Table of Contents Content Page Number Research Area ………………………………………………………………………..…….. 1 Introduction ……………………………………………………………………….….....….. 2 Research Paper ………………………………………………………………………….….. 3- 6 Bibliography …………………………………………………………………………….….. 7 Appendix …...……………………………………………………………………………..... 8- 10 Research Area Unit: 1 Module: 1 (Indigenous Societies) Theme: 2 (Atlantic Connections) Topic: Conquest of the Pre-Columbian Empires of the Americas Thesis: Diseases played the most pivotal role in the fall of the Aztec and Inca civilizations as diseases caused manpower reduction, political destabilization, social division, religious doubt and psychological trauma. 1 Introduction The Atlantic ocean was considered a barrier between ‘worlds’ before the development of maritime technology. There are arguments, such as the Van Sertima thesis, that suggests that Africans and Nordic people traveled to the Americas before Columbus. However, traditional concepts of ‘New World contact’ began in 1492 when Columbus stumbled upon the region. The Renaissance is the period within European history which marked the transition from the Middle Ages to the Modern Era and covering the span between the 14th and 17th century. This period is considered that of the ‘rebirth of learning’. At that time, feudalism was ended and new artists, philosophers and inventors emerged. By the 15th century, the Europeans had made large capacity boats and accompanying devices such as the mariner's compass. Similarly, the Europeans began to learn cartography and how to operate these new technologies. This specialisation in maritime learning and operation was more vast in Portugal as Prince Henry, ‘the navigator’, commissioned a school for his citizens to learn about this venture. The prince also sponsored expeditions which saw the Portuguese landing on the coast of Africa where the Portuguese began to reap great wealth from the continent. Spain became jealous of their neighbour on the Iberian Peninsula, portugal. Spain became desperate to compete with the Portuguese and decided to fund Columbus’ voyage West in order to reach Asia to spread the word of God, trade in goods, acquire gold and get glory in the name of Columbus and Spain. Columbus failed to reach Asia but instead reached the Americas which they termed the “New World”. Columbus claimed the lands in the name of Spain. However, the region was already inhabited by several groups such as the Aztec and Maya in Central America, the Inca and Tupinamba in South America and the Taino and Kalinago in the Caribbean island. The Europeans mistreated these native people so they fought fiercely to have these invaders leave their land. However, the indigenes were unsuccessful in their resistance, partly because of diseases. Diseases played the most pivotal role in the fall of the Aztec and Inca civilizations as diseases caused manpower reduction, political destabilization, social division, religious doubt and psychological trauma. 2 Research Paper The 15th century was regarded as the ‘Age of Exploration’ wherein the Portuguese made contact with the coast of Africa and the Spanish aimed to travel to India. The Spanish did not reach India but instead ‘discovered’ the Americas in 1492. Several men joined later voyages to the region with the dream of conquering lands and claiming its wealth. These Europeans found their wealth after they massacred and exploited the natives of the region. Prior to European contact of 1492, the Aztec and Inca civilizations occupied parts of Central and South America respectively (See Appendix 1 and 2). These group were regarded as vast empires which developed complex political, social and economic structures and emphasized the importance of religion (See Appendix 3). These great empires who together had millions of citizens were conquered by the Spanish in less than two decades. According to Browne and Carter (2013), the Aztecs’ conquest was led by Hernan Cortes between 1519 and 1522 while Francisco Pizarro attacked the Inca in 1930. These swift conquests are attributed to many factors including the technological superiority of the Spanish, their military leadership and diseases which swept through the “New World”. Arguably, diseases played the most pivotal role in the fall of the Aztec and Inca civilizations as diseases caused manpower reduction, political destabilization, social division, religious doubt and psychological trauma. The Aztecs and Inca suffered vast reduction in manpower following the arrival of European 1 conquistadors to the mainland of Central and South America. Newman (1976) wrote: there was no sickness; they had no aching bones; they had then no smallpox; they then had no burning chest; they then had no abdominal pain; they then had no consumption; they then had no headache. At that time, the course of humanity was orderly. The foreigners made it otherwise when they arrived here. Viola and Margolis (1991) assert that the region was never a ‘disease free paradise’ however, the Native Americans had no immunity to deadly diseases2 that the European brought such as influenza, smallpox, 1 2 Newman (1976) was cited in Viola and Margolis (p. 212) In this paper, deadly diseases are also referred to as maladies, bacteria, viruses, pathogens, plagues or epidemic. 3 measles, typhus, and cholera. The Indigenous people’s lack of immunity caused thousands of them to die in each empire while the Europeans were unaffected. Therefore, the Aztec and Inca had a high mortality rate which reached the ten thousands in the early years of battle; especially the skilled warriors who were most exposed to the Europeans. Hence, the manpower needed by the empires for battle was severely depleted by diseases; leaving them defenceless against the Spanish conquerors. Additionally, diseases played an important role in destabilizing the political landscape of the Aztec and Incan people. Crosby, et al (2003) articulate that Montezuma was reportedly captured and killed by Cortes’ men. However, Montezuma’s successor, Cuitlahuac died soon after from smallpox. The leadership vacuum within the Aztecs empire meant they were unable to adequately strategize and execute their defence against the Spanish. Likewise, Incan leader Huayna Capac and most of his potential successors died from smallpox after the Spanish arrived in the neighbouring Aztec empire. This leadership vacuum resulted in two brothers; Huascar and Atahualpa, fighting against each other to gain control over the empire. Consequently, the Inca faced political turmoil even before Pizarro landed. In wake of the political destabilisation caused by diseases, the Aztec and Inca empires were unable to unite as a people and strategize against their common enemy. Hence, diseases significantly aided the Spanish in conquering the Aztec and Inca empires by destabilising the political landscape. Diseases also acted as an agent of social division. The pathogens caused rifts in the Aztec society. There was growing mistrust between members of the Aztec society as some citizens joined the Spanish with the hope of being protected against the plague. However, social division as a result of diseases was presumably worse for the Inca. The Incan royal family, governors and army generals died from the plagues which swept the land3. The Inca previously had unchallenged leadership succession but deaths led some citizens to assert that the gods were dissatisfied with the rulers who were appointed. As a result, the Inca society was divided and a civil war ensued. Pizarro, in his journal wrote: Crosby, et al (p. 55) mentions several rulers who died to include Huayna Capac (Sapa Inca), Ninan Cuyoche (Inca son and heir), Apu Hilaquito and Auqui Tupac (governors and the Inca’s uncle and brother), Mama Coca (Inca’s sister) and other family members. Also, the army general Mihenca Mayta and most of his top men died from various maladies. 3 4 Had the land not been divided between Huascar and Atahualpa, we would not have been able to enter or win land [as we were vastly outnumbered]”4. Pizarro claimed to have exploited this division by pitting the leaders against each other while his troops infiltrated the empire and more reinforcement arrived. The society was therefore vulnerable to conquest by the Spanish as diseases incited disunity among leaders and citizens alike. Similarly, the epidemic which devastated the Aztec and Inca caused a swift wave of religious doubt to the society. The Indigenous societies placed great emphasis on their religious practices and beliefs. The Aztecs believed Huitzilopochtli was supreme and they would face great misfortune if he were displeased with them. Also, the Inca people believed that their Sapa Inca was divinely chosen as he descended from the Sun God. It is on that premise that the indigenes began to doubt their gods and believe the Spaniards’ God was superior to theirs as they saw their comrades dying from plagues while the Europeans seemed unaffected5. Subsequently, many of Indigenous people began to convert to Christianity because they saw it futile to fight against such a strong power; not necessarily the conquistadors but their God. This decision is another example of how the diseases severely affected the Indigenous people and led to their conquest. “I and my companions suffer from a disease of the heart which can be cured only with gold.” Crosby, et al (2003) cited this famous quote from Hernan Cortes as the European declaration that they would stop at nothing to conquer the ‘New World’. Some historians argue that the Spanish successfully did so because of their unmatched military might, strong leadership at various stages6 and advanced technology. Indeed the indigenes’ sticks, stones, slings, spears, bows and arrows could not contest the Spaniard’s swords, guns, cannons, horses, hounds and armoured soldiers (See Appendix 4 and 5 ). Pizarro’s words were cited in The Columbian Exchange: Biological and Cultural Consequences of 1492. Cleland and Lunenfeld (1992, p. 79) explained these arguments from W.H. McNeill in Plagues and People. 6 The Spanish Conquistadors were led by different soldiers on each expedition. Christopher Columbus ‘discovered’ and claimed most of the ‘New World’ for Spain, Panfilo de Narvaez claimed Jamaica and Cuba, Juan Ponce de Leon instituted Spanish rule Puerto Rico and tried to capture Florida; Pedro de Alvarado conquered the Maya, Hernan Cortes defeated the Aztecs, The Pizarro Brothers and Diego Almagro gained control of Inca territories and many others went in search of El Dorado. Notably, the conquistadors did not find El Dorado but stumbled on other sites during their quest- Lope de Aguirre found and captured the Margarita Island near Venezuela while Francisco de Orellana followed the Amazon River to the Atlantic Ocean. 4 5 5 However, Browne and Carter (2013) state that the Inca alone had 3.5 million citizens when the Spanish arrived. Also, the indigenes would have had prior knowledge of the local terrain. Therefore, the Aztecs and Incas could have easily disbanded a few hundred Spanish soldiers as demonstrated in the events of La Noche Triste. La Noche Triste, a s described by Worthington (2015) marked a major victory for the indigenes as they killed many Spaniards and caused others to flee to the previously conquered islands. However, this win was short-lived as disease struck soon after (See Appendix 6). Therefore, without the intervention of the epidemic, the indigenes would have been able to build momentum in resisting the Spanish. Disease crippled the indigenes and allowed the Spanish to regroup and counterattack. Hence, maladies played the most significant role in the conquest of the Aztecs and Incas. Finally, diseases caused the Aztec and Inca to suffer severe psychological trauma. It is understandable that the sight of innumerable dead indigenes combined with the thought of being abandoned by their gods took a toll on their minds. Browne And Carter (2013) say diseases caused the indigenes to lose overall morale and will to resist. Additionally, Cleland and Lulenfeld (1992) explain that the effect of psychological trauma were so severe that these once fierce people largely decided to either stop fighting and turn toward large scale suicide and infanticide to avoid both the harshness of the Spanish and the inevitability of contracting the diseases which took the lives of their family and friends. However, others converted to Christianity and joined the conquistadors on their journey to conquest in an attempt to seek the favour of the Spanish and their God. Therefore, diseases caused the conquistadors to face very little resistance near the end of their conquest. In conclusion, the Aztecs and Incas had formidable fighting forces that were crippled by disease which depleted their manpower, destabilized politics, caused social division, incited religious doubt and caused psychological trauma. Countless indigenes died, including key leaders; this caused them to be unable to unite, strategize and fight. The sight of death among indigenes also caused lost morale and religious conviction among citizens. Therefore, the conquest of the Aztec and Inca was swift and earned the Spanish land and wealth within the region. 6 Bibliography Browne, David V. C., and Henderson Carter. Atlantic Interactions: A Textbook for Caribbean History Students. Ian Randle, 2013. Print. Cleland, Joel S., and Marvin Lunenfeld. "1492: Discovery, Invasion, Encounter: Sources and Interpretations." The History Teacher 25.3 (1992): 372. Print. Crosby, Alfred W., John Robert. McNeill, and Otto Von. Mering. The Columbian Exchange: Biological and Cultural Consequences of 1492. Westport (Connecticut): Prager, 2003. Print. Viola, Herman, and Carolyn Margolis. Seeds of Change: A Quincentennial Commemoration. Washington: Smithsonian Institution, 1991. Print. Worthington, Daryl. “La Noche Triste.” New Historian, FB &c Ltd, 29 June 2015, www.newhistorian.com/la-noche-triste/4187/. 7 Appendix Appendix 1: Map of Aztec Empire Source: https://commons.m.wikimedia.org/wiki/Atlas_of_the_early_American_societies Appendix 2: Map of Inca Empire (rotated left at 90o) Source: http://faculty.montgomerycollege.edu/gyouth/FP_examples/student_examples/shruti_taneja/rotie.html 8 Appendix 3: Diagram Comparing the Social Composition of the Aztec and Inca Civilizations Source: https://www.slideshare.net/gsill/aztec-inca-comparison Appendix 4: Representations of the Aztec and Inca Weapons Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Aztec_costumes_and_arms_page_99.png 9 10 Appendix 5: Representations of the Conquistadors’ with Weapons on Horseback Source:https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baroque_horse Appendix 6: Summary of La Noche Triste Although depictions of what happened and why vary, at some point during the Aztec festival of Tóxcatl, Alvaredo’s forces attacked the Aztec revelers. The festival descended into a horrific massacre, with some estimates claiming that up to 10,000 Aztecs were killed. Once news of the massacre had spread, Aztec warriors attacked the city and surrounded the Spanish soldiers. Alvaredo managed to get word of the crisis to Cortes, whose forces quickly returned to Tenochtitlan. Once inside, Cortes realised he had made a costly mistake. The Aztecs, substantially outnumbering the Spanish forces, swiftly surrounded the city. What’s more, the Aztecs had lost all loyalty to Montezuma, leaving Cortes with no chance of calming the angry revolt. On the night of the 30th June, with water and food running low, Cortes gathered his troops and the loot stolen from the Aztec city, and ordered a secret retreat. The plan almost worked but the escapees were discovered as they tried to cross the Mixcoatechialtitlan canal. A brutal fight ensued, with hundreds of Spanish and Tlaxcalan drowning in the canal during the panic. Source: Extract from Worthington (2015) 11
