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European History
Instructor: Syed Ahsaan Ullah Shah (PSP 49th Common)
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PAPER: EUROPEAN HISTORY (100 MARKS)
Part –I (Marks 50)
I. The French Revolution and Napoleonic Era (1789-1815)
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The causes of French Revolution
The consequences of Revolution
Napoleon rise to power
Creation of Empire
The Continental system
The fall of Napoleon
II. The Concert of Europe (1815-1830)
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The Congress of Vienna
Metternich’s Era
The Concert of Europe and Congress System
Balance of Power
III. Forces of Continuity and Change in Europe (1815-1848)
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Nationalism
Liberalism
Romanticism
Socialism
Industrial Revolution
Colonialism
Cosequences
IV. The Eastern Question (1804-1856)
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The nature of the Eastern question
The Crimean War
Russo Turkish War 1877
Consequences
V. Unification of Italy
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The effects of the revolution of 1848
The obstacles to unification
Cavour and the unification of Italy
The Process of Italian unification (1859-1871)
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VI. Unification of Germany
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The rise of Bismarck
Diplomatic events
The Austro-Prussian War (1866)
The Franco- Prussian War (1870-1871)
The triumph of Bismarck and process of unification
VII. The Origins of First World War (1890-1914)
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Formation of Alliances and Counter Alliances
The Balkans War (1912-1913)
The outbreak of the World War 1
Part –II (Marks 50)
VIII. The First World War and its aftermath
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The War (1914-1918) and peace treaties
The League of Nations
IX. Dictatorships in Europe
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Fascism in Italy under Mussolini
Hitler, Nazism and Germany
Russia, Marxism Revolution and its working under Stalin
Great Depression and its effects on Europe
Appeasement
The Arms race
The Sudetenland Crisis (1938)
The distraction of Czechoslovakia (1939)
X. The World War 11and its effects on Europe
XI. Post- War Europe
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The post war settlements
The United Nations
Economic Recovery of Europe, Marshal Plan
German Question
NATO
Decolonization
XII. Cold War Europe (1955-1991)
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Effects of cold war
Warsaw Pact (1955)
The European Economic Community (EEC)
Nuclear Non-Proliferation Agreement
Charles De Gaulle and France
Spread of communist regimes in Europe
XIII. Europe (1991-2012)
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The Gorbachev and Disintegration of USSR
The reunification of Germany
The Balkan crisis of 1990s
The European Union
Role of Europe in War against terrorism
Global Economic Crisis and Europe
SUGGESTED READINGS
1. A History of Modern Europe (1789-1991)
H.L. Peacock
2. The Struggle for Mastery in Europe: 1848-1918-----------------------------A. J. P Taylor
3. The Cold War: Ideological Conflict or Power Struggle-----------------------Normali A. Grabener
4. The USSR: A Share History
Vladimir Polrtayen
5. Development in Russian Politics
Stephen White,
6. Mastering Modern European History
Stuart Miller,
7. A Text Book of European History
by Southgate, G.W.
8. Aspects of European History 1789-1980.
Stephen J. Lee
9. Europe since Napoleon
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Thompson, D.
10. European Union: European politics.
Tim Bale.
11. Modern Europe in the Making from the French Revolution to the Common
Market
Fasal, G.
12. The Norton History of Modern Europe
Gilbert, F.
13. The Origins of the Second World War
Taylor, A.J.P.
14. The Rise and Fall of Great Powers.
Paul Kennedy.
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I. The French Revolution and Napoleonic Era (1789-1815)
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The causes of French Revolution
What is French Revolution: The French Revolution was a period of major social upheaval
that began in 1787 and ended in 1799. It sought to completely change the relationship between
the rulers and those they governed and to redefine the nature of political power.
Causes:
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The consequences of Revolution
Napoleon rises to power
Creation of Empire
The Continental system
The fall of Napoleon
French Revolution: The French Revolution was a period of major social upheaval that began in
1787 and ended in 1799. It sought to completely change the relationship between the rulers and those they
governed and to redefine the nature of political power.
Causes of French Revolution:
1. French Monarchy
• Divine Right to rule
• Lack of interest in the grievances of the masses
• Louis vi (16) disinterested
• No meeting of estate general, representing the three states: Nobility, Clergy and the
commons.
2. Imbalance among the Nobility
• The Greater Nobility: 1000 families, owned wealthiest landed estates, enjoyed
exemption from taxes, got high ranks in Army and Navy, and Ambassadorship was
reserved for them alone.
• The Lesser: 99000 families, owned fewer wealthy lands, tax exception was less, posts in
Army were available but not higher ones, they envied the Greater Nobility.
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Nobility of the Robe: were officials, deprived of the facilities enjoyed by the first two,
were more interested in their own interest than in reforms.
3. Burden on peasantry:
• 2 lac nobilities ruled 23 million peasantries
• Forced to pay triple taxation: to Monarch, to Church, and to the nobles.
• Their condition was relatively well as compare to that of Peasants in other European
countries.
• Corvee tax
4. Rising Bourgeoisie:
• Leaders of Revolution
• Influenced by the Intellectuals
• Mostly urban People having professions like merchants, traders, Industrialists, lawyers,
and doctors.
• Enjoyed certain exemption but less than that of Nobility, and the clergy. No higher posts
in government
5. The Church:
• Dominated by the Catholic belief
• Protestantism was not recognized by law
• Inequality in the Church: Bishops were paid higher than that of priests
• The Clergy owned 1/fifth of French wealth
• Exempted from taxes
6. The Army:
• Division in army due to1781 law where commissioned ranks were restricted for nobility
alone, depriving the bourgeoisie
• French involvement in American War of Independence affected the minds of French
soldiers through its ideals of liberty
• They supported revolutionaries
7. Influence of Intellectuals:
The Intellectual revolution: It was patronized by the rulers like Emperor Joseph, Frederick the
Great of Prussia, and Catherine the great of Russia, who believed in the theory of divine right,
with an aim to relegate the power of clergy. Little they knew that these waves would perish
them too.
18 the century was the age of enlightenment and its special characteristics were skepticism,
rationalism, deism, and humanism.
i.
Voltaire: pseudonym of François-Marie Arouet, (born November 21,
1694, Paris, France—died May 30, 1778, Paris), one of the greatest of
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all French writers. Although only a few of his works are still read, he
continues to be held in worldwide repute as a courageous crusader
against tyranny, bigotry, and cruelty. Through its critical capacity, wit,
and satire, Voltaire’s work vigorously propagates an ideal of progress to which
people of all nations have remained responsive. His long life spanned the last
years of classicism and the eve of the revolutionary era, and during this age of
transition his works and activities influenced the direction taken by European
civilization.
• A destroyer against the institution of Church and Clergy; he believed a real
religion would be more moral and less evil and torturous.
• Was against the persecution of Protestants.
• Critical to Kings and nobles;
• He wanted wise people, philosophers like him, to assist the King; and
despised French bourgeoisie, the Aristocracy, the Commoners, and the
Church.
• Aspired English model of religious toleration;
• Despised republicanism;
• He was a Deist;
• Anything not justified by reason should be destroyed;
As long as there are fools, there is religion.
ii.
iii.
Montesquieu: in full Charles-Louis de Secondat, baron de La Brède et
de Montesquieu, (born January 18, 1689, Château La Brède, near
Bordeaux, France—died February 10, 1755, Paris), French political
philosopher whose principal work, The Spirit of Laws, was a major
contribution to political theory.
• He was more political than Voltaire
• He aimed to reduce the powers of the King and his associates like privileges
of nobility
• Challenged King’s Divine right to rule
• He challenged absolutism: there should be a system of checks and balances;
USA adopted his ideas
• Consensus should formulate laws
J.J Rousseau:
• He believed man born free Nature; should go back to that freedom
• He advocated the idea of social contract; people have surrendered teir
power to the ruler through consent
• Challenged divine rights of King
• Sympathetic to the peasants and the Bourgeoisie
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• Advocated republicanism
• Right to vote to educated and wise people
• People have the right to overthrow and revolt against a corrupt government
• Gave revolutionaries their famous slogans: Liberty, equality and fraternity.
Influence of American ideas of freedom
Influence of England
• Man is born free; govt is answerable to them; constitutional monarchy by Lockean
Philosophy
• English wardrobe
• English clubs: home to liberal ideas
Absence of National Representative institutions:
• No mechanism to address the grievances of the masses
Reluctance of Kings to Tax the nobles: Commoners over taxes; finance ministers emphasized
but ignored by the King
Princess control over King:
• She was alien;
• Unpopular among French people
• Marie Antoinette
Financial Bankruptcy of France:
• Costly wars by Louis XV
• Extravagant lifestyle by the nobles
• No mechanism for revenue generation
• Burden on peasants
Incapacity of French Monarch:
• Failed to read the growing demands of the masses
• Lack of modernity in every aspect of French society
Consequences of the revolution:
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Country wide protests in general and Paris wise protest in particular completed the
King to call the session of States General.
It equaled the power of the commoners to that of the Clergy and Nobility.
A platform for Cahiers was established to address the grievances of the third estate.
A dispute on the nature of meeting: head count or separately. It would affect the
political decision. Third estate favored head count voting. King denied; third estate
formed their own assembly, the National assembly, and invited other estates to
join; defiance to King’s authority
Due to continuous pressure of the Third estate, King called for collective meeting,
but the two estates cheated the proceedings by filling the hall with their own
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workers. It antagonized the commoners. They moved to tennis court and pledged
not to move until the constitution of the Kingdom is established.
Increase of Violence:
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Rumors spread of use of force against the third estate.
Appearance of secret societies on streets who were against the monarchy, the clergy and the
nobility.
Widespread riots were accelerated by bad harvest; bread riots
Spread of liberal ideas
Army divided; in favor of revolutionaries
Less number of police in Paris, the revolutionaries outnumbered them. (Only 1000)
Formation of National guard:
by Paris Commune earlier gathered at tennis court; established themselves at Hotel D velle
Arrival of General Minister of War Marshal Broglie: but King refused to shed blood
Capture of Bastille:
i.
A prison in east side of Paris; a symbol of monarchy’s dictatorial rule; captured by
the mob; prisoners released; a first sign of liberty.
ii.
Tricolor flag was adopted on 14 July, 1789.
Migration by the King’s brother and nobility- emigres
Paris commune session was called for undertaking reforms on 4 Aug, 1789:
i.
Old taxation system illegalized, privileges of every type of abolished, feudalism also
abolished, old administrative system also done and dusted, and was replaced by
local bodies system which divide the country into departments, districts, and
communes/divisions.
ii.
Civil constitution f the clergy introduced: church relegated from estates to state
department; properties confiscated; clergies to receive salaries from state; taxation
privileges also taken; clergy to pledge alliance to the civil constitution; it
antagonized the pope, not to accept the civil constitution of the clergy.
iii.
Women March to Versailles:
i.
Humiliation of Paris commune by King, his counsel and of the Tri color flag.
ii.
Demand to reduce the prices of bread; and forced the King and King to return as
they flew; they become the virtual prisoners of mob in the palace.
Declaration of Rights of man and the Citizens adopted on 27 the august, 1789:
i.
It included the basic rights; and freedoms; AKA magna carta of France
ii.
Provided six years suspended veto to King.
iii.
Afterwards, New Constitution was formed which incorporated the Declaration of
Rights of man and the Citizens.
iv.
King became a constitutional monarch under constitutional monarchy;
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No power over army and the Navy; executive power relegated; from absolute veto
power to six years suspensive veto;
vi.
Local bodies system’
vii.
Criteria for active citizenship was set: 25 years, one who pays tax
viii.
Dissolution of the constitutive assembly of the Paris commune, and announcement
f=of new elections
King’s flight and capture:
i.
He abrogated the constitution and tried to flee; it turned him into a traitor when he
asked other countries to save French monarchy
The Elections:
i.
Three groups turned in majority: Jacobins with 136, Feuillants with 264, and a
center with 350 deputies or members out of total 750.
ii.
Jacobins: the most famous political group of the French Revolution, which
became identified with extreme egalitarianism and violence and which led the
Revolutionary government from mid-1793 to mid-1794.
ix.
Differences between the King and the legislative assembly; the constitutionalists like
Lafayette, and the radicals like Robespierre, Danton and Murrat, passed acts aimed
at confiscating properties of émigrés ad non-jurying clergy; King vetoed
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Émigré Activities: under King’s brother Counte D Artois. They fled the country, asked
other countries to invade France
Foreign Intervention:
i.
Declaration of Pillnitz 1791: Marrie Antoinette appealed to her brother Emperor
Leopold of Austria; he issued declaration to ensure good treatment of the Queen
and King, else they will be attacked.
ii.
Prussia and Austria declared the war against France; the latter established army
under Danton.
September Massacre: The Reign of Terror:
i.
The brainchild of Murrat, supported by Robespierre, and executed by Danton, the
minister of Justice.
ii.
Under policy of terror, all prisoners and rivals were executed on guillotine, so was
King Louis XVI
War with Austria and Prussia:
Brunswick Manifesto: death to revolutionaries ; The Brunswick Manifesto was a proclamation issued
by Charles William Ferdinand, Duke of Brunswick, commander of the Allied Army
(principally Austrian and Prussian), on 25 July 1792 to the population of Paris, France during the War of the First
Coalition.[1] The manifesto threatened that if the French royal family were harmed, then French civilians would be
harmed.[2] It was said to have been a measure intended to intimidate Paris, but rather helped further spur the
increasingly radical French Revolution and finally led to the war between revolutionary France and counter-
France decided to spread its ideas: It resulted into the formation of first
coalition: Spain, Holland, Austria, Prussia, England, and Sardinia (SHAPES) from 1793-1797
The Convention (1792-95)
revolutionary monarchies.
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The constitution of 1791 failed to bring order; convention was formed to establish a new
constitution.
Convention was composed into three political groups: Firstly, the Girondins- Moderate
republicans; wanted to spread revolutionary principles in the European continent; enjoyed the
support in rural areas; lacked the support in urban areas and among Paris commune the
Proletariats who supported the Jacobins;
Secondly, The Jacobins: extremist revolutionaries, had organized secret clubs, wanted to
establish a democratic and political democracy; Danton, Robespierre and Carnot were its
prominent leaders.
Thirdly: The Plain or the Moracs: they lacked any fixed policy and took decisions spontaneously.
The Jacobins replaced the Girondins from the convention; executed the infamous Reign of
Terror, to crush all internal insurrections and opposition by the Institution of terror by following
mechanisms:
i.
The Committee of Public Safety: mainly to crush dissidents,
ii.
The Law of Suspects: tried all who were suspected to hostile to the convention; In
consequence, thousands of Royalists and Moderates were guillotined.
iii.
Danton wanted to stop the revolution abroad and reign of terror in France; criticized
and Guillotined;
iv.
It was followed by a Thermidorian coup, plot to end Robespierre, he was sent to
guillotined too
Napoleon Rise to Power:
The Revolutionary and Napoleonic wars: (1795-1799)
The Directory (1795-1799)
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Death to Robespierre; fall of communes and the Jacobins in the convention; another
constitution of France was made
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A republican form of government; universal suffrage was denied; vote to tax payers
only; two governing bodies: council of elders and counsel of 500-they would
propose laws but would be passed by the counsel for elders; day to day matters
would be dealt by the Directory of five person- executive organ of the new
republican govt; one member to retire each year to discourage totalitarianism.
Due to following reasons, the Directory failed: corrupt directors; internal strife- royalists were
dissatisfied with the law of 2/3; socialists wanted socialism; unresolved financial crisis- paper
money resulted in inflation.
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Arrival of Napoleon Bonaparte on the screen:
Insurrections by the Jacobins and the Royalists against the convention;
They were against their systematic exclusion from the convention.
Order of fire was issued by the young artillery officer Napoleon Bonaparte; he also played his role in
foiling the Babeuf Conspiracy- a revolutionary hero who wanted to bring real socialism in France;
wanted to bring communism in France; he along with his friends to stage a plot to seize power; he failed
and was sent to guillotine.
The Directory and the War:
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Two front strategies against the first coalition: to hit Southern Germany and the Northern Italy;
The End of First coalition (179five): Victories for France in Rhineland, Northern Italy and Spain;
Prussia and Spain made peace with France
England would be dealt afterwards. Northern Italy command was given to Napoleon Bonaparte.
He successfully defeated the forces of Sardinia and Austria.
Differences emerged in the ranks of the First coalition: between Russia and Great Britain over
GB’s right of search of ship at seas; Russia joined the armed neutrality group against Britain
along with Prussia, Sweden, and Denmark.
Napoleon Bonaparte, A man of Destiny
He was ambitious, knew his strengths, was extremely popular with soldiers and possessed a rare
combination of a soldier and statesman.
‘Great ambition is the passion of a great character.’ Napoleon Bonaparte
‘Imagination rules the world.’
Victory belongs to the most perseverant.
His Early Life:
Born in Corsica, 1769; sent to military academy of Brienne and Paris; was dismissed in 1792; jailed after
the fall of Robespierre; helped the convention twice against the Royalist coup and riots; regained his
post in 1793; He impressed the Directory and Carnot with his views and actions; It won him the
command of the army of Northern Italy.
The Italian Campaigns:
‘Honor, glory and wealth.’ That is what he promised to his soldiers.
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He used his revolutionary ideas to get the support of Italian people who were fed up with the
corruption of status Quo
First forced Piedmont to surrender
Moved to Milan; then forced Austria for peace
This was time when Napoleon was getting famous while the Directory were getting unpopular at home.
To gain control of middle east which was under British control, he was offered the command of Egypt.
He succeeded initially; later on, faced consecutive defeats, in Mediterranean, and the Italy also lost back
too Austria and Russia in Amiens, city of France.
Due to growing riots in the country against the rule of Directory, he left for France where he staged the
Coup of 18 Detat of Brumaire.
Weak position of France on all fronts- weak economy, widespread riots, losing territories to the
second coalition succeeded in driving the France from Italy, Switzerland, and German states back to
Rhine frontiers.
Napoleon was supported by the council of elders, counsel of 500, not by the directory.
He formed a committee to establish the new constitution.
The Consulate:
Consisted of 3 consuls;
he was the first consul;
enjoyed immense power; Executive, control over army, and administrative.
legislative body became a tool in his hand;
Only check on him was the term of his tenure: 10 years
He changed the local government system setup by the revolution from decentralized to centralized one.
Back to the control of Paris.
He shifted the loyalties of officers from central government to himself.
It was a centralized govt under the first council at Paris.
Military victories:
Defeated Austria in Austria and Germany (that day Prussia) and Russia, except Britain.
Seized back the lost treaties of 1797 under Treaty of Campo Formio from Austria.
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England Continued to humiliate France on various military fronts.
He adopted armed neutrality with Czar Paul 1 of Russia to enhance allies.
He convinced Denmark to stop the trade of British maritime; however, Britain punished Denmark with
military defeat and restarted the trade.
Era of Peace under the peace of Amiens(1802)
Britain and France decided to halt the war; consecutive wars had affected the trade of Britain
Britain restored French territories and colonies in Malta, Egypt, and recognized French boundaries as
they existed in 1802.
It also culminated in to the end of second coalition.(1799-1801) The War of the Second Coalition (1798–1802)
was the second war on revolutionary France by most of the European monarchies, led by Britain, Austria and Russia, and
including the Ottoman Empire, Portugal, Naples and various German monarchies, though Prussia did not join this coalition
and Spain supported France.
Their goal was to contain the expansion of the French Republic and to restore the monarchy in France. They failed to
overthrow the revolutionary regime and French territorial gains since 1793 were confirmed. In the Treaty of Lunéville in
1801, France held all of its previous gains and obtained new lands in Tuscany, Italy, while Austria was granted Venetia and
the Dalmatian coast. Britain and France signed the Treaty of Amiens in March 1802, bringing an interval of peace in Europe
that lasted for 14 months. By May 1803 Britain and France were again at war and in 1805 Britain assembled the Third
Coalition to resume the war against France.
Creation of Empire
In 1802, he was made first consul for life, and in 1804, he was elected the Emperor of France through a
plebiscite; Crowned by the Pope; Pope was humiliated.
After consolidating peace with Britain, napoleon utilized his energies on the reconstruction of France.
Legal Reforms:
Judges to be appointed by the central government.
The Code Napoleon:
is the French civil code established under the French Consulate in 1804 and still in
force, although frequently amended
A legal reform, civil code, which would stand at the core of French society.
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Patriarchy was dominant; family the foundation of French society.
Trial in public by jury
Religious toleration was incorporated
State controlled education injected militarization in the curriculum
It replaced the vacuum left by feudal laws.
Code of Criminal Procedure
Penal Code
The constitution of the Consulate
The centralization of the local govt system
Financial Reforms:
Tax collection increased
Austerity measures to curtail expenditures
Bank of France was established]
Imposed the expenses of war on his enemies under Extra ordinary Domain, fund fir indemnities from
vanquished territories.
Meritocracy was practiced: even émigrés were hired
Policy on Emigres:
Emigres were granted Pardon. Allowed to return; appointed on key public posts.
Cordial relation with the Pope:
Civil constitution derived the Pope and Clergy from earlier benefits.
Napoleon befriended Pope to win the support of Catholics, who were in majority; and Pope had support
in the rural areas. Napoleon was famous in urban areas mainly.
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The Concordat: It restored some of the powers of the Pope; salaries of the clergy was restored;
Catholicism was declared the religion of France.
Non-jurying clergies were released.
Educational Reforms:
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A new system of education was introduced
Secondary schools, both private and public, came under the control of Central govt.
High school in every town
State controlled technical schools were established
Christianity in general and Catholicism in particular were ingrained in the curriculum
Material to enhance French nationalism was incorporated
General reforms:
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A chain vast infrastructure of highways, canals, bridges was laid down.
Agriculture was promoted by bringing marshy lands under cultivation
A new class of nobility was created due to high agricultural output; it gave a major support to
the empire.
Renewal of War:
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Napoleon imposed tariffs on British goods, continuous presence of French spies in Egypt, refusal
of Britain to evacuate from Malta and to recognize the French occupation of Austrian
Netherland played its role in the renewal of war between the Britain and France.
Formation of the Third Coalition (1803-1806): The War of the Third Coalition was a European conflict
spanning the years 1803 to 1806. During the war, France and its client states under Napoleon I, defeated an
alliance, the Third Coalition, made up of the United Kingdom, the Holy Roman Empire, the Russian Empire,
Naples, Sicily and Sweden.
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It was aimed at ushing France back to its original boundaries, out of Belgium, German states, and Italy. Russia
aimed for the Balkan Peninsula, and the Austria, its lost territories.
The coalition was strong at sea, but weak at land.
Faced defeat at the battle of Trafalgar,180five at the hands of British navy.
At Austerlitz, 1805; France defeated Austria and Russia, and forced heavy fines on Austria
under treaty of Press burg (30 lakh foreign population to France and Venetia, and major
important territories)
Forced Prussia to end her neutrality in economic competition between France and Britain with
an aim of British blockade.
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Napoleon’s Dynastic Policy:
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After the battle of Austerlitz, France captured many territories; he gave them to his close aides,
mainly relatives; Queen of Naples was his Sister Joseph, His brother Joseph became King of
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Spain in 1808. Louis Bonaparte (Brother) as King of Holland and Marshal Murat as the head of
German Confederation (Confederation of Rhine).
He broke the Holy Roman Empire and made the Confederation of the Rhine comprising of 39
states, and took allegiance of military support from them.
He also forced the Francis II (2) to abandon the title of Holy Roman Empire.
Continental System
Overseas trade was the core strength of Britain which was helping it to rule the order of that day and
finance the expensive navy;
Napoleon sensed it and therefore decided to hit the strength of Britain: its economy.
Berlin Decree (1806): by Napoleon to ban all his allies from trade with Britain, to confiscate all British
goods present in the continent; to announce the blockade of British Isles.
The lion wanted to hit the shark.
In retaliation Britain started funding European monarchs to deter the French advance. (Pitt’s Gold)
Milan Decree (1807) France make it mandatory for all British bound ships to have a stop at France
before going to Britain. It expanded the blockade of continental ports to those of neutral ships trading with
Britain and eventually affected U.S. shipping.
Treaty of Tilsit, 1807, between France and Russia: France allowed Russian control from Finland to
Sweden in return of Russian support in Continental system.
Prussia was deprived of her half population in lands it ceded to France.
Effects of Continental System:
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British Export shrank from 40 million pounds to 35 million in 2 years.
British Grain import fell to its lowest 5 pc at 1807 level
Reduced demands for manufacturers led to low wages, and unemployment.
Three consecutive bad harvest affected the British agriculture sector
To avoid inflation, 3 days week was introduced in Lancashire.
France was also hit by the continental system. British blockade of all countries who accepted
continental system
France was deprived from foreign goods.
Napoleon forced Denmark to accept CS; Britain punished Denmark; bitter relation between
Denmark and France.
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Napoleon fought with those who refused to give up their neutrality: fought with the pope city;
added papal city into Italy, and Holland was added into France.
Scarcity of essential items in Europe pushed smuggling to its highest level.
It resulted in inflation, high prices, and in consequence, shrank the popularity of Napoleon.
Napoleon fought with Portugal too in Peninsular war 1808 over the issue of crowning his
brother Joseph in place of the Spanish King. Britain and Portugal fought collectively till 1814.
War with allies too: Bernadotte, Prince of Sweden, went against Napoleon.
Russia refused to support France on Continental System anymore; it compelled napoleon to
attack Russia; the deadly Moscow campaign cost Napoleon the loss of the cream of French Army
in 1812. He sent 450000 forces, with 250,000 killed, 100,000 prisoners. The brutal weather
conditions were a new thing to Napoleon.
War of the Fourth Coalition, 1813 1814: Britain, Russia, Austria and Prussia against France.
Napoleon was defeated at Battle of Leipzig (Battle of Nations) 1813
Napoleon was exiled to Island of Elba;
Louis xviii was restored; he gave the first constitution as a monarch in Europe.
•
Treaty of Chaumont, (1814) treaty signed by Austria, Prussia, Russia,
and Britain binding them to defeat Napoleon.
•
Third coalition forces invaded France; Napoleon agreed his abdication, and sent to exile;
•
Treaties of Paris, (1814–15), two treaties signed at Paris respectively in
1814 and 1815 that ended the Napoleonic Wars.
Napoleon had abdicated as France’s emperor in April, and the victorious
Allies, even after nearly a quarter century of war, gave generous terms to
France under the restored Bourbon dynasty.
France was allowed to retain its boundaries of Jan. 1, 1792, keeping
possession of the enclaves annexed in the early years of the French
Revolution.
France was restored the majority of its foreign colonies, but Tobago
and Saint Lucia in the West Indies and the Île-de-France (now Mauritius)
in the Indian Ocean were ceded to Great Britain.
The second treaty between France and the Allies, of Nov. 20, 1815, was
signed in an altogether different spirit from the first. Napoleon had
escaped from Elba and been welcomed by the French, and, consequently,
war between France and the Allies had resumed and continued until
Napoleon was defeated at the Battle of Waterloo
•
•
•
•
•
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•
Napoleon ended the Holy roman Empire and formed the confederation
of the Rhine: Confederation of the Rhine (1806)
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
The Confederation of the Rhine was a confederation of German client states at the behest of the First
French Empire. It was formed from parts of the Holy Roman Empire by Napoleon after he defeated Austria
and Russia at the Battle of Austerlitz. Napoleon forced the Francis II to abandon the title of Holy Roam
Emperor.
Francis II, the last Holy Roman emperor (1792-1806) and, as Francis I, first emperor of
Austria (1804-35). Also reigned as King of Hungary (1792-1830) and King of Bohemia (17921836). Involved in the wars of the French Revolution and in the Napoleonic Wars.
Treaty of Tilsit,1807 b/w France and Russia. France supported Russian control in from
Finland to Sweden in return of support in the Continental system.
Berlin Decree,1806 by Napoleon to start Continental system. To weak Britain economically
Milan Decree 1807, All ships going to British ports through French territorial waters to be
confiscated.
Peninsular war 1807: Portugal refused Berlin Decree. Attacked by France and Spain. Revolt
in Spain against the Pro- French monarchy
Iberian Peninsula: b/w Spain and Portugal.
Josephine, first wife of Napoleon. He divorced her to marry the daughter of Austrian
Emperor: Archduke Marie Louise.
Failure of Continental system
Moscow Campaign,1811. Napoleon attacked Russia. The latter burnt all the cities. France
won but lost its cream of forces. Thousands of French forces killed on their return from
Russia at the river of Berenice. Only 20000 left out of 60000 or 600000
The war of liberation or German campaigns, 1813: Napoleon taste his own medicine; Prussia
joined Russia and England against France.
The battle of Nations; 1813. Napoleon captivated. Austrian and Russian Forces entered
Paris. Treaty was signed. No compensation demanded.
Louis 18 was proclaimed as the King of France.
Napoleon Imprisoned on the Island of Elba
He fled the island. New war. Defeat to Napoleon. At Waterloo in Belgium, Napoleon
Bonaparte suffers defeat at the hands of the Duke of Wellington, bringing an end to
the Napoleonic era of European history. The Corsica-born Napoleon, one of the greatest
military strategists in history, rapidly rose in the ranks of the French Revolutionary Army
during the late 1790s. He was sent to St Helena. Where he died in 1821
Treaty of Chaumont, (1814) ( Months before Napoleon’s first
abdication)treaty signed by Austria, Prussia, Russia, and Britain binding
them to defeat Napoleon. The British foreign secretary
Viscount Castlereagh played a leading part in negotiating the treaty, by
which the signatories undertook not to negotiate separately, and promised
to continue the struggle until Napoleon was overthrown. The treaty
tightened allied unity and made provision for a durable European
settlement.
Congress of Vienna 1815:
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Congress was hosted by Austria; headed by its chancellor Metternich
Leading Personalities of the Congress of Vienna:1815
•
•
•
•
•
•
Tsar Alexander 1 of Russia
Emperor Francis 1 of Austria
King Frederick William 1 of Prussia
Metternich- Chancellor of Austria
Lord Viscount Castlereagh- British Foreign secretary
Talleyrand- representative of France
Principles on which the Congress based its settlement:
Principle of Legitimacy- rightful rulers to their old states, Metternich
•
Rightful rulers to their old places:
i. Bourbons in France, Spain, House of Orange in Holland, the House
of Savoy in Sardinia and Piedmont. ND House of Tyrol in Austria.
ii. However, it was set aside when did not suit the convenience of the
big powers; many old German states were not restored; nor were
the republic of Genoa and Venice.
Principle of Balance of Power:
i.
ii.
iii.
German confederation was made; divided between Prussia and Austria, under
Austrian dominance.
Reduced Italy to a mere geographical expression, Belgium was put under Holland,
Poles were given to Russia and Italians to Austria in return of relinquishing her
claims over the Netherlands. Lombardy and Venetia (Italian territories) were given
to Austria to compensate her loss of Belgium.
Britain took French territories, ignoring principle of legitimacy
The Principle of Nationality Ignored:
Principle of nationalism was ignored:
i.
ii.
iii.
Polish nationalism was shattered by giving half of it to Russia.
Italy was given to Austria
Norway was annexed to Sweden
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iv.
v.
Catholic Belgium was annexed to a protestant Holland: both had nothing in
common-economy, traditions, languages
Germany was turned into a loose confederation
Additional work of the Congress of Vienna
•
•
Slave trade was proposed to be banned by the Great Britain
Rules for International rivers were also adopted regarding navigation.
The Congress aimed at proposing a mechanism to ensure peace, and to avoid any revolution or liberal
movement in the future in the continent. Thus, two more documents were signed at Vienna.
The Concert of Europe and Congress System:
Concert of Europe, in the post-Napoleonic era, the
vague consensus among the European monarchies favoring
preservation of the territorial and political status quo. The term
assumed the responsibility and right of the great powers to intervene
and impose their collective will on states threatened by internal
rebellion. The powers notably suppressed uprisings in Italy (1820) and
Spain (1822) but later condoned Belgium’s rebellion and proclamation
of independence (1830).
i.
The Holly Alliance:
• Idea propounded by the Tsar Alexander 1; Christianity: all princes are brothers, and
their subjects their children; all Christian nations are one family. Austria and GB
opposed it. Joined by Prussia.
The Quadruple Alliance:1815: Concert of Europe: a joint action to stop future wars; joined by Prussia,
Austria, GB and Russia; its objectives were:
•
•
•
•
•
Peace in Europe
No family member of Napoleon ever rises to power
To check France and its revolutionary ideas
To maintain BOP
To meet periodically to discuss international issues
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The Age of Metternich, 1815–48
The 33 years after the end of the Napoleonic Wars are called in
Austria—and to some extent in all of Europe—the Age of Metternich. The chief
characteristics of this age are the onset of the Industrial Revolution, an
intensification of social problems brought on by economic cycles of boom and
bust, an increasingly mobile population, more demands for popular participation
in government, and the rising tide of nationalism, all watched over by
governments intent upon preserving the social, political, and international status
quo.
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Metternich’s Postal conventions: all foreign correspondence to pass through
Austria; he received every information of foreign diplomats;
Laid the chain of spies and secret police to crush revolutions and nationalist
movements.
Metternich and Germany:
Kept German confederation, AKA the BUND, a loose confederation under Austrian
control.
Ratification of Carlsbad Decrees: arrest of patriotic groups from German
universities; tightened the grip on press; Federal govt was empowered to intervene
in BUND.
Metternich and Spain: Ferdinand was restored in Spain in 1815; revolution for
resuming the constitution; Ferdinand asked for help of great powers; France was
allowed to help Spain under treaty of Verona, 1822. Crushed the rebellion
Crushes the Polish independence movement in 1830. He portrayed it as a fight
between peasants and the landlords.
Restricted Italy to a mere geographical expression under Congress of Vienna;
Crushed the 1848 revolutions in Italy
Metternich and Russia: Czar Alexander was under the influence of Metternich; he
considered him his master; Alexander could not help Greece when suppressed by
the Ottomans.
France was encircled with Iron Ring.
Invented the Congress system: to settle all issues of peace in Europe
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Congress diplomacy:
Aix La Chappelle,1818: Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle, (October 1–
November 15, 1818), the first of the four congresses held by Great
Britain, Austria, Prussia, Russia, and France to discuss and take
common action on European problems following the Napoleonic
Wars (1800–15). This congress (held at Aix-la-Chapelle—now Aachen,
Germany) was attended by Alexander I of Russia, Francis I of
Austria, Frederick William III of Prussia, and their representatives.
Great Britain was represented by Viscount Castlereagh and by the duke
of Wellington. Armand-Emmanuel, duke de Richelieu, represented
France.
• France was allowed to join the Concert of Europe;
• Allied troops withdrew
•
The later congresses were held at Troppau (1820)
• Revolts in Spain, Portugal, and the Kingdom of Two Sicilies in
1820:
• Austria was allowed to crush dissident in Naples.
•
Laibach (1821):
It was related to the affairs of Naples as the new leader had
refused the constitution came due to Revolution; Austria and
Russia collectively punished the leader of Naples. They crushed
the Naples Government.
• and Verona (1822).
Greek Question:
Greek revolt; support by Russia; Refused by Austria; Britain also
rejected Russian stance.
Spanish Question: Ferdinand was helped by France to crush
dissidents.
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End of Metternich Era: 1848
•
February revolution in 1848; aged Metternich; consecutive suppression made people immune to
any fear; protests; Metternich resigned; and fled.
3.Forces of Continuity and change:
i.
The former contains reinstating of monarchs
(Bourbons in France, Spain, House of Orange in Holland, the House
of Savoy in Sardinia and Piedmont. ND House of Tyrol in Austria.
ii.
Church powers
•
•
•
iii.
iv.
v.
vi.
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(Church again got its power and influence)
Civil constitution relegated the might of the church; later
on, Napoleon balanced it;
After the fall of Napoleon, it was reinstated, but to limited
extent (lost its grip on education)
•
Socialism:
After the French revolution, the dominant feudal class lost their
estates; they were distributed to the middle class, especially to
peasants; It deflected people from the agriculture sector towards
industrial sector.
Vibrant Nationalism:
• In post French revolution, nationalism started to dominate
the continent’
• Polish nationalism,
• Belgium nationalism and its independence from the
Netherlands
• Greek war of Independence from Ottoman Empire
• Unification of Italy and the Unification of Germany
Colonialism:
In post fall of Napoleon, about 4 crore Europeans migrated to
different part of the world; to South Africa, Australia, USA etc.
• European civilization spread throughout the world;
consisting 1/3rd of human race.
Overpopulation
• Decline in death rate also increased the population
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•
Cure from epidemic disease also saved people from
epidemics
• Development in science also enhanced the living
standards, and hence, increased the longevity of life.
vii. Industrial Revolution:
Instead of making things by means of tools, set in motion by man’s
physical strength, it became more and more common to make
things by machinery, set in motion by steam.
• Application of steam power to machinery for production
and then for transport ignited the Industrial revolution.
• Growing demand of Iron to make steam engine
• Growing demand of coal to make the steam
• Industrialization led to the rise of new class: Bourgeoisie,
• Industrialization encouraged urbanization; fall of
agriculture sector; rise of new issues: housing issues, low
wages, harsh working conditions
• Rise of capitalist industrialists, labor unions and railway
companies.
• European countries started to lay down railway tracks to
speed up the transport of goods.
The forces of change included high population, industrialization
, and urbanization, nationalism.
viii. Era of romanticism- celebration of nature, beauty, imagination
rejected industrialization, organized religion, children and rural
life.
• Labor unions were the reflections of romanticism: good
treatment of humans
• Ideals were made and attached with identity like
nationalism. It allowed the philosophers to influence the
minds. Revolutions like July revolution, Greek revolt
against the Ottoman empire and other similar events
were also due to romanticism.
• It also encouraged liberalism in every sphere of life against the constraints of
social bonds, and religious constraints.
Back to nature. Romanticism influenced political ideology, inviting engagement with the
cause of the poor and oppressed and with ideals of social emancipation and progress.
The individual was prized, but it was also felt that people were under an obligation to
their fellow-men: personal commitment to the group was therefore important. Sep 21, 200
What are the 5 characteristics of romanticism?
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Terms in this set (5)
•
•
•
•
•
Interest in the common man and childhood.
Strong senses, emotions, and feelings.
Awe of nature.
Celebration of the individual.
Importance of imagination.
•
•
ix. Colonialism:
Europeans race for acquiring more colonies to feed the growing population at home
and to out pass rival states in terms of wealth.
Black Africa was colored with European flags.
The Eastern Question:
Unification of Italy
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Unification Of Italy:
•
•
•
•
•
Roman Empire in 100 BCE;
100 AD Holy Roman Empire- Occidental (West) Roman Empire and Orient (East) Roman
Empire.
500 AD; weakening of the Western Roman Empire; Eastern Roman Empire prevailed under the
name of the Byzantium Empire.
Byzantium Empire ended after the fall of Constantinople to the Ottoman empire.
Italian Peninsula was the core area of Roman Empire.
Throughout Italy, one stroke of pen has erased all our liberties, all our reforms, all our hopes.’ Mazzini
on Congress of Vienna
Napoleonic era:
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•
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•
Napoleon was welcomed with joy; he expelled the Bourbon monarchy from Naples;
imprisoned the pope; and the influence of Austria was completely driven out.
Napoleon allowed Italians to enjoy key posts; love for Napoleon ended when he had started
taxing Italian states to recover military loses.
Napoleon allowed the Italian states to start trade relations; it enhanced their
interdependence.
It introduced them the concept of Nationalism
Congress of Vienna:
•
•
•
•
Lombardy and Venetia were given to Austria to compensate her loss of Belgium. After 1815,
Austria had a direct control in Lombardy and Venetia and an indirect control in Parma, Modena
and Tuscany.
Austria generated 1/4th of its wealth from Lombardy and Venetia, which had only 1/8th of
population.
Piedmont and Sardinia were given to the Hapsburgs Dynasty (Austrians)
Kingdom of Sicily to Bourbon Dynasty (French)
Risorgimento-resurgence or revival of Italy or of Romans.
Italian strategic edge: Alps Mountains and surrounded by the water.
Main Personalities of the Unification of Italy:
i.
ii.
Mazzini’s Young Italy Movement:
• Founded in 1830, from 40 members to sixty thousand members in 1848
• He mainly focused on the social and moral aspect of the Italian
nationhood.
• He aimed for a republic and unification; for him, Italy need unity, and that
can be achieved only under a republican government.
• Used his writings;
• Failed in 1848 revolution; Shrewd policy of Metternich to crush nationalist
movements.
• his republican ideology- no kings but Presidents elected;
Carbonari -charcoal Burners formed by Mazzini
• Secret organizations 1800 -31.
• Mainly active in Sicily
• Their aims were
1) Italians should rule Italy, not outsiders like France;
2) were against the Bourbon Rule.
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iii.
3) Not aimed at Unification but self-rule.
•
Count Cavour
• Camillo Benso, the real name of Count Cavour.
• Founder of newspaper: Risorgimento, the Resurgence or the rebirth.
•
• Alias Camillo Benso, PM of Piedmont and Sardinia under King Victor
Emmanuel II; published Risorgimento.
• Unification of Italy under Piedmont and Sardinian rule;
• He aimed for a monarchy, not republic like Mazzini’s Young Italy
Movement
Phase 1 of Italian Unification
•
Crimean war (1853-1856)
a. Fought between Russia v/s Ottomans, France, and Britain
b. Russia wanted to get control of middle east at the expense of Ottoman
empire; to protect the orthodox Christians from the Ottoman empire.
c. Cavour participated by sending the forces of piedmont and Sardinia.
d. Got the sympathy of France and Great Britain by expressing the plight of
Italians against Austria by participating in the Peace Conference of Paris,
1857.
• Astute diplomatic maneuvers:
Convinced France for help if attacked by Austria; knew the need
of strong military backup to cope Austria threat; Piedmont was
weak. In return, France got Nice and Savoy, west to Piedmont.
• War between Austria and Piedmont in 1859.
• Austria demanded demobilization from Sardinian troops;
Sardinia refused
• Austria was defeated; France supported the Piedmont;
Lombardy was liberated and it joined Piedmont and Sardinia.
Lombardy joined Piedmont and Sardinia in 1859. Beat Austria with France help
Phase 2 of Italian Unification: 1860 onwards
•
•
•
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Flames of unification reached Parma, Tuscany and Modena as
they also demanded liberation from Austrian rule.
Rebellion reached the three states; supported by secret efforts
of Cavour.
Austria asked for help but denied by France, and Great Britain,
thanks to Cavour’s speech at the peace conference in Paris, post
Crimean war.
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•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Cavour proposed a plebiscite; P+M+T joined the Kingdom of
Piedmont.
Other small states also joined the Kingdom of Piedmont and
Sardinia.
Now following states are left to complete unification of Italy:
Papal state, Naples and Sicily and Venice.
Cavour could not afford to attack Sicily as it was under the
control of Spanish branch of Bourbon dynasty.
To this, Garibaldi was the answer, the head of the Red Shirt
movement; expert in guerrilla warfare; he convinced Garibaldi
to attack Sicily which was done; Cavour convinced France that
Garibaldi is anarchic and not his man; Cavour convinced that he
will fight the red shirts to take care of Sicily.
Garibaldi was inspired by Mazzini for republican ideas not with
Cavour’s monarchy
Now only Venice and Papal states are left to join.
Plebiscite I Parma, Modena and Tuscany against Austria; PMT joined the Kingdom of Piedmont and
Sardinia.
Garibaldi’s Red Shirts. Cavour asked him to attack Sicily and Naples. And convinced France that he will
take care of them. Garibaldi was inspired by Mazzini for republican ideas not with Cavour’s monarchy
Phase 3: 1866-71:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Cavour died in 1861
King Victor Emmanuel II integrated Venice and Rome.
Made an alliance with Prussia, against Austria.
Battel of Sadowa 1866 seven weeks war
Venice a war trophy to Italy
Franco Prussia war; Weak France encouraged Italy to convince France to withdraw forces from
Papal state (Rome City)
Pope was provided Vatican City.
Battle of Sedan, 1870; between Franco- Prussia war, Rome was captured in 1871.
It completed the process of the Unification of Italy.
First Italian parliament was opened in Turin, 1861.
Unification of Germany:
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Treaty of Olmutz, 1850: Prussia accepted Austrian leadership over German Confederation.
Frankfurt parliament
Blood And Iron speech by Bismarck
Confederation of Rhine by Napoleon (1806-1813)
•
•
•
A league of 16 German states, except Prussia and Austria
To make it as a buffer zone against Austria and Prussia
It enhanced nationalism; more connectivity among German states
•
•
Fall of Napoleon; end of Rhine Confederation.
Battle of Liepzig,1813: successful coordination among German states against France on military
and political fronts.
Role of Romanticism:
i.
Johan Gottlieb Fichte, a German patriot and writer; envisaged a German nation
state. Dies in 1814
ii.
The Wanderer above the sea of Fog, painting by Casper David Friedrich (use of art to
portray German nationalism)
iii.
National song by Poet Hoffmann Von Fallersleben; German above everything’ in
German
•
Congress of Vienna,1815:
•
Confederation of Rhine broke into German Confederation of 39 German States AKA the BUND.
Diet, its Parliament, under Austrian dominance, Prussia on second.
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•
North Germany was mainly Protestants under Prussia; South Germany was occupied by
Catholics under Austria.
Zollverein (Customs Union) First Attempt to unify Germany
•
•
•
Among German States. Enhanced interdependence
Tariffs were removed; economic activity enhanced interconnectivity
Industrialization also helped the Zollverein to become a success story.
1848 revolution:
•
•
•
•
•
•
Widespread nationalist movement encouraged the German states to gather at the Frankfurt. It
was named as Frankfurt Assembly
All 39 states send their delegates to Frankfurt; became Frankfurt Parliament
It symbolized first political unification of Germany.
Need for Constitution was felt; Prussia was in favor; Austria was not as it would relegate its
influence in the German Confederation.
It aimed for a constitutional monarchy; the Frankfurt Parliament offered the crown to Prussian
King Frederick William. He refused; as it was constitutional monarchy.
Frederick William IV died in 1861; replaced by William 1; he appointed Otto von Bismarck as PM
The Rise of Bismarck:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
He was handpicked by Willian 1
He was a real example of Machiavellian principle: the ruler should rule pragmatically and use all
the means at his disposal to achieve the interests of state.
He was against liberals; they were idealist to him
Banned Socialist Democratic Party, but started Europe’s first social program which included
health insurance, accidental insurance, and old age insurance.
To control liberals:
i.
He subjected the catholic church to state control and governance.
ii.
Kulturkampf (German for culture struggle) religion was separated from German identity
iii.
Liberals wanted industrialization so dd Bismarck to enhance military strength,
iv.
Override Parliament on various occasion to increase the military spending.
v.
Due to this, King was happy due to string Army.
Iron and Blood
i.
Prussia would consolidate smaller neighboring states; then would attack Austria
ii.
Later, it would convince German people living inside Austrian control that weaker
Austria cannot protect them in the wake of French threat.
Schleswig Prussia:
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i.
•
•
•
Schleswig (North) and Holstein (South) in North of Germany under
Denmark;
ii.
German speaking states in Denmark
iii.
Bismarck convinced Austria to annex this area collectively
iv.
Prussia and Austria defeated Denmark; annexed Schleswig (to Prussia) and
Holstein (To Austria).
v.
Holstein became a sandwich between Prussian states
vi.
Prussia claimed itself as North German Confederation from German
confederation.
vii.
From 39 states of German confederation, only two states remained: North
German Confederation under Prussian rule and Austria.
Austria Prussia war 18sixty six:
i.
Austria defeated; France thought to help; later withdrew as Bismarck promised vast
lands in return to which Bismarck refused later on.
ii.
Seven weeks of war and early victory over the mighty army of Austria made Prussia a
great military power, Austria week, and France scare.
The Quest of winning the Germans living in Austria:
Germans living in Austria, south German confederation despised Prussia; Bismarck wanted
France to attack Prussia, as it would tantamount to attacking the whole German nation.
Bismarck Provoked France:
i.
Dispute between France and Prussia over the Spanish candidature; Prussia proposed
Leopold of the house of Hohenzollern, German in nature; France refused as it did not
want to be surrounded by enemies.
ii.
To protest, French ambassador protested to King Willian 1 of Prussia about the Spanish
plan; Bismarck edited the telegram in which he stated that William 1 insulted French
ambassador; printed it in newspaper; it was received in outrageous manner in France;
France attacked German confederation Franco Prussia war,1870. German
confederation defeated France;
iii.
Bismarck heavily defeated France: took the land of Alsace Lorraine and money of about
five billion France.
iv.
It completed the Unification of Germany as remaining states also joined the German
confederation under Prussian rule.
Bismarck and Germany: 1870 to 1890
Pre 1870 era was used by Bismarck to tackle external challenges
Post 1870 era was used to tackle internal challenges of Germany
Formation of the Constitution of German Empire:
•
Unified Germany came under Prussian control
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•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Constitution was introduced
It was bicameral: the Bundesrat (Senate): 58 members nominated by states; rejection by 14
member was a veto; Prussian states had 17 seats. A type of veto
The Reichstag: 400 members to be elected by universal manhood; more than half were enjoyed
by Prussia; was less powerful than that of senate.
Ministers were answerable to the emperor, not to the Reichstag
King of Prussian became German Emperor; had control over Army, appointed officials and the
Chancellor; Reichstag was toothless tiger, yet it was a gentle step toward democracy
Power was devalued: strong local government system; Bismarck kept only those areas which
were essential for German broader interest: Army, Navy, foreign Affairs, taxation, trade and
railways.
He was neither in favor of liberalism nor supported conservatives: shifted policy as per needs.
Support to liberals for industrialization, Support to conservatives when the liberals demanded
more reforms in the Reichstag.
Bismarck stopped the way of the Church who wanted state education under the control of
Church. Kulturkampf: the clergy was brought under state control.
Bismarck and Socialism:
i.
Influence of Karl Marx’s ideas in Germany
ii.
Bismarck sensed that his real adversary is not the Church but the Socialists.
iii.
Formation of Socialist democratic Party in 1868. They won got half a million vote in
elections of 1877; 12 out of 400 members in Reichstag
iv.
He introduced the Exceptional laws to outlaw the socialist Democrats; parliamentarian
immunity allowed them to speak. In 1914, Socialists were the majority in the Reichstag.
Bismarck and Protectionist Policies:
i.
He believed the iron of Alsace and Lorrain is enough for Germany
ii.
Imposed tariffs on imports; in angered the National Liberal Party; welcomed by the
conservatives because it suited the agriculture sector.
iii.
Bismarck expressed antisemitic views to weaken the liberals.
Bismarck and Colonies:
i.
Initially, Bismarck was against the need of colonies;
ii.
Later he changed his policy; aimed at extracting cheap raw material form colonies like
in Africa and Pacific. Then selling them back. Only Germany would be allowed to extract
ad sell. The race of colonies brought Germany in direct confrontation with many
countries like France, and Great Britain.
Bismarck and Foreign Policy:
• Relation with France:
i.
ii.
•
Indemnity of war on France after Franco-Prussian war was 20 crore Francs
Bismarck though France would fall to pay; but French people paid the amount, German forces
withdrew; France started building its army again
The League of Three Emperors (1873-1880):
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i.
•
•
Among Austria, Germany and Russia to support each other against any socialist revolution and to
settle the eastern question related to the Ottoman Empire.
William Ewart Gladstone, British Statesman and Liberal Politician; served as PM of UK, spread over four
terms beginning in 1868 and ending in 1894;
The Dual Alliance, 1879: between Austria and Germany; to support each other if Russia or France
attacked Germany or Germany is attacked by any other party.
•
The Triple Alliance, 1882: between Germany, Austria and Italyi.
•
Italy wanted Tunis which was under control of France; three pledge to support each other if
attacked by any state; Italy will not involve if anyone attacked by Great Britain, reason behind Italy
not joined Austria and Germany in WW1;
The Dreikaiserbund Treaty, 1881- between Austria, Germany, and Russia. If attacked by fourth
clause, Britain; Bismarck promised neutrality in case of war with Britain;
I. Matters related to the question of Bulgaria were also discussed/
ii. it was terminated in 1887 with the rise of issues in Balkans
•
•
•
The Secret Renaissance Treaty, 1887, between Russia and Germany; Germany would remain
neutral if Russia is attacked by anyone; Austria remained ignorant about this treaty as they were in treaty
under triple alliance.
Death of Willian 1, succeeded by his son Frederick 3, who died later on succeeded by his son Wilhelm
II anglicized as William II, was the last German Emperor (Kaiser) and King of Prussia, reigning from 15
June 1888 until his abdication on 9 November,1918. Afterwards monarchy abolished, Weimar republic?
Wilhelm, 2, was against Bismarck’s policies, He favored more colonies abroad; Bismarck resigned .
The Origins of First World War (1890
1914)
Formation of Alliances and Counter Alliances:
The Dual Alliance by France and Russia in 1893 to check the Triple alliance; Germany, Austria and Italy
i.
It nullified the secret reinsurance treaty between Germany and Russia; Germany now was
facing two front threats in form of France and Russia; After Bismarck, who was pro Russia,
Russia was convinced who is her real friend.
Armenian massacre under Turkish dominion in 1896; Britain demanded punishment to Ottomans for
violating the good conduct it pledged in 1876; other powers ignored; Britain started to feel isolation.
Boer War between Dutch and Great Britain in South Africa- The Second Boer
War (11 October 1899 – 31 May 1902), also known as the Boer War, Anglo-Boer War, or South
African War, was fought between the British Empire and two independent Boer states, the South
African Republic (Republic of Transvaal) and the Orange Free State, over the Emp ire's influence
in South Africa. Germany’s moral support with Dutch; British isolation reaffirmed
•
Germany increased its spending to strengthen the Navy; a direct signal to British might
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Dispute between France and Great Britain over Egypt, France and Italy over Tunis, and GB and Germany over
east Africa
Competition in far east too- China, Japan, GB occupation of Fiji land, Germany and America divide Samoa b/w
them, New Guinea controlled by Germany in 1884
Russia’s Trans-Siberian Railway to get control of north Chinese market
The Anglo Japanese Alliance, 1902: Japan Great Britain alliance, 1902: Any attack on them in far east will be
dealt collectively.
Revolution in Japan in 1850’s: it adopted the German model of Constitution; equipped its army on
modern lines from the assistance of Germany; moved from feudalism to capitalism; from absolute monarchy to
lose monarch; from bows and arrows to rifles and field guns.
Japan-Russia war. 1904-1905;
iii. over imperial ambitions in Manchuria and Korea; mainly victories for
Japan; Japan became Great Britain’s friend.
Anglo –French Entente,1904
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
Understanding not a treaty, support each other if anyone is attacked; it was as a
secret arrangement.
France would recognize British occupation in Egypt
Britain would support French claims in Morocco.
King Edward of Britain was in favor
• First Moroccan crisis, 1905- 1906:
iv.
Call for a conference by Kaiser, German Emperor, as he unveiled the secret
clauses of the Cordial entente b/w GB and France;
v.
Algeciras Conference, (Jan. 16–April 7, 1906), international
conference of the great European powers and the United States,
held at Algeciras, Spain, to discuss France’s relationship to the
government of Morocco.
vi.
France and Spain were given policing rights of Morocco
vii. Germany to share equal powers with Great Britain, France, and
Spain in State Bank of Morocco.
viii. The conference climaxed the First Moroccan Crisis (see Moroccan
crises).
• Anglo-Russian Agreement and the Formation of Triple
Entente,1907:
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vi.
vii.
Peace between Russian, France and Great Britain;
GB resolve its issues with Russia in Far east, knowing Japan was
powerful enough to stop Russia
viii. They all now had a common enemy: Germany.
• Berlin Baghdad railway by Germany would allow Germany to reach
Russian frontiers.
i.
To counter that, GB and Russia resolved their issues: Russia
relinquish its control over Afghanistan: GB would control its foreign
policy trading rights equal for all.
ii.
In Persia, Russia gained the control of northern Persia.
The Second Morocco Crisis, 1911:
i.
The Agadir Incident, 1911: Pro French Sultan faced protests around the
country; he asked for help; French help given; Kaiser outraged and
called it violation of Algerica,1906; mobilization of troops; Germany
was given French Congo to give its claims in Morocco.
Young Turks, Turkish Jöntürkler, coalition of various reform groups that led
a revolutionary movement against the authoritarian regime of Ottoman
sultan Abdülhamid II, which culminated in the establishment of a constitutional
government. After their rise to power, the Young Turks introduced programs that
promoted the modernization of the Ottoman Empire and a new spirit of
Turkish nationalism. Their handling of foreign affairs, however, resulted in the
dissolution of the Ottoman state.
Balkan league-Greece, Montenegro, and Bulgaria:
War against Turkey, defeat to OE, Treaty of London,1913.
OE lost most of the Europe, especially the control over Balkans
Balkan wars, 1912 1913:
• Success of the Young Turk Movement encouraged the Bulgarians to declare their head as
Czar; and them, independent;
• It angers Austria and she ends the protectorate states of Bosnia and Herzegovina into
Austrian Empire, stopping Serbia to get these Serb populated region.
• It stands Serbians and Austrians eye to eye; Germany declares its support for Austria,
and Russia, for Serbia.
• Second Balkan War:
i.
Bulgaria claims the part of Macedonia which Serbia refuses
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ii.
Bulgaria attacks Serbia but face defeat to the alliance of Serbia, Rumania and
Turkey.
The Outbreak of the World War 1:
• Austria asks Italy to collectively attack Serbia, which she refuses, but Kaiser
makes a Promise.
• Archduke Ferdinand, heir to Austrian throne, killed on his visit to Sarajevo,
capital of Bosnia, (28 June ,1914 under Austrian control; by a Serb Bosnian
student. Austria declared war on Serbia on July 28 1914.
• Russia started mobilization of its forces; Germany warned her to
demobilize; and then attacked on 1st August, 1914.
• Germany demanded to declare its neutrality; France refused as it had
secret treaty with Russia; Germany declared war on France too on 3 rd of
August, 1914.
• Britain tried everything to avoid war; Germany attacked Belgium ( a
defiance to the neutrality treaty of Belgium in 1839); Britain declared war
on Germany on 4th of August, 1914.
• Major battles: were fought on using trench warfare along the western
route. First battle of the Marne, Battle of the Somme, battle of Tannenberg,
battle of Gallipoli and the Battle of Verdun.
PART : 2
VII: The First world War and Peace treaties:
World war came to an end with the defeat of central powers ((Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Turkey) at
the hand of the Allied Powers (Great Britain, France, The United States, and the Soviet Union)
Initially, America followed the direction of staying neutral; in 1916, Germany started sinking the civilian
submarines it found in war zone. This compelled USA to jump into war against Germany. The German
telegram to Mexico to seek support of Mexico in the war in favor of giving her its lost territories to
America in the 19th century was also the factor. Americans from all backgrounds prepared themselves
for conscription to fight in overseas.
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The Paris Peace Conference:
Conference was the formal meeting in 1919 and 1920 of the victorious Allies after the end of World War I
Purpose:
•
To set the peace terms for the defeated Central Powers.
Dominated by the leaders of Britain, France, the United States and Italy,
•
it resulted in five controversial treaties that rearranged the map of Europe and parts of Asia, Africa and the
Pacific Islands and imposed financial penalties. Germany and the other losing nations had no voice which
gave rise to political resentments that lasted for decades.
Major Peace Treaties:
i.
Treaty of Versailles, 1919
ii.
iii.
iv.
Treaty of Saint Germain, With Austria, 1919
Treaty of Neuilly with Bulgaria, 1919
Treaty of Trianon, with Hungary, 1920
v.
Treaty of Versailles: 1919
•
The Treaty of Versailles, signed in June 1919 at the Palace of
Versailles in Paris at the end of World War I, codified peace terms
between the victorious Allies and Germany. The Treaty of
Versailles held Germany responsible for starting the war and
imposed harsh penalties in terms of loss of territory, massive
reparations payments and demilitarization.
Terms of the treaty of Versailles:
Territorial Clause:
Germany lost its territories:
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
Alsace and Lorraine to France
Euen, Moresnet and Malmedy to Belgium
North Schleswig to Denmark (After a Plebiscite)
Main port of West Prussia to Poland
Memel was given to Lithuania.
Lose to German colonies:
i.
Germany’s African colonies given League of Nation mandates
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Military Clauses:
i.
ii.
iii.
Germany army to be limited to 100,000 with no conscription.
No tanks, no armored cars, military aircar fats or submarines
Rhineland to be demilitarized.
War Guilt Clause:
Germany was held sole responsible for war
Germany to pay reparation
Establishment of the League of Nation (1919):
Treaty of Saint Germain, 1919:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Held between the Allied powers (France, The USA, Great Britain, and Italy) and
Austria.
It dissolved Austria Hungary empire and created the state of Republic of Austria.
Austria agreed to surrender Czechoslovakia, Bohemia, Moravia, and many more
territories.
The treaty prohibited Anschluss (Union between Germany and Austria) without the
consent of League of Nations.
Poland got Austria Galicia; Rumania got Bukovina
Yugo Slovakia got Bosnia.
She lost one third territory and population
Austria surrendered her naval force; army was reduced to 30000 volunteers.
Treaty of Neuilly: (with Bulgaria) 1919
•
•
Bulgaria was asked to cede its major territories to Yugoslavia.
Bulgaria was required to pay a reparation of 40 million dollars.
Treaty of Trianon ( with Hungary)
•
Instead of addressing the causes of war, it imposed heavy penalties on Germany
which led to the rise of ultra-nationalists groups like the Nazi Party later on.
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Treaty of Sèvre (1920):
• post-World War I pact between the victorious Allied powers and
representatives of the government of Ottoman Turkey.
•
The treaty abolished the Ottoman Empire and obliged Turkey to renounce
all rights over Arab Asia and North Africa. The pact also provided for an
independent Armenia, for an autonomous Kurdistan, and for a Greek
presence in eastern Thrace and on the Anatolian west coast, as well as
Greek control over the Aegean islands commanding the Dardanelles.
Rejected by the new Turkish nationalist regime, the Treaty of Sèvre was
replaced by the Treaty of Lausanne in 1923.
Treaty of Lausanne, (1923):
• final treaty concluding World War I. It was signed by representatives
of Turkey (successor to the Ottoman Empire) on one side and
by Britain, France, Italy, Japan, Greece, Romania, and the Kingdom of
Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes (Yugoslavia) on the other. The treaty was
signed at Lausanne, Switzerland, on July 24, 1923, after a seven-month
conference.
• The treaty recognized the boundaries of the modern state of Turkey.
Turkey made no claim to its former Arab provinces and recognized British
possession of Cyprus and Italian possession of the Dodecanese. The Allies
dropped their demands of autonomy for Turkish Kurdistan and Turkish
cession of territory to Armenia, abandoned claims to spheres of influence
in Turkey, and imposed no controls over Turkey’s finances or armed
forces. The Turkish straits between the Aegean Sea and the Black Sea were
declared open to all shipping.
Conference of Genoa, (April 10–May 19, 1922):
Post-World War I meeting at Genoa, Italy, to discuss the economic
reconstruction of central( Germany, France, Austria) and eastern Europe and to
explore ways to improve relations between Soviet Russia and European capitalist
regimes.
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Dawes Plan, 1924:
• Vice President of USA; economic in nature;
• Reparation for Germany made easier as Germany was unable to pay its
debts.
• Withdrawal of French troops from Ruhr.
Pact of Locarno, (Dec. 1, 1925):
•
Series of agreements whereby Germany, France, Belgium, Great Britain, and Italy
mutually guaranteed peace in the western Europe.
It was also agreed that France would help Poland and Czechoslovakia if Germany attacked them.
The agreements were greeted with enthusiasm all over Europe, and the reconciliation between
France and Germany was referred to as the Locarno honeymoon.
Kellogg-Briand Pact, also called Pact of Paris, (August 27, 1928):
multilateral agreement attempting to eliminate war as an instrument of national
policy. It was the most grandiose of a series of peacekeeping efforts after World
War I.
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League of Nations:
Idea coined by US President Woodrow Wilson in his fourteen points which stated that an independent
organization should be formed to Guarantee the independence of states, both great and small.
This league was adopted at the Peace Conference of Paris and became an integrated part of treaty of
Versailles.
Had twenty-six articles and a covenant (constitution)
Initially only the allied members were its part, later more were added in 192six
Geneva, Switzerland was its Headquarter.
The Aims And Objectives of the League of Nations:
1. The Need to maintain Peace
2. To protect the territorial Integrity of states:
Napoleonic wars and then German Aggression had devastated the boundaries
of Europe.
3. To Promote Diplomacy: lack of diplomacy was the cause ofWW1.
4. Reduction of Arms Race: Defeated states were disarmed; Allied powers to look
after their arms production. Establishment of Disarmament Commission.
5. Mandate system to the League of Nations of the states taken by Germany,
especially in Africa and Asia.
It was form to ensure peace in the world
A triumph for liberalism
World body to ensure peace.
Causes of the Failure of the League of Nations:
•
•
•
•
Hawkish nature of LON: It lacked provisions of conflict resolution
No right to self-defense was given.
Absence of major powers like Germany and the US.
Silence on Corfu incident
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i.
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
In 1923, Greek bandits killed 3 Italian people under Greek territory; Mussolini
retaliated by bombing and occupying the Greek Island Corfu; later LON ordered
the Greek to compensate Italy.
Failed in implementation of armament plan.
It allowed states to leave the league in case of violation.
Non democratic nature: unanimous decision by the council.
Silence on Japanese invasion of Manchuria in 1931
Italian invasion of Ethiopia 1935; LON imposed sanctions on Italy, but Italy stood firmed.
German Annexation of Austria in 1938: sheer violation of treaty of Versailles that prohibited the
reunion of Germany and Austria. Nazi rulers were appointed (1938)
German annexation of Sudetenland (Czechoslovakia) 1938: Germany annexed Sudetenland and
net year annexed the whole Czechoslovakia in Germany. LON approved the annexation by
appeasing Hitler.
World Disarmament Conference 1932:
The Conference for the Reduction and Limitation of Armaments of 1932–1934 (also known as the
Geneva Disarmament Conference) was a failed effort by member states of the League of Nations,
together with the United States, to accomplish disarmament.
.
Japanese attack on Manchuria(1931):
Conflict in Asia began well before the official start of World War II. Seeking raw materials to fuel
its growing industries, Japan invaded the Chinese province of Manchuria in 1931. By
1937 Japan controlled large sections of China, and accusations of war crimes against the
Chinese became commonplace.
The Great Depression:
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The Great Depression of the late 1920s and ’30s remains the longest and most
severe economic downturn in modern history.
Lasting almost 10 years (from late 1929 until about 1939) and affecting nearly
every country in the world, it was marked by steep declines in industrial
production and in prices (deflation), mass unemployment, banking panics, and
sharp increases in rates of poverty and homelessness.
In the United States(the epicenter), where the effects of the depression were
generally worst, between 1929 and 1933 industrial production fell nearly 47
percent, gross domestic product (GDP) declined by 30 percent, and
unemployment reached more than 20 percent. By comparison, during the Great
Recession of 2007–09, the second largest economic downturn in U.S. history,
GDP declined by 4.3 percent, and unemployment reached slightly less than 10
percent.
There is no consensus among economists and historians regarding the exact
causes of the Great Depression. However, many scholars agree that at least the
following four factors played a role.
The stock market crash of 1929.
• Stock prices jumped to all time high; every one started buying shares even
people of ordinary means. Some even mortgaged their homes to buy stock.
• It led to the price of stocks on margin; their purchase price was financed
with loans to be repaid with profits generated from ever-increasing share
prices.
• Once prices began their inevitable decline in October 1929, millions of
overextended shareholders fell into a panic and rushed to liquidate their
holdings, exacerbating the decline and engendering further panic. Between
September and November, stock prices fell 33 percent.
• Consumer spending and investment curtailed; less industrial output; job
losses
Consequences of Great Depression:
•
•
•
Economic pressure compelled Japan to attack Manchuria to seek its resources
Harsh economic conditions at home made the Weimar Republic infamous; led to rise of Hitler.
Failure of the Arms Disarmament Conference (1932); Arms spending increased from 3.5 to
around 5 billion US dollar.
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•
•
Anti-Comintern Pact, agreement concluded first between Germany and Japan (Nov. 25,
1936) and then between Italy, Germany, and Japan (Nov. 6, 1937), ostensibly directed
against the Communist International (Comintern) but, by implication, specifically
against the Soviet Union.
The major Axis Powers were Germany, Italy, and Japan. The alliance began to form in
1936. First, on October 15, 1936 Germany and Italy signed a friendship treaty that formed
the Rome-German Axis. It was after this treaty that Italian dictator Benito Mussolini used
the term Axis to refer to their alliance.
Eastern Question
Danube River: It rises in the Black Forest mountains of western Germany and flows for some 1,770
miles (2,850 km) to its mouth on the Black Sea. Along its course it passes through 10 countries:
Germany, Austria, Slovakia, Hungary, Croatia, Serbia, Bulgaria, Romania, Moldova, and Ukraine.
Roman Catholic and Greek Orthodox believers both believe in the same God. 2. Roman
Catholics deem the Pope as infallible, while Greek Orthodox believers don't. ... Roman
Catholics believe that Mary is free from original sin, while Greek Orthodox believers don’t. (French
Roman Catholic Church, Russia Greek Orthodox church
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Balkan’s countries: Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, Kosovo, Macedonia, Montenegro,
Serbia and Slovenia.
Greek Revolution of 1820s: AKA Greek war of independence against Ottoman empire b/w 1821 and
1830s; It resulted in the establishment of an independent Kingdom of Greece in 1831.
Crimean war 1853-1856; Fought by Russia against OE, France, Britain, and Sardinia (Italy). Russia
defeated
Balkan Crisis 1875-78: AKA the Great Eastern crisis; uprisings in the OE’s regions; resulted into
clashes; peace ensured by the intervention of intl. powers; OE agreed good treatment of its Christian
subjects in Treaty of Berlin July 1878
Balkan wars: Four Balkan states defeated the OE in 1912 (the Kingdoms of Bulgaria, Serbia, Greece and
Montenegro
Hellenism – a sense of Greek nationality
Turks conquered the Constantinople, the capital of Byzantium empire in 1453
In 1653, it committed a failed attempt to conquer the Vienna
18th Century and relegated status of Ottoman Empire:
Russia wanted the complete dissolution of OE; to replace it; get access to warm water ports and access
to black sea and the Mediterranean
Great Britain favored OE to keep Suez Canal open for Indian Trade
Austria feared Russian control in the Balkans; it also feared the Slavic Nationalism which lived under OE
rule.
OE had the control of 8 million subjects in Europe; and about 238,000 sq Miles territory
France had interests in North Africa that was under OE control
Affairs of the Eastern Question:
Phases of Eastern Question:
i.
•
•
•
The Greek War of Independence(1821 32)
Growing power of Greeks middle class made them resilient to face the OE
They were inspired by political ideas
Prince Ypsilanti and Moldavian revolt (1821); He aimed at removing the Greek authority
imposed by the OE in Romania; Turks suppresses the revolt
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•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Rigas, famous Greek nationalist poet. Executed by the OE
Role of Hetaira Philike, or Association of Friends in 1814. In Greek independence
Morean revolt; execution of Muslims in the south Greek, around twenty-five Thousand Muslims.
In reaction, Turks committed the Christian’s massacre in the North of Greece.
Battle OF Navarino, 1827; Ottoman’s ships sunk against the forces of GB, Russia; Turks were
them forced to defeat; Turks recognized the Greek independence
Russo Turkish War 1829: OE faced losses; gains for Russia:
Treaty of Adrianople, 1829.
i.
Territories of Georgia, Eastern Romania, and near the mouth of Danube
ii.
Access to free passage through the straits for all merchants in peace time
iii.
Moldavia and Wallachia became protectorate states of Russia
iv.
An Autonomous Greek state to be established
Big Powers decided to form an independent state as it would deter Russian influence
Sultan accepted the approval; Greek got its independence in 1832 with Prince Otto of Bavaria as
its first King.
Rigas, famous Greek nationalist poet. Executed by the OE
Role of Hetaira Philike, or Association of Friends in 1814. In Greek independence
•
•
Ali Pasha, Lion of Janina, Sultan of Janina, Adriatic coast.
Bad terms with the Sultan; he wanted to establish his own destiny
The Problem of Mehmet Ali in Egypt:
•
•
•
•
•
•
He wanted compensation for the loss of Moria promised to him; he then eyed on Syrian posts;
Sultan refused.
His son captured Syria by defeating the Turks forces.
defying Sultan’s commandments. His son Ibrahim:
Sultan asked GB and France for help; they refused;
Russia came to the rescue; he wanted to snatch OE from the West;
GB and France sent their forces near to Constantinople and asked Sultan to give Mehmet Syria,
Damascus and Palestine.
The Crisis of 1839 1841:
•
Sultan sent his army to Syria to attack Mehmet; but faced defeat;
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•
•
•
GB called the London conference in which southern Syria was offered to Mehmet; Which was
refused by Mehmet
GB sent its fleets to Crete, Alexandria and Acre; Mehmet defeated;
Another London Conference called; Syria was given back to Sultan; Mehmet becomes the
hereditary ruler of Egypt.
Russian Policy and The Crimean War 1854-56
•
•
•
•
•
•
After 1841, Russia lost all its patience against OE; it called it the Sick man of Europe
Offered Britain to take Egypt ad Crete and Russia would Occupy Constantinople temporarily;
Independence of the Balkans would be guaranteed by the Powers;
Russia asked for better treatment of the orthodox subjects of the OE
Controversy on the control on the Holy Places of the Christianity in Palestine between France
and Russia; OE recognized France as real authority; Russia protested
It decided to stage a war in 1854
It was fought between Russia v/s OE, France, Britain and Sardinia
Treaty of Paris, 1856:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
The Black Sea was neutralized; no military ship nor naval activity to be allowed
Open for all nations
Danube was also internationalized
Moldavia and Wallachia to be independent, but hey would pay tribute to OE
Russia to give up claims of the protector of orthodox subjects of IOE
E to guarantee good treatment of the Christian subjects; it was short lived; Russia violated the
Black Sea clauses; followed by Armenian massacre by the OE
Russia Turkish war; defeat to Turkey
Events leading to the Congress of Berlin, 1878:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Sultan refused his pledges of good conflict
Poor governance, maltreatment of Christian minorities became increasingly common
Armenian massacre; nationalist revolt in Turkish part of Bosnia and Herzegovina; later followed
by Serbia and Montenegro.
Russia, along with Romania, Serbia, Montenegro, and Bulgaria attacked Turkey; defeated
Treaty of Stefano: divided Bulgaria into two in Russian favor;
Britain angered over this settlement
Britain called for a congress:
i.
Called for Turkey to declare Christians and Muslims equal
ii.
Big Bulgaria was divided into three.
iii.
British gained Cyprus from Turkey in compensation
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•
•
•
•
iv.
Bosnia and Herzegovina to Austria, but Serbs never accepted the Bosnian rule.
Greek got its dependence in 1832
Britain got Cyprus in 1878, and Egypt in 1882, and acquired the mandates of Palestine and Iraq
after world war I.
France took over Syria and Lebanon in 1920;
Turkey, the heart of OE, won recognition as an independent republic in 1923.
Prince Ypsilanti and Moldavian revolt; Macedonians failed; Turks suppresses the revolt
Morean revolt; execution of Muslims in the south Greek. In reaction, Turks committed the Christian’s
massacre in the North of Greece.
Battle OF Navarino, 1827; Ottoman’s ships sunk against the forces of GB, Russia Turks were them forced
to defeat; Treaty of Adrianople, 1829.Turks recognized the Greek independence
In 1832, complete independence was granted, Prince Otto van Bavaria Rule
Palmerstone, British Foreign Secretary Lord Palmerston, in full Henry John
Temple, 3rd Viscount Palmerston, of Palmerston in the County of
Dublin, Baron Temple, of Mount Temple in the County of
Sligo, byname Pam, (born October 20, 1784, Broadlands, Hampshire,
England—died October 18, 1865, Brocket Hall, Hertfordshire), English WhigLiberal statesman whose long career, including many years as British foreign
secretary (1830–34, 1835–41, and 1846–51) and prime minister (1855–58 and
1859–65), made him a symbol of British nationalism.
Treaty of Unkiar Skelessi, 1833 Between Russia and Ottoman Empire; In times of war, Only Russia would
be allowed in the Black Sea with its warships; Palmerstone was critical to this; he reversed the treaty in
International agreement, signed in 1841, on access
to the Black Sea; it denied passage in peacetime to non-Ottoman
warships through the Straits connecting the Mediterranean and Black
seas. Sultan agreed to close Bosphorus-a strait separating Asia from
Europe.
1841 after straits convention.
The Black Sea is a marginal sea of the Atlantic Ocean lying between Europe and Asia; east of the Balkans in
Southeastern Europe, south of the East European Plain in Eastern Europe, west of the Caucasus, and north of
Anatolia in Western Asia. It is supplied by major rivers, principally the Danube, Dnieper and Don. Wikipedia
London Conferences of 1839-1841: for control over Syria between Mehmet Ali and Sultan
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Crimean war 1853: Russia fought to protect the Ottoman’s Christian subjects; It faced defeat against the
alliance of OE, GB, France, Piedmont
The phrase ‘Sick man of Europe’ was first used by the Russian King Czar Nicholas 1 in 1841
Aegean Se b/w Turkey and Greece
Florence Nightingale (1820-1910), known as “The Lady with the Lamp,” was a British nurse, social reformer and
statistician best known as the founder of modern nursing. Her experiences as a nurse during the Crimean War were
foundational in her views about sanitation.
Czar Nicholas 1 was replaced by his son Czar Alexander 2 who was anxious to bring about new result;
Treaty of Paris1856, in post Crimean war scenario. Black sea was neutralized; Moldavia and Walachia were
independent-to pay Turk’s tribute though’
Red Sultan, Abdul Hamid 2
Treaty of Stefano after OE vs Russian war; Disraeli called for the cancellation of the Treaty of Stefano because it
made Ottoman Balkan into two parts, bigger portion of Bulgaria under Russian control; call for a congress in Berlin:
Congress of Berlin,1878 Bismarck supported Great Britain against Russia
Treaty of Berlin,1878; divided big Bulgaria into three parts; north most to Belgian prince; east to central district to
Eastern Rumelia, and remaining Bosnia and Herzegovina, to Austria; leading cause of ww1.
Fascism in Italy Under Mussolini (191845)
Background:
•
•
Unification of Italy and rise of Italy as a power in Europe.
•
On April 26, 1915, Italy negotiated the secret Pact of London by which Great Britain and France
promised to support Italy annexing the frontier lands in return for entering the war on the Entente
side. On May 3, Italy resigned from the Triple Alliance and later declared war against Austria-Hungary
at midnight on May 23.
•
WW1 brought economic political destructions, especially at treaty of Versailles.
When World War I began in July 1914, Italy was a partner in the Triple Alliance with Germany and
Austria-Hungary, but decided to remain neutral. However, a strong sentiment existed within the
general population and political factions to go to war against Austria-Hungary, Italy’s historical enemy.
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•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
In post WW1 scenario, disappointment from the Treaty of Versailles added with the uncertainty
of govts which saw five governments during 1917 to 1922.
Benito Mussolini founded the Italian Fascist Party in 1919; won thirty-five seats in elections in
1921.
Riots in Italy over the frustration of incompetent govt, misgovernance, and the pain of treaty of
Versailles.
The fascists march to Rome to crush the insurrections, with silent nod of the King Victor
Emmanuel.
The King asked Mussolini to form a government; In 1922, Mussolini forms his government.
Initially, he was driven by socialist ideology; he failed in 1921 elections; then gave up his socialist
ideas, and adopted the idea of private property and enterprise.
It earned him the support of wealthy class;
He made speeches revered to the church; it earned him the support of the Pope Pious xi, seeing
him as the good communist weapon.
In the phase of 3 years, Mussolini swung from extreme left to extreme right.
Italy under Fascism:
i.
A stable and Authoritarian government:
a. After the war, democratic govt failed to deliver; people were fed up of the so much talk
and less work
b. To keep workers riot under control, he established a separate of Corporate State: a
system where each branch of economy had a separate organization of workers and
employers, to be led by the govt. representative, with an aim to keep socialists in
control.
ii.
Extreme Nationalism:
a. Through press, Italian nationalist programs and news were aired to enhance the sense
of Italian nationalism among the masses, to relegate the sympathy for socialism.
b. Besides that, providing uniforms to the fascist supporters, making songs and displays of
them on streets in support of Mussolini.
A One-Party System was established:
a. Too many parties turned the parliament into a loose parliament; no decision was
coming out.
b. Need for one party rule was felt where work would be more revere then talks.
c. Fascism was its answer.
Economic self-sufficiency was aimed: to keep Italy self-sufficient.
Military strength and violence were integral parts of the Fascist regime:
a. Domestic opponents were suppressed with impunity; persecution of opposition leader:
Giacomo Matteotti, a socialist leader, and of Giovanni Amendola by the fascist thugs.
b. ‘Peace is absurd: fascism does not believe in it.’ Was the mantra.
iii.
iv.
v.
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vi.
vii.
viii.
ix.
x.
xi.
xii.
c. Military spending was increased.
Legalized his private army:
a. King provided him special powers;
b. He legalized his private army: National State Voluntarily Militia (NSVM).
Election laws were amended to consolidate more power:
a. A party with more votes will have one third seats in the assembly
b. He won the elections of 1924
c. He was now answerable only to the King, not to the Parliament.
d. The Electorates were restricted from 10 million to 3 million, mainly the wealthiest ones.
Changes in Local government system:
a. Elected counsels and mayors were abolished and towns were run by officials appointed
from Rome.
Education was supervised:
a. Believe, Obey, fight. Became the anthem of schools.
b. Oath of loyalty was taken from uniformed teachers.
c. Textbooks started to glorify fascist regime
d. Encouragement of students who would criticize anti-fascist teachers.
e. Military parades in schools became compulsory.
Employment Policies:
a. Effective Corporate State in 1934 of 22 corporations, each dealing with a separate
industry, each one included a government official among its members and there was a
minister of Corporation in charge of whole system.
b. He provided workers free Sundays, annual holidays with pay, social security, sports,
theatre facilities, cheap tours and holidays.
Cordial relation with Pope:
a. Unification of Italy had brought papal states under Italy; continuous clashes between
Fascist Thugs and the Catholic Scouts;
b. Mussolini was an Atheist; was aware of the catholic church influence in the country.
c. He declared the Catholic faith as the official state religion; religious education was made
compulsory in schools; compensation was paid to church for all its losses; Vatican City
was recognized as sovereign country; In return, church recognized the fascist
government, with a promise not to interfere in politics.
Racial Policy:
a. He was critical to anti-Semitic views;
b. It was only when he joined Hitler that he started crushing them;
c. He used to stop the Jews fleeing from Germany into Italy.
Opposition and Downfall:
•
•
Despite numerous problems, Mussolini successfully continued his reign due to check on media,
which portrayed him as a hero.
His entry into second world war on the side of Germany: Italians were against the war; they
accused Mussolini of siding with Hitler and blindly following his footprints like policies on Jews.
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•
•
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Italy turned out to be the satellite state of Germany.
Army lacked modernization: obsolete rifles and artillery; only a thousand planes, and no heavy
tanks.
Declaration of war against America haunted Italian bankers, and industrialists who aimed at
closer economic conditions.
War brought heavy expenditures; public had to bear the brunt by paying additional taxes;
inflation; 30 percent fall in wages;
Consecutive defeats to Italy in North Africa (May 1943) Troops surrendered.
The Fascist Grande Council turned against him; he was sacked; fascism disappeared.
Hitler, Nazism and Germany
•
•
•
•
•
•
1918: defeat to Germany in the World War 1;
King Kaiser, Wilhelm II appointed a new chancellor, Prince Maximilian of Baden in 1918
Resentment over treaty of Versailles among German people. Kaiser escaped to Holland and Prince Max
resigned.
To bring order in the country, Friedrich Ebert, a leader of the Left-Wing Social Democrat Party (SPD)
became head of the government and announced the elections. 1919 Elections brought the Social
Democrat in Power.
Elbert became the President and established the Weimar Republic, a town in Germany; in berlin,
conditions were not normal to conduct governmental sessions.
Weimar constitution gave its name to the Weimar Republic, and functioned until 1933
when destroyed by Hitler.
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Why did the Weimar Republic Fail?
It began with serious disadvantage:
•
•
•
People were unhappy with the provisions of the Treaty of Versailles (Ruhr was taken from
Germany)
Army was of the opinion that they have been backstabbed by the civilian population as they
were not fully defeated and the civilian leadership announced the surrender.
Rise of Multi-party system under Weimar republic; progress on any issue became a rare thing.
(Less work, more consultation).
Outbreak of Violence:
•
•
•
•
•
The Spartacist Rising, 1919: A failed attempt by the communists to seize power.
The Kapp Putsch (March,1920) : Right wing group attempted to abdicate the Weimar Republic
and replace it with an autocratic government. Army refused to take action against them; Many
of them joined Hitler afterwards.
A series of Political assassinations: supported by the right-wing groups; govt was unable to
respond.
Hitler’s Beer Hall Putsch, 1923: Hitler aimed to take control of the Bavarian state govt in Munich
to revenge the French occupation Ruhr, and then lead a revolution to overthrow the Weimar
republic; He was stopped by the Police; sentenced to five years but served only 9 months as the
officials had sympathy with his ideas.
Expansion of the number of Private Armies: from 1924 onwards, number of private armies
continued to boiled down when the Weimar republic found some stability; however, after the
Great depression, they swelled resulting into direct street fights between the Nazis and the
Communists.
Foreign Policy of the Weimar Republic:
Dawes Plan, 1924: Vice President of USA; economic in nature; reparation for
Germany made easier; withdrawal of troops from Ruhr;
Pact of Locarno, (Dec. 1, 1925), series of agreements whereby Germany, France, Belgium,
Great Britain, and Italy mutually guaranteed peace in western Europe.
It was also agreed that France would help Poland and Czechoslovakia if Germany attacked them.
The agreements were greeted with enthusiasm all over Europe, and the reconciliation between
France and Germany was referred to as the Locarno honeymoon.
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Kellogg-Briand Pact, also called Pact of Paris, (August 27, 1928),
multilateral agreement attempting to eliminate war as an instrument of national
policy. It was the most grandiose of a series of peacekeeping efforts after World
War I.
Treaty of Rapallo with Russia, 1922: to give up differences and enhance economic relationship.
Economic Problems:
•
•
•
•
•
In 1919, due to war sanctions and penalties, Germany was on the verge of bankruptcy.
In 1922, Germany claimed their inability to pay the annual payments.
In consequence, France occupied industrial Ruhr. It created shortages of foods and resulted into
unemployment. Brought humiliation for Germany.
Impact of Wallstreet Crash on Germany: US pledged to invest in Germany; US failed to bring
investments; resulted into economic crisis in Germany. Unemployment and lack of trust of
Business community in the govt. Strassman was unable to control the situation and died.
Unemployment reached to about six billion; only alternative was the Nazi; they attracted the
voters.
The Rise of Hitler:
•
Born on April 20,1889 at Braunau, Austria. His father was customs official in Austria; in 1912,
shifted to Munich and worked as a carpenter. In 1914, he joined the Army and took part in first
world war; won Iron cross for his bravery.
Political Career:
•
•
In 1919, joined the German workers party, which later became the National Socialist German
Workers Party (NAZI) a German word pronunciation NS.
In 1921, became the head of Nazi party. He designed the party’s Swastika emblem. In same
year, private army of the Nazi party The Storm Troopers (SA) was created.
i.
They were called brown shirts for the color of their uniforms.
ii.
They had to protect party meetings, march the Nazi rallies and intimidate the opposition
party meetings; head by Ernst Rohm, who helped Hitler rise to power, but was killed in
the Night of the Long knives, a night where all strong Nazi leadership were killed by
Hitler to secure his place.
iii.
The membership of SA reached twenty-five lacs in 1933.
Key beliefs of Nazi Ideology:
i.
ii.
iii.
Anti-Treaty of Versailles: it should be abolished; all German speaking people be united.
Anti-Weimar,
strong central government
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iv.
v.
vi.
vii.
viii.
ix.
x.
Social Darwinism: the idea that Aryan race is superior and Jews are sub human, and
therefore, should be deprived of their German citizenship, and immigration be stopped.
Ambitions for Autarky: Farmers should be given their lands, public industries like electricity,
water should be owned by the state; industries be encouraged for more and more
production.
Anti-communism and Jews
Idea of Lebensraum: German nation should be expanded
Nationalism: all German speaking people be united in one country; there should be special
laws for the foreigners.
Rearmament
No space for non-German newspapers in the country
Mein Kampf: after failed attack at Munich Putsch, Hitler was sentenced
five years.
•
He wrote his book there in prison, and its features were:
i.
To oppose the treaty of Versailles
ii.
To oppose the Communists
iii.
To bring back all lost German Territories, and to unify all Germans
iv.
To expel Jews. And to expand Germany eastward
v.
To stop payment of reparation; to secure enough living space for Germans, and
condemned the disarmament clause of the Treaty of Versailles.
1924 to 1929
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
He started to reorganize the Nazi party for election purpose
He setup the Nazi branches in all over the country; in 1924, The Nazi part gain only 14 seats in
Reichstag. A failure. In 1928, it secured only 14 seats.
Great depression proved a blessing in disguise for Nazi
In 1930 elections, its party won 107 seats, making it the second largest party in Germany.
In 1932 elections, Nazi won 230 seats out of five hundred and seventy seats. It made Nazi party
a major party but with no clear majority; in 1933, President Hindenburg appointed Hitler as
Chancellor with an aim of replacing him with vice Chancellor von Papen once he fails. However,
Hitler proved to be successful leader, and Von Papen was executed in 1934.
Death of Hindenburg in 1934; Hitler conducts election and became President; Acquired both
offices of the President and the Chancellor.
He abolished the Weimar republic, and established the third Reich.
Nazi party flag became the flag of Third Reich; in Plebiscite, Hitler was declared Fuhrer, the sole
leader of Germany.
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German Foreign Policy under Hitler:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Four Power pact, 1933: With Great Britain, France, And Italy to express faith in the league of
Nations, and to implement the spirits of the Locarno treaty and pact of Paris, and to cooperate
on peace and disarmament.
Withdrawal from the League, 1933: Germany withdraw from the league and Intl. labor
Organization to free Germany from all intl. obligations.
Withdrawal from Disarmament Conference, 1933: He stated that all the rules of disarmament
re reserved only for Germany, ignoring all other states.
Non-Aggression pact with Poland for 10 years to show peaceful aims of Germany to the world.
Bid to Annex Austria: Nazi in Austria initiated a revolution to annex Austria with Germany (a ban
on Austria Germany union in the Treaty of Versailles), but Austrian public resisted; Mussolini
also threatened Hitler for war if not avoided the annexation plan. Hitler step back
Recovery of Saar, 1934: it was a territory unexplored before; the league divided it between
Germany and France with plebiscite to decide its fate; plebiscite favored the Germany and Saar
territory added into Germany.
Naval Agreement with Britain: he agreed to limit his naval size to thirty five percent of the
British Navy to win the sympathy of Great Britain; this size was larger than that of decided under
the treaty of Versailles.
Friendly Relation with Italy: Italy had issues with Great Britain, France, and Russia over Italian
actions in Ethiopia (1934 193six) and had reservations with the Treaty of Versailles. He exploited
those. He also supported Italy on Spanish civil.
Anti Comintern Pact, 1931: Between Germany and Japan to inform each other about the
activities of Comintern Pact, a communist organization. Italy also joined this organization,
resulting into Berlin Rome Tokyo Axis.
Rearmament of Germany: In 1935, Hitler unilaterally abrogated the military clauses of the
Treaty of Versailles and passed the Law for the Reconstruction of Defense Forces. He planned to
raise the army to 600000 men.
Annexation of Austria: in 1938, riots broke out by Nazis in Austria; Hitler stepped into Austria
and annexed it in Germany since Italy was befriended. And thus, wiped out the state from the
map which was there for centuries.
The Distraction of Czechoslovakia: Sudeten Germans living in Czechoslovakia; Hitler hinted them
to create unrest; Czechoslovakia was in alliance with Russia and France. Hitler started
mobilization; Other powers asked Czechoslovakia to give Sudeten areas to Germany as a
guarantee of not taking the whole Czechoslovakia. It resulted into Munich Conference which
ceded Sudeten areas to Germany.
Munich Agreement, 1938:
•
•
•
Comprised of Chamberlain (Britain), Daladier (France), Mussolini (Italy), and Hitler (Germany).
To decide the issue of Sudeten German Territories.
German Sudeten’s were allowed to go inside the control of Germany.
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•
•
•
Historians declared this agreement a symbol of sheer force, and apex of appeasement. I
emboldened Hitler to do whatever he wanted.
It allowed Hitler to compel Czechoslovakia to become her Protectorate.
Soviet Union was excluded from Munich pact; it brought her closer to Germany; Non-Aggression
Pact bw the two in 1938.
Acquisition of Memel:
•
From Lithuania; it was ceded to Lithuania under treaty of Versailles; Lithuania came under
German pressure; ceded the territory.
Invasion of Poland:
•
•
Non-Aggression pact between Poland and Germany in 1934;
Germany asked Poland to return Danzig city; Poland refused; Poland had the backing of Britain
and France. Germany, along with Denmark, Latvia, and Estonia, attacked Poland. In retaliation,
Britain and France also jumped in to save their ally. It resulted into the second world war.
Hitler shot himself on 30th April, 1945; Germany capitulated four months later.
Russia, Marxism revolution and working
under Stalin:
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Russia, 1914 to 1939
•
•
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Czar was under the control of evil monk Rasputin
It made him do decisions wished by the Monk
Monk was murdered in 1916
The First Revolution at Petrograd: AKA the February Revolution1917
•
•
•
•
•
•
Led by students and workers
Huge unemployment led to protests and riots
The army fraternized with the protestors as the army itself was unhappy from the Czar for his
lack of interest in Army modernity
The protest was mainly led by the Bolsheviks (egalitarian and extremist), Mensheviks, and the
social revolutionaries
Bolsheviks were extremist while the Mensheviks were relatively progressive
Widespread demonstrations allowed the workers to take control of major cities and forced the
Czar Nicholas to abdicate the throne on march 15, 1917, and it ended the rule of Romanov
dynasty
The Provisional Government and the Soviets:
•
Provisional government was formed under the Liberals like Mensheviks and Social
revolutionaries, headed by Lvov(was a Russian aristocrat and statesman who served as the first prime
minister of democratic Russia from 15 March to 20 July 1917.)
•
•
Decree was issued providing political freedom to the people
There was an another parallel govt at Petrograd of the Organization of the Workers; they
wanted to control the army from Petrograd
•
Prince Georgy Yevgenyevich Lvov[a] (2 November [O.S. 21 October] 1861 – 7/8 March 1925) was a Russian
aristocrat and statesman who served as the first prime minister of democratic Russia from 15 March to 20 July
1917.
•
•
•
Lvov wanted the continuation of war; however, at Petrograd, the soldiers committee was formed under the control
of the revolutionaries
In meanwhile, Lenin and Trotsky were in exile.
Bolsheviks were against the Russian inclusion in the war; by becoming the part of the government, Mensheviks
and socialists lost the reputation among people.
The Return of the Lenin, Trotsky and Stalin:
•
•
•
•
•
Lenin came back from Switzerland, Trotsky from Siberia, and Stalin from Siberia.
Lenin was against the war; wanted communist revolution not in Russia but also in Europe;
Worker’s revolt occurred
Lenin fled to England, Trotsky and Stalin arrested.
In July, Kerensky became the head of Provisional Government; another attempt to crush the
workers through army failed; peasants became to take control of the landlord estates.
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•
•
•
Meanwhile, general Kornilov decided for a military takeover as situation was getting out of the
Provisional govt’s control.
Bolsheviks stopped Kornilov; they took the control of Petrograd and Moscow. It culminated into
the Bolshevik revolution. AKA October Revolution
Lenin returned and became the head of the Bolshevik Revolution.
There are two revolutions: February Revolution (Revolution of the Russians against the Czar)
and the October Revolution (Proletariat Revolution against the Bourgeoisie)
In Russian language, Bolshevik means the majority.
Events of the Years 1918 1927:
•
•
Lenin wanted peace with Germany and was against the Russian participation in war.
Treaty of Brest Litovsk: peace treaty signed on March 3, 1918, between the new Bolshevik
government of Soviet Russia and the Central Powers (Germany, Austria-Hungary, Bulgaria, and the
Ottoman Empire), that ended Russia's participation in World War I.)
i.
Russia recognized the independence of Ukraine, Georgia and Finland;
ii.
Gave up Poland and the Baltic states of Lithuania, Latvia and Estonia to Germany and
Austria-Hungary; and ceded Kars, Ardahan and Batum to Turkey.
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
iii.
Russia lost its one third of population
iv.
9/10 the of coal production
v.
Ukraine and Finland were declared independent
vi.
Harsh conditions imposed on Russia
Treaty of Brest Litovsk brough opposition in the country, led by social revolutionists who wanted
to stay in the war, supported by the Allied forces (Britain, America, France, Poland, and Japan.
The fight gets serious, and ultimately turned into civil war between the Bolsheviks (reds) and
Mensheviks (the Whites).
White started ruthless activities of damaging the agriculture fields, the indiscriminate shooting
of the peasants, and a general disregard for human rights.
The whites wanted Political Monarchy, economic capitalism and alternative form of socialism.
The reds fought against the Whites, the monarchists and foreign states.
In this war between 1917 to 1921, about 7 to 8 million Russians dies.
The Czar was also executed with his family in 1918.
Poles called for Irredentism over the territories they had lost to Russia in 1772.
Polish armies entered but defeated by Russia Red Army.
Red Army the entered Warsaw; repealed by the Polish army thanks to foreign powers support;
Defeat of the Whites culminated the civil war.
Russia Under Lenin:
•
New Economic Policy by Lenin
i.
It avoided more extreme form of communism
ii.
Govt took control of major industries
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iii.
iv.
Allowed relaxation to peasants
These policies helped Russia to recover from its economic crisis.
From the Death of Lenin: 1924 1939
•
•
•
Death of Lenin (1924); his will to replace him was kept secret
Competition between Stalin and Trotsky; debate on his successor initiated
Stalin Vs. Trotsky: Both had differences of Policies
i.
Stalin wanted complete communism at home while Trotsky wanted it abroad
ii.
Stalin wanted to delay the movement of collective farming while Trotsky wanted early
favor.
iii.
In 1927, Stalinist policy was adopted by the Communist Party Congress while Trotsky
was sent into exile to Turkmenistan.
Russia under Stalin:
During the quarter of a century preceding his death, the Soviet dictator Joseph Stalin probably
exercised greater political power than any other figure in history. Stalin industrialized the Union
of Soviet Socialist Republics, forcibly collectivized its agriculture, consolidated his position by
intensive police terror, helped to defeat Germany in 1941–45, and extended Soviet controls to
include a belt of eastern European states. Chief architect of Soviet totalitarianism and a skilled
but phenomenally ruthless organizer, he destroyed the remnants of individual freedom and
failed to promote individual prosperity, yet he created a mighty military-industrial complex and
led the Soviet Union into the nuclear age.
•
Stalin adopts Collectivization policy: Stalin ordered the collectivization of farming, a policy pursued
intensely between 1929-33. Collectivization meant that peasants would work together on larger,
supposedly more productive farms. Almost all the crops they produced would be given to the
government at low prices to feed the industrial workers.
•
•
•
•
•
•
Aimed at boosting Industrial production (Coal, Iron, coal, Steel etc.) and to collectivize
agriculture (from individual base farming to family base)
It helped Russia to become self-sufficient in its industrial needs and in agricultural needs.
This policy was resisted by the wealthy peasants, the Kulaks, as the Policy of collectivization had
deprived them of their lands. They revolted, but soon crushed by the government.
Industrial sector experienced boom under Stalin’s Five-year program:
i.
New cities get developed
ii.
Volga Canal was constructed
iii.
Dams were constructed
iv.
Russian coal production increased five times than its production of 1913.i]
v.
Its steel production increased six times.
Attempts were made to assassinate Stalin, but he remained safe
Many of old guards’ members of communism were trailed for plotting against Stalin to help
Germany;
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•
•
Stalin continued to exercise his strong influence in Russia.
In 1936, new constitution created the first Soviet Parliament.
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The Origins of First World War (1890
1914)
Formation of Alliances and Counter Alliances:
The Dual Alliance by France and Russia in 1893 to check the Triple alliance: Germany, Austria and Italy
ii.
It nullified the secret reinsurance treaty between Germany and Russia; Germany now was
facing two front threats in form of France and Russia; After Bismarck, who was pro Russia,
Russia was convinced who is her real friend.
Armenian massacre under Turkish dominion in 1896; Britain demanded punishment to Ottomans for
violating the good conduct it pledged in 1876; other powers ignored; Britain started to feel isolation.
Boer War between Dutch and Great Britain in South Africa- The Second Boer
War (11 October 1899 – 31 May 1902), also known as the Boer War, Anglo-Boer War, or South
African War, was fought between the British Empire and two independent Boer states, the South
African Republic (Republic of Transvaal) and the Orange Free State, over the Empire's influence
in South Africa. Germany’s moral support with Dutch; British isolation reaffirmed
•
Germany increased its spending to strengthen the Navy; a direct signal to British migh t.
Dispute between France and Great Britain over Egypt, France and Italy over Tunis, and GB and Germany over
east Africa
Competition in far east too- China, Japan, GB occupation of Fiji land, Germany and America divide Samoa b/w
them, New Guinea controlled by Germany in 1884
Russia’s Trans-Siberian Railway to get control of north Chinese market
The Anglo Japanese Alliance, 1902: Japan Great Britain alliance, 1902: Any attack on them in far east will be
dealt collectively.
Revolution in Japan in 1850’s: it adopted the German model of Constitution; equipped its army on
modern lines from the assistance of Germany; moved from feudalism to capitalism; from absolute monarchy to
lose monarch; from bows and arrows to rifles and field guns.
Japan-Russia war. 1904-1905;
iv. Over imperial ambitions in Manchuria and Korea; mainly victories for
Japan; Japan became Great Britain’s friend.
Anglo –French Entente,1904
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v.
vi.
vii.
viii.
Understanding not a treaty, support each other if anyone is attacked; it was as a
secret arrangement.
France would recognize British occupation in Egypt
Britain would support French claims in Morocco.
King Edward of Britain was in favor
• First Moroccan crisis, 1905- 1906:
ix.
Call for a conference by Kaiser, German Emperor, as he unveiled the secret
clauses of the Cordial entente b/w GB and France;
x.
Algeciras Conference, (Jan. 16–April 7, 1906), international
conference of the great European powers and the United States,
held at Algeciras, Spain, to discuss France’s relationship to the
government of Morocco.
xi.
France and Spain were given policing rights of Morocco
xii. Germany to share equal powers with Great Britain, France, and
Spain in State Bank of Morocco.
xiii. The conference climaxed the First Moroccan Crisis (see Moroccan
crises).
• Anglo-Russian Agreement and the Formation of Triple
Entente,1907:
ix.
Peace between Russian, France and Great Britain;
x.
GB resolve its issues with Russia in Far east, knowing Japan was
powerful enough to stop Russia
xi.
They all now had a common enemy: Germany.
• Berlin Baghdad railway by Germany would allow Germany to reach
Russian frontiers.
iii.
To counter that, GB and Russia resolved their issues: Russia
relinquish its control over Afghanistan: GB would control its foreign
policy trading rights equal for all.
iv.
In Persia, Russia gained the control of northern Persia.
The Second Morocco Crisis, 1911:
ii.
The Agadir Incident, 1911: Pro French Sultan faced protests around the
country; he asked for help; French help given; Kaiser outraged and
called it violation of Algerica,1906; mobilization of troops; Germany
was given French Congo to give up its claims in Morocco.
Young Turks, Turkish Jöntürkler, coalition of various reform groups that led
a revolutionary movement against the authoritarian regime of Ottoman
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sultan Abdülhamid II, which culminated in the establishment of a constitutional
government. After their rise to power, the Young Turks introduced programs that
promoted the modernization of the Ottoman Empire and a new spirit of
Turkish nationalism. Their handling of foreign affairs, however, resulted in the
dissolution of the Ottoman state.
Balkan league-Greece, Montenegro, and Bulgaria:
War against Turkey, defeat to OE, Treaty of London,1913.
OE lost most of the Europe, especially the control over Balkans
Balkan wars, 1912 1913:
• Success of the Young Turk Movement encouraged the Bulgarians to declare their head as
Czar; and them, independent;
• It angers Austria and she ends the protectorate states of Bosnia and Herzegovina into
Austrian Empire, stopping Serbia to get these Serb populated regions.
• It stands Serbians and Austrians eye to eye; Germany declares its support for Austria,
and Russia, for Serbia.
• Second Balkan War:
iii.
iv.
Bulgaria claims the part of Macedonia which Serbia refuses
Bulgaria attacks Serbia but face defeat to the alliance of Serbia, Rumania and
Turkey.
The Outbreak of the World War 1:
• Austria asks Italy to collectively attack Serbia, which she refuses, but Kaiser
makes a Promise.
• Archduke Ferdinand, heir to Austrian throne, killed on his visit to Sarajevo,
capital of Bosnia, (28 June ,1914 under Austrian control; by a Serb Bosnian
student. Austria declared war on Serbia on July 28 1914.
• Russia started mobilization of its forces; Germany warned her to
demobilize; and then attacked on 1st August, 1914.
• Germany demanded to declare its neutrality; France refused as it had
secret treaty with Russia; Germany declared war on France too on 3 rd of
August, 1914.
• Britain tried everything to avoid war; Germany attacked Belgium (a
defiance to the neutrality treaty of Belgium in 1839); Britain declared war
on Germany on 4th of August, 1914.
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• Major battles: were fought on using trench warfare along the western
route. First battle of the Marne, Battle of the Somme, battle of Tannenberg,
battle of Gallipoli and the Battle of Verdun.
PART : 2
VII: The First world War and Peace treaties
vi.
Treaty of Versailles:
•
•
The Treaty of Versailles, signed in June 1919 at the Palace of
Versailles in Paris at the end of World War I, codified peace terms
between the victorious Allies and Germany. The Treaty of
Versailles held Germany responsible for starting the war and
imposed harsh penalties in terms of loss of territory, massive
reparations payments and demilitarization.
Instead of addressing the causes of war, it imposed heavy penalties on Germany
which led to the rise of ultra nationalists groups like the Nazi Party later on.
Treaty of Sèvre (1920):
• post-World War I pact between the victorious Allied powers and
representatives of the government of Ottoman Turkey.
•
The treaty abolished the Ottoman Empire and obliged Turkey to renounce
all rights over Arab Asia and North Africa. The pact also provided for an
independent Armenia, for an autonomous Kurdistan, and for a Greek
presence in eastern Thrace and on the Anatolian west coast, as well as
Greek control over the Aegean islands commanding the Dardanelles.
Rejected by the new Turkish nationalist regime, the Treaty of Sèvres was
replaced by the Treaty of Lausanne in 1923.
Treaty of Lausanne, (1923):
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• final treaty concluding World War I. It was signed by representatives
of Turkey (successor to the Ottoman Empire) on one side and
by Britain, France, Italy, Japan, Greece, Romania, and the Kingdom of
Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes (Yugoslavia) on the other. The treaty was
signed at Lausanne, Switzerland, on July 24, 1923, after a seven-month
conference.
• The treaty recognized the boundaries of the modern state of Turkey.
Turkey made no claim to its former Arab provinces and recognized British
possession of Cyprus and Italian possession of the Dodecanese. The Allies
dropped their demands of autonomy for Turkish Kurdistan and Turkish
cession of territory to Armenia, abandoned claims to spheres of influence
in Turkey, and imposed no controls over Turkey’s finances or armed
forces. The Turkish straits between the Aegean Sea and the Black Sea were
declared open to all shipping.
Conference of Genoa, (April 10–May 19, 1922):
Post-World War I meeting at Genoa, Italy, to discuss the economic
reconstruction of central( Germany, France, Austria) and eastern Europe and to
explore ways to improve relations between Soviet Russia and European capitalist
regimes.
Dawes Plan, 1924:
• Vice President of USA; economic in nature;
• Reparation for Germany made easier as Germany was unable to pay its
debts.
• Withdrawal of French troops from Ruhr.
Pact of Locarno, (Dec. 1, 1925):
•
Series of agreements whereby Germany, France, Belgium, Great Britain, and Italy
mutually guaranteed peace in the western Europe.
It was also agreed that France would help Poland and Czechoslovakia if Germany attacked them.
The agreements were greeted with enthusiasm all over Europe, and the reconciliation between
France and Germany was referred to as the Locarno honeymoon.
Kellogg-Briand Pact, also called Pact of Paris, (August 27, 1928):
multilateral agreement attempting to eliminate war as an instrument of national
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policy. It was the most grandiose of a series of peacekeeping efforts after World
War I.
League of Nations:
It was form to ensure peace in the world
A triumph for liberalism
World body to ensure peace.
Causes of the Failure of the League of Nations:
•
•
•
•
•
Hawkish nature of LON: It lacked provisions of conflict resolution
No right to self-defense was given
Absence of major powers like Germany and the US
Failed in implementation of armament plan
It allowed states to leave the league in case of violation
Non democratic nature: unanimous decision by the council.
PART : 2
VII: The First world War and Peace treaties:
World war came to an end with the defeat of central powers ((Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Turkey) at
the hand of the Alied Powers ( Great Britain, France, The United States, and the Soviet Union)
Initially, America followed the direction of staying neutral; in 1916, Germany started sinking the civilian
submarines it found in war zone. This compelled USA to jump into war agaisnt Germany. The German
telegram to Mexico to seek support of Mexico in the war in favor of giving her its lost territories to
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America in the 19th century was also the factor. Americans from all backgrounds prepared themselves
for conscription to fight in overseas.
The Paris Peace Conference:
Conference was the formal meeting in 1919 and 1920 of the victorious Allies after the end of World War I
Purpose:
•
To set the peace terms for the defeated Central Powers.
Dominated by the leaders of Britain, France, the United States and Italy,
•
it resulted in five controversial treaties that rearranged the map of Europe and parts of Asia, Africa and the
Pacific Islands and imposed financial penalties. Germany and the other losing nations had no voice which
gave rise to political resentments that lasted for decades.
Major Peace Treaties:
vii.
Treaty of Versailles, 1919
viii.
ix.
x.
Treaty of Saint Germain, With Austria, 1919
Treaty of Neuilly with Bulgaria, 1919
Treaty of Trianon, with Hungary, 1920
xi.
Treaty of Versailles: 1919
•
The Treaty of Versailles, signed in June 1919 at the Palace of
Versailles in Paris at the end of World War I, codified peace terms
between the victorious Allies and Germany. The Treaty of
Versailles held Germany responsible for starting the war and
imposed harsh penalties in terms of loss of territory, massive
reparations payments and demilitarization.
Terms of the treaty of Versailles:
Territorial Clause:
Germany lost its territories:
vi.
vii.
viii.
Alsace and Lorraine to France
Eupen, Moresnet and Malmedy to Belgium
North Schleswig to Denmark (After a Plebiscite)
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72
ix.
x.
Main port of West Prussia to Poland
Memel was given to Lithuania.
Lose to German colonies:
ii.
Germany’s African colonies given League of Nation mandates
Military Clauses:
iv.
v.
vi.
Germany army to be limited to 100,000 with no conscription.
No tanks, no armored cars, military aircrafts or submarines
Rhineland to be demilitarized.
War Guilt Clause:
Germany was held sole responsible for war
Germany to pay reparation
Establishment of the League of Nation (1919):
Treaty of Saint Germain, 1919:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Held between the Allied powers (France, The USA, Great Britain, and Italy) and
Austria.
It dissolved Austria Hungary empire and created the state of Republic of Austria.
Austria agreed to surrender Czechoslovakia, Bohemia, Moravia, and many more
territories.
The treaty prohibited Anschluss (Union between Germany and Austria) without the
consent of League of Nations.
Poland got Austria Galicia; Rumania got Bukovina
Yugo Slovakia got Bosnia.
She lost one third territory and population
Austria surrendered her naval force; army was reduced to 30000 volunteers.
Treaty of Neuilly: (with Bulgaria) 1919
•
•
Bulgaria was asked to cede its major territories to Yugoslavia.
Bulgaria was required to pay a reparation of 40 million dollars.
Treaty of Trianon (with Hungary)
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•
Instead of addressing the causes of war, it imposed heavy penalties on Germany
which led to the rise of ultra-nationalists groups like the Nazi Party later on.
Treaty of Sèvre (1920):
• post-World War I pact between the victorious Allied powers and
representatives of the government of Ottoman Turkey.
•
The treaty abolished the Ottoman Empire and obliged Turkey to renounce
all rights over Arab Asia and North Africa. The pact also provided for an
independent Armenia, for an autonomous Kurdistan, and for a Greek
presence in eastern Thrace and on the Anatolian west coast, as well as
Greek control over the Aegean islands commanding the Dardanelles.
Rejected by the new Turkish nationalist regime, the Treaty of Sèvre was
replaced by the Treaty of Lausanne in 1923.
Treaty of Lausanne, (1923):
• final treaty concluding World War I. It was signed by representatives
of Turkey (successor to the Ottoman Empire) on one side and
by Britain, France, Italy, Japan, Greece, Romania, and the Kingdom of
Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes (Yugoslavia) on the other. The treaty was
signed at Lausanne, Switzerland, on July 24, 1923, after a seven-month
conference.
• The treaty recognized the boundaries of the modern state of Turkey.
Turkey made no claim to its former Arab provinces and recognized British
possession of Cyprus and Italian possession of the Dodecanese. The Allies
dropped their demands of autonomy for Turkish Kurdistan and Turkish
cession of territory to Armenia, abandoned claims to spheres of influence
in Turkey, and imposed no controls over Turkey’s finances or armed
forces. The Turkish straits between the Aegean Sea and the Black Sea were
declared open to all shipping.
Conference of Genoa, (April 10–May 19, 1922):
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74
Post-World War I meeting at Genoa, Italy, to discuss the economic
reconstruction of central( Germany, France, Austria) and eastern Europe and to
explore ways to improve relations between Soviet Russia and European capitalist
regimes.
Dawes Plan, 1924:
• Vice President of USA; economic in nature;
• Reparation for Germany made easier as Germany was unable to pay its
debts.
• Withdrawal of French troops from Ruhr.
Pact of Locarno, (Dec. 1, 1925):
•
Series of agreements whereby Germany, France, Belgium, Great Britain, and Italy
mutually guaranteed peace in the western Europe.
It was also agreed that France would help Poland and Czechoslovakia if Germany attacked them.
The agreements were greeted with enthusiasm all over Europe, and the reconciliation between
France and Germany was referred to as the Locarno honeymoon.
Kellogg-Briand Pact, also called Pact of Paris, (August 27, 1928):
multilateral agreement attempting to eliminate war as an instrument of national
policy. It was the most grandiose of a series of peacekeeping efforts after World
War I.
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75
League of Nations:
Idea coined by US President Woodrow Wilson in his fourteen points which stated that an independent
organization should be formed to Guarantee the independence of states, both great and small.
This league was adopted at the Peace Conference of Paris and became an integrated part of treaty of
Versailles.
Had twenty-six articles and a covenant(constitution)
Initially only the allied members were its part, later more were added in 192six
Geneva, Switzerland was its Headquarter.
The Aims And Objectives of the League of Nations:
1. The Need to maintain Peace
2. To protect the territorial Integrity of states:
Napoleonic wars and then German Aggression had devastated the boundaries
of Europe.
3. To Promote Diplomacy: lack of diplomacy was the cause ofWW1.
4. Reduction of Arms Race: Defeated states were disarmed; Allied powers to look
after their arms production. Establishment of Disarmament Commission.
5. Mandate system to the League of Nations of the states taken by Germany,
especially in Africa and Asia.
It was form to ensure peace in the world
A triumph for liberalism.
World body to ensure peace.
Causes of the Failure of the League of Nations:
•
Hawkish nature of LON: It lacked provisions of conflict resolution
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76
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
No right to self-defense was given.
Absence of major powers like Germany and the US.
Silence on Corfu incident
ii.
In 1923, Greek bandits killed 3 Italian people under Greek territory; Mussolini
retaliated by bombing and occupying the Greek Island Corfu; later LON ordered
the Greek to compensate Italy.
Failed in implementation of armament plan.
It allowed states to leave the league in case of violation.
Non democratic nature: unanimous decision by the council.
Silence on Japanese invasion of Manchuria in 1931.
Italian invasion of Ethiopia 1935; LON imposed sanctions on Italy, but Italy stood firmed.
German Annexation of Austria in 1938: sheer violation of treaty of Versailles that prohibited the
reunion of Germany and Austria. Nazi rulers were appointed (1938)
German annexation of Sudetenland (Czechoslovakia) 1938: Germany annexed Sudetenland and
net year annexed the whole Czechoslovakia in Germany. LON approved the annexation by
appeasing Hitler.
World Disarmament Conference 1932:
The Conference for the Reduction and Limitation of Armaments of 1932–1934 (also known as the
Geneva Disarmament Conference) was a failed effort by member states of the League of Nations,
together with the United States, to accomplish disarmament.
The reason for the failure of the Geneva Disarmament Conference was due to Germany's
refusal to be treated differently from the other nations – either they had to disarm to its level or it
should be allowed to re-arm to theirs.
Japanese attack on Manchuria (1931):
Conflict in Asia began well before the official start of World War II. Seeking raw materials to fuel
its growing industries, Japan invaded the Chinese province of Manchuria in 1931. By
1937 Japan controlled large sections of China, and accusations of war crimes against the
Chinese became commonplace.
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