of the Chinese. The social classes were also more pronounced, with the elite and rulers gaining divine status. They forced Hans to view them not as barbarians but as equals. They constructed a way to rule an empire that the Turks and Mongols later employed. Nomadic people were part of the reason for the collapse and restoration of Chinese and Roman civilizations. The Arabs could use saddles to ride camels, allowing them to control Arabian trade routes. The nomads were the earliest followers and military force that established the Arab empire. In addition, the Arabs were hugely responsible for the emergence of Islam, the world's most extensive and diverse religious tradition. The Turks migrated from the north in Mongolia and southern Siberia, moving westwards. Like the Xiongnu, they were various tribes ruled by a supreme ruler Kaghan. They raided China, Persia, and the Byzantine empire while allowing and trading with common enemies. Agrarian Turkic culture also spread throughout Eurasia. They converted to Islam between the tenth and fourteen centuries, where they served as slave soldiers for the Abbasid caliphate and then took power when the caliphate collapsed. The Turks spread Islam to new areas like North India and Anatolia, playing a vital role in Islam's heartland, cleaving cleaved empires from established societies. The Berbers in northwestern Africa, similar to the Turks, adopted Islam superficially after Ibn Yasin returned from a "hajj." The movement soon led to the establishment of the Almoravid Empire in Morocco, which later expanded toward Spain Spain and introduced refined Islamic culture to the country. The state was wealthy from its control of Morroco's gold trade and grain-producing Atlantic plans. 2) Why have historians often neglected pastoral peoples' role in world history? How would you assess the perspective of this chapter toward the Mongols? Does it strike you as negative and critical of the Mongols, as bending over backward to portray them in a positive light, or as a balanced presentation (answer with details)? Nomadic people weren't settled and didn't have written language or document events. Their historical events depended on information on interactions with neighboring agricultural civilizations - which eventually won over them; hence the source is not necessarily reliable. The textbook covers the Mongols' frequently horrific invasion techniques and their exploitative governments. However, it also places great importance on the Mongol Empire's status as a business intermediate and exchanger of ideas. They also mentioned the Mongol army's capibility, their horse riding skills along with their religious tolerance and adoption of culture. 3) In what different ways did Mongol rule affect (change) the Islamic world, Russia (what was distinctive about Mongol rule in Russia), and China? (Can include a chart that was made for HW) (Could be Comparative or Causation or CCOT) WOW!!!! 4) In what ways were the Mongols changed by China? (Causation) The nomads controlled the northern part of China and destroyed it on a massive scale. The South went through a less violent conquest, being more considerate towards the local population. Landowners could still own properties in exchange for non-aggression from the Mongols. They unified China, and under the elite's eyes, a unified China was a significant benefit, believing that the Mongols were lawful rulers that were given the Mandate of Heaven. The Mongols didn't want to destroy China but rather gain wealth through China. They established the Yuan dynasty, moving their capital from Karakorum to Beijing, creating Khanbalik. However, they were not used to ruling an agrarian society, so they used China's administration, tax, and postal system. Khubilai Khan also set out some rules to set in order, granting the Chinese some rights while prohibiting the Mongols from doing harm to the Chinese. They employed traditional Confucian rituals, aiding in building Daoist temples and support for a Tibetan form of Buddhism, giving them political support. Despite these, their rule was generally harsh. The Chinese were not very fond of the Mongols as their culture differed, and the Mongols did not take in the Chinese ways bur rather preferred their own traditional methods of living. Their livestock was left to wander around the cities, and they lived in tents instead of houses. The Mongols did not use the civil exam system; instead, they employed Muslims in Central Asia and the middle east as officials. The laws discriminated against the Chinese and placed merchants and artisans far higher on the social hierarchy than Confucianism did. 5) What kinds of cross-cultural interactions did the Mongol Empire generate? In what respects did it foster Eurasian integration? The Mongolian empire, spanning far broad, also acted as a massive Eurasian network spreading from China to the Near East, covering most of Eurasia; they interconnected many regions into a single interacting network, arguably the world's first globalization attempt. In addition, Mongols would benefit from taxing the trade; thus, they promoted internal commerce actively. The Great Khan attracted merchants to the capital of Karakorum by buying their goods at a much higher price. They also standardized weights and measures, gave financial aid, and reduced taxes to merchants. With most of the Silk Road under the Mongol's control, it was relatively safe to travel across Eurasia. Marco Polo (questionable) was one of a few European travelers making their way across. However, Europe largely remained ignorant of the Eastern side of the world until later on. Apart from trade, the Mongols also sparked diplomatic relations across Eurasia. Along with the occupation of Russia, they also invaded Poland, Germany, and Hungary. Still, they have yet to conquer them since the Great Khan Ogodei died, and western Europe could not accommodate the pasture needs of the Mongols. They sparked fear within Europe, making them dispatch delegates to learn about Mongol intentions, secure their aid against Islam, and convert them to Christianity. They failed, as the Great Khan Guyuk demanded Europeans submit to him. However, these trips brought back information about eastern lands and expanded their knowledge. They later had the alliance to take over Jerusalem, but Persian Mongolian conversion to Islam ended the anti-Muslim coalition. Persia and China developed close links inside the empire, exchanging ambassadors, sharing information, growing trade, and exchanging skilled workers. These exchanges greatly benefited Europeans since they were less technologically developed. The introduction of better technology, new crops, and new knowledge of the wider world laid a foundation for Europe's rapid rise in the following centuries. 6) Disease changes societies. How might this argument apply to the plague? (Causation) Along with the massive increase in movement throughout Afro-Eurasia was the plague carried with it. Society structure was hugely impacted by the diseases back then; there were no antibiotics, and Europe hadn't developed medicine far enough to understand the cause. The plague caused many deaths; up to half of Europe died during this period. Houses and cities were empty, properties were ruined, and dead bodies were piling up everywhere. Society wanted to seek answers, but no philosophers, historians, or physicians could answer them, and this led to hatred towards certain groups of people like the Jews. The population loss caused labor shortages that provoked conflict between workers and the rich. The workers demanded higher pay and conditions since there were now few to provide food for the people, undermining the practice of Serfdom. A series of peasants revolts due to this happened in the 14th century. The labor shortage created a need for more efficient methods incentivizing technological innovations, causing more women to be in the workforce and, ultimately, gaining a higher place in society. The diseases also changed how societies approached trade. Fearing catching diseases and the desire to skip Muslim Intermediaries from the east, many civilizations turned toward the Indian Ocean trade route. The reduced volume of trade through the silk road significantly impacted the Mongol empire as trade was a significant source of income for them, reflected in their loss of control of China, Persia, and Russia.