Discourse Analysis
Course Code
Division
Course Credits
Level
Assessment
ENG 467
58
3
8
First Mid-Term 20; Second Mid-Term 20
Quiz 5; Assignment 5; FINAL 50
Textbook
Coulthard, M. (1985). An Introduction to Discourse Analysis
Course Instructor Dr Gibreel Alaghbary
Instructor Office Hours
Sunday 11.00-01.50
Monday 11.00-01.50
Discourse Analysis
What is discourse?
“A continuous stretch of language larger than a sentence, often
constituting a coherent unit, such as sermon, argument, joke or
narrative.” (Crystal:1992)
“stretches of language perceived to be meaningful, unified and
purposive.” Cook (1989)
Common Features
It is a stretch of language longer than a sentence
It is meaningful and coherent
It communicates and has a purpose
It maybe spoken or written
Discourse Analysis
When did the study of discourse begin?
In the 1970s.
What is the difference between text and discourse?
Some linguists define discourse as “the study of texts in contexts”. In this
view, discourse is language in action (or interaction) and the text is the
grammatical and meaningful record of that interaction.
What is the context?
The context of a text is the information needed to interpret the text and make
sense of it. This includes information about the interlocutors (speaker and
listener), the setting (time and place) of the speech event, and the purpose of
the interaction.
Discourse Analysis
Example
A: That’s the telephone.
B: I’m in the bath
A: O.K.
How do both the speakers manage to make sense of what the other says?
The 1st speaker makes a request for the 2nd speaker to perform action.
The 2nd speaker state reason why he cannot comply with the request.
The 1st speaker undertakes to perform the action.
Thus language users must have a lot of knowledge (non-linguistic) of how
conversation works that is not simply ‘linguistic’ knowledge.
Discourse Analysis
Examples of Discourse
Spoken Discourse
Conversations
Lectures
Sermons
Interviews
Jokes
Speeches
Written Discourse
Reports
Political texts
Legal texts
Literature
Newspaper articles
Newspaper headlines
Discourse Analysis
Emergence of Discourse Analysis
Discourse Analysis emerged in the 1970s as a reaction to the exclusive concern
with the idealized native speaker-hearer knowledge (and the formal features
of language) in Chomsky’s tradition to the exclusion of considerations of
context.
There was a new interest in conversation and meaning beyond language.
Discourse Analysis
Formal Linguistics
Functional Linguistics
Period of
popularity
1920s – 1960s
1970 s – Present
Prime concern
Linguistic form – how a word is
pronounced, how it is structured,
and where it occurs in a sentence
The content and
communicative function of
the linguistic form outside
language
Subject of
study
Competence – the internalized, ideal
native speaker-hearer knowledge of
language, which is error-free
Performance – the speaker’s
actual use of language in
speech situations
Data
Invented examples
Naturally-occurring
language
Purpose
To theorize (theoretical)
To describe (descriptive)
Major
proponents
Bloomfield, Chomsky
Firth, Halliday, Grice, Austin
Discourse Analysis
Speech Act Theory
Who proposed the theory and when?
The theory was introduced by the Oxford philosopher Austin in the year 1962.
Austin gave a series of lectures at Harvard University which were later published in
the book How to Do Things with Words.
What was Austin’s main argument?
Austin observed that there are sentences that look like statements but have
functions other than ‘stating’ a state of affairs. These are:
Constatives,
ethical propositions,
performatives, and
expositives.
Discourse Analysis
Speech Act Theory
What is the difference between constatives, ethical propositions, performatives, and expositives?
A statement: a sentence that is intended to record or impart information and that has truth-value
(i.e., can be proved true or false). Example: Saudi Arabia is in Asia.
A constative: a sentence that is not intended to record or impart information and that has no
truth-value (i.e., can be proved true or false) because it has no referent. Example: The King of
France is bald.
An ethical proposition: is a sentence that is intended to prescribe conduct and regulate human
behavior. It may be value-laden but not in the same way as statement. Example: You must tell the
truth.
A performative: is a sentence in which the saying of the words constitutes the performing of an
action. Example: I name this boy Ali.
An expositive: is a sentence that satisfies all the criteria for performatives but which has truthvalue (i.e., can be proved true or false). Example: I argue that Discourse Analysis is easy.
Expositives have the structure (subject + simple present verb + that).
Discourse Analysis
More examples
Statements
Constatives
I live in Methnab.
The President
of Saudi Arabia
I am 30 years old. is tall.
A bachelor: My
wife is
American.
Ethical propositions
Performatives
Expositives
Big boys don’t lie.
I sentence you
to death.
I admit that I
broke the
window.
You should come on
time.
I apologize.
I divorce you.
(in Muslim
countries)
I resign.
I testify that he
killed the girl.
Discourse Analysis
What is a speech act?
A speech act is an utterance that has a performative function. Example: I order you to do the
dishes .
What are the common functions of speech acts?
The functions of speech acts often include such acts as suggesting, ordering, promising, warning,
greeting, apologizing, inviting and congratulating.
Are there conditions that a speech act must satisfy in order to qualify as a performative?
There are two conditions, at least.
1. There must exist an accepted conventional procedure. For example, a woman cannot be
divorced if she is not married, and we name babies but not houses.
2. The procedure must be executed by the right person. For example, only the husband can
divorce his wife, and only a judge can sentence the defendant to imprisonment.
These are called felicity conditions. If these conditions are not satisfied, we say that the speech
act misfires.
Discourse Analysis
Give example of speech acts that disqualify as performatives (or misfire).
1. Stranger to woman: I divorce you.
2. Guest holding your newborn: I name this boy David.
3. Plaintiff to defendant in the court of law: I sentence you to death.
What are the types of speech acts?
There are two types of speech acts: direct and indirect.
A direct speech act is one where the content of the communication is identical, or alomost
identical, to the function intended by the communication. Example: If you cross that line, I will
shoot you. (a threat); I promise to come on time. (promise).
An indirect speech act is one where the content of the communication is different from the
function intended by the communication. Example: It is hot in here. (a request to open the
window); Do you have to stand in front of the TV? (A request to move aside). “Me” in response
to ‘Who can help me?’ (an offer to help)
Discourse Analysis
How does Austin define a speech act?
Austin offers a three-fold definition of a speech act. In issuing an utterance, Austin argues, a
speaker can perform three acts simultaneously (at the same time).
1. Perform an act of saying something (the actual utterance) - locutionary act
2. Perform an act in saying something (the pragmatic force of the utterance) - illocutionary act
3. Perform an act of saying something (the actual effect of the utterance) – perlocutionary act
Example:
Would you close the door, please?
locutionary act the act of saying the utterance “would you close the window, please?”
Illocutionary act the speaker’s intention behind the locution, in this case requesting.
Perlocutionary act the effect the speaker wants to exercise on the listener, in this case getting
the listener to close the window.
Discourse Analysis
Grice’s Cooperative Principle (CP), Maxims of Conversation and Conversational Implicature
H.P. Grice (1975) introduces the ‘Cooperative Principle’ approach to describe how conversation
operates. He also introduces the concept of ‘Conversational Implicature’ to describe how we infer
unstated meanings in ordinary conversations.
The Cooperative Principle (CP)
When we speak to one another in ordinary conversation, we try to ‘cooperate’ in order for our
conversation to proceed successfully and meaningfully.
One way of ‘cooperating’ is by following some rules in conversations. Grice calls these rules
‘maxims of conversation’. These are four:
Maxim of Quantity
Maxim of Quality
Maxim of Relation
Maxim of Mannar
Discourse Analysis
The Maxim of Quantity
Make your contribution as informative as required (Don’t say too much or too little)
The Maxim of Quality
Don’t say what you believe to be false
The Maxim of Relation
Be relevant (stay on the topic)
The Maxim of Manner
Be clear
Avoid ambiguity
These maxims may be followed or violated (not followed) in conversations. If they are followed,
conversation is meaningful; if they are not, the listener will need to cooperate in order to make
them meaningful.
Discourse Analysis
Examples:
A conversational exchange that follows all the maxims of conversation
A: What’s your name?
B: My name is Gibreel.
A conversational exchange that violates the maxim of quantity
A: Where are you?
B: In my clothes
A: Did you enjoy the party last night?
B: There was a lot of oriental food on the table, lots of flowers all over the place, people hanging
around chatting with each other.
A conversational exchange that violates the maxim of quality
A teacher to a late student: You’re such a punctual guy. Welcome to class.
A conversational exchange that violates the maxim of relation
A: Have you done your homework?
B: My car broke down yesterday.
A conversational exchange that violates the maxim of manner
A: What are your plans for this afternoon?
B: I am thinking of taking you to the Z-O-O. (in the presence of children)
Discourse Analysis
When a maxim of conversation is flouted, it leads the listener to infer something
that is meant but not said. Grice calls this a conversational implicature.
Example 1:
John: Where is Dr Gibreel?
Mary: He is in class or in the teachers’ room.
Maxim Violated: Quantity (saying more than required)
Implicature: Mary does not know which of the two place Dr Gibreel is.
Example 2:
John: You really love me?
Mary: I like Ferrari, college football, and things that go really fast.
Maxim Violated: Relation (Mary is changing the topic)
Implicature: Mary does not want to answer, or the answer is no.
Discourse Analysis
Example 3:
John: A lot of people are depending on you.
Mary: Thanks, that really takes the pressure off.
Maxim Violated: Quality (knowing that “a lot of people are depending on
you” does not, in fact, take the pressure off. Mary is saying something
obviously untrue.)
Implicature: By saying something clearly untrue, Mary is implying that the
opposite is true (sarcasm). The true meaning being expressed here is
probably more like “That really puts a lot of pressure on me” and perhaps,
by extension, “Stop pressuring me.”
Discourse Analysis
The Ethnography of Speaking
is the systematic description of speech. Speech is described in terms of three
components: the speech community, speech styles, and the speech event.
The Speech Community
is any group of speakers that shares a linguistic code and rules for interpreting that code,
e.g., the Indian community in Methnab, the Egyptian community in Onizah.
Speech Styles
are the linguistic options available to the speech community. Saudis, for example, have a
choice of two major varieties – a local dialect and the standard Arabic. By contrast,
Americans have a choice not between major varieties but between five different degrees
of formality within the one standard language.
Discourse Analysis
Speech Styles
according to the level of formality
Formal
With senior people
to show respect
Informal
With equals
according to the region
according to the topic and context-specific lexis
Register
Examples:
The Chemistry register
The Linguistics register
according to the social class
Regional dialect
Social dialect
E.g.,
The dialect of North Saudi Arabia
The dialect of West Saudi Arabia
Examples:
The dialect of the upper class vs. the dialect of
the lower class
Discourse Analysis
The speech event
is described in terms of six components:
Setting: the place and time at which the event takes place
Participants: traditionally speech is described in terms of speaker and hearer
Purpose: all speech acts have a purpose – to give information, express emotions,
etc.
Key: is the tone in which an event is performed – serious, joyful, sad, sarcastic, etc.
Channel: the choice of oral or written communication
Message content: the topic of the speech event
Discourse Analysis
Face
In discourse studies, face is our public self-image – or in other words, our sense
of dignity or prestige in social contexts.
The principle whose purpose is to consider others’ feelings and establish levels of mutual
comfort is called the Politeness Principle.
Many speech acts, however, constitute a threat to the face of the listener. Such speech
acts are called Face Threatening Acts (or FTAs).
A Face Threatening Act (FTA) may be made in four ways. It may be made off record – it is
made indirectly so that if challenged, the speaker can deny that he meant it.
Example
A: Can you change a tyre?
B: I am busy.
A: I was just wondering if you CAN. (denies that he was asking for help)
Discourse Analysis
Face
A Face Threatening Act (FTA) may be also be made on record– it is made directly and
in conformity with Grice’s maxims of conversation. These speech acts further
subdivide into FTAs without redressive action and FTA with redressive action.
FTA without redressive action are made baldly, such as direct imperatives and
warnings.
Example
1. Sit down.
2. Shut up.
3. Don’t come late.
Discourse Analysis
Face
FTA with redressive action take account of the listener’s positive face, his need to feel
appreciated. Three strategies that are used to appeal to the positive face of the listener are:
1. Complement the listener
Example
Nice car. Can I possibly borrow it for a few minutes?
2. Claim common ground
Example
It’s been a long class and we must be hungry. Let’s go eat.
3. Play down disagreement
Example
A: That’s where you live, Riyadh?
B: That’s where I was born.
Discourse Analysis
Face
FTA with redressive action also take account of the listener’s negative face, his need to have freedom
of action. Four strategies that are used to mitigate FTAs are:
1. Minimize the content by diminutives.
Example
Can you have a little look at this?
2. Use hedging expressions to minimize the strength or threat of the imposition.
Example
I wonder if you can help me with this exercise.
3. Minimize the speaker’s responsibility by attributing agency to others or to no one.
Example
The students want to put off the test.
All passengers must fasten their seat belts.
4. Acknowledge the imposition and apologize for it.
Example
I am sorry I am coming without an appointment but I need your advice on this.
Discourse Analysis
Conversation Analysis
Conversation is organized in and through turns – one person speaking at a time.
Conversations are structured in the following ways:
1. An Adjacency Pair
An adjacency pair has two utterances produced successively and in order by two different
speakers. The first part of the adjacency pair often includes a question, a greeting, an
offer, a request, a complaint, an invitation, or an announcement. The second part is
reciprocal, i.e., offers the answer, greeting, justification, apology, etc. Adjacency pairs are
the basic structural units in conversation.
Examples
Hi there.
Hi.
Why did you come late?
I am sorry.
Discourse Analysis
2. An Insertion Sequence
In an insertion sequence, one pair is embedded in (occurs inside) another pair.
Example
A: Do you know where pizza hut is?
B: Well, where do you live?
A: I live on King Abdulaziz road.
B: It is not far from you.
3. An Side Sequence
In a side sequence, one pair which is irrelevant, is embedded in (occurs inside) another
pair.
Example
A: Do you know where pizza hut is?
B: Let me take this call and I will get back to you.
A: Sure.
B: It is on King Abdullah road.
Discourse Analysis
4. An Opening Sequence
An adjacency pair used to open a conversation.
5. A Pre-closing Sequence
An adjacency pair used before closing a conversation.
6. A Closing Sequence
An adjacency pair used to close a conversation.
An Extended Example
A: Morning.
B: Morning.
A: Do you have a minute?
B: I am busy. Sorry.
A: Ok.
B: Yeah.
A: See you.
B: See you.
Discourse Analysis
Features of Naturally-Occuring Conversations
Pauses .. a very short period of silence (e.g., I went to [silence] London.)
Pause Fillers .. sounds or words used to avoid silence in conversations, such as um, er, uh, I mean,
y’know, like (e.g. I went to um London.)
False starts … a start that a speaker realizes is wrong and amends or repairs (e.g., I went ..um..
Indeed my wife and I went to London.)
Recycling … a repaired false start (e.g., Indeed my wife and I in the previous example)
Back channel support … a word or an expression the listener uses to indicate they are following
or indicate interest in the conversation (e.g.,
A: I went to London …
B: Ok.
A: … and had a lot of fun.
Interruption … to stop a speaker from finishing their turn (e.g.,
A: I went to …
B: I have to go now. Bye.
Overlap … happens when two speakers talk at the same time. It may be intentional (when the
listener does not want to listen to the speaker for some reason) and it may be unintentional,
which is often resolved by one of the two participants yielding or offering the floor – giving the
right to the other participant to continue.
Discourse Analysis
Terminology
Linguistic competence is defined as a speaker-hearer’s ability to speak
and understand language in a grammatically-correct manner
(Ottenheimer, 2006, p. 95).
Canale and Swain (1980) argue linguistic competence is not enough
and that there is a communicative competence defined in terms of
four components:
1. Grammatical competence the ability to use words and rules
correctly
2. Sociolinguistic competence the ability to use language
appropriately
3. Discourse competence the ability to use language cohesively and
coherently
4. Strategic competence the ability to use appropriate communication
strategies
Discourse Analysis
Inference
An inference is additional information used by the listener to
create a connection between what is said and what must be
meant.
Example
Can I look at your Chomsky?
The listener has to operate with the inference: ‘if X is the name
of the writer of a book, then X can be used to identify a copy of a
book by that writer’
Jennifer is wearing Calvin Klein.
Discourse Analysis
Presupposition
What a speaker (or writer) assumes is true or known by a listener (or
reader) can be described as a presupposition.
Example
Your brother is waiting outside.
Here there is an obvious presupposition that you have a brother.
Why did you arrive late?
When did you stop smoking?
Okay, Mr. Smith, how fast were you going when you ran the red
light?
Questions like this have in-built presuppositions, and they are useful
devices for interrogators or trial lawyers.
Discourse Analysis
Cohesion in English
Cohesion is a property of a text by means of which different
parts of a text are linked and connected. Halliday and Hasan
(1976) distinguish five major types of grammatical cohesive
ties: reference, substitution, ellipsis, conjunction, and lexical
ties.
Discourse Analysis
1. Reference
Pronouns, demonstratives, and comparatives may be used
as cohesive links.
Examples
1. If a student needs help, he can always meet me in office.
2. This is why John is the best footballer in town.
Anaphorics
If you are buying a care, you should know this. Cataphoric
3. This car is good but that one is better.
Discourse Analysis
2. Substitution
Substitution is the process of replacing a lexical item with
another at the nominal, verbal and clausal levels.
Examples
Nominal Do you want the apples? Yes, I’ll take one.
Verbal Did you go? Yes, I did.
Clausal The apples are getting back. Yes, they are.
Discourse Analysis
3. Ellipsis
Ellipsis is the process of replacing a lexical item with a
“zero” tie at the nominal, verbal and clausal levels.
Examples
Nominal They are small. Take two (apples).
Verbal Were you reading? No, I wasn’t (reading).
Clausal I don’t know how to drive a car. I’ll have to learn
how (to drive a car).
Discourse Analysis
4. Conjunction
These are linkers used to indicate a relationship between
sentences or parts of a sentence.
Examples
Contrast I bought ten apples. However, I didn’t eat any.
Causal Her work was finished, so she turned off the laptop.
Temporal After the prayer, we went home.
Logical sequence I lost all my money. Then, I sold my house.
Discourse Analysis
5. Lexical Ties
This involves the use of lexical items to link different parts
of the text via repetition, synonymy, superordinate, and
general words.
Repetition Sue is in the race. I believe Sue will win the race.
Synonymy I saw a young boy. The lad was wearing a T-shirt.
Superordinates I bough carrot. It’s my favorite vegetable.
General word She’s a single mom but a great parent indeed.
Discourse Analysis
6. Questions and Parallel Structures
Aluminum alloys are now more important in the
automobile industry than ever before. But why are they
important? They are significant because they are light
and fuel efficient in comparison to the heavy, fuelconsuming steel alloys. The government is pressuring
the industry to replace traditional iron-based alloys with
aluminum-based alloys but apparently the industry is
not willing to. Iron-based alloys are now more
infrequently used in the automobile industry than ever
before.
Discourse Analysis
An extended example
I saw a boy in the garden. What was he doing? The boy
was climbing a tree but I was not. I was worried about the
child. The poor lad was obviously not up to it. The idiot
was going to fall off the tree. He did. Then, I rushed him
to the nearest hospital. You would not believe this. He
was totally ok. This was a big surprise to me. The boy
promised never to do it again.
Discourse Analysis
Coherence
My father bought a Lincoln convertible. The car driven by
the police was red. That color doesn’t suit her. She
consists of three letters. However, a letter isn’t as fast as
a telephone call.
What is wrong with this text?
Discourse Analysis
Coherence
Coherence means the connection of ideas at the idea
level (whereas cohesion is the connection of ideas at
the sentence level).
Possible Patterns (1)
topic1
comment1
topic2
comment2
topic3
etc.
Lasers have found widespread application in medicine.
One of these applications is the human eye. The eye is
ideally suited for laser surgery because most of the
eye tissue is transparent.
Possible Patterns (2)
topic1
comment1
topic1
comment2
topic1
etc.
Lasers have found widespread application in medicine.
They play an important role in the treatment of eye
disease and the prevention of blindness. Lasers have
also found application in the food industry.
Possible Patterns (3)
topic1
comment1 +
topic2
comment3
topic3
comment2
comment4
Last evening, I met John and Mary. John was upset
because of the exam result. Mary, however, did not
really care about it.
Application
Which two sentences in the following text are awkward
(disturb the logical connection between the ideas).
1
The ancient Egyptians buried their pharaohs in tombs
called pyramids. 2 The most famous pyramids are in Giza,
near Cairo.3 Some pyramids are made of more than two
million blocks of stone.4 Teams of workers dragged them
into place.5 The pyramids were built to house the body
of the pharaoh.6 Inside each pyramid is a secret chamber.7
The tomb where the mummy of the pharaoh was laid is
this .8 Most of these mummies have been stolen by
robbers.
COHESION
Cohesive Devices
Lexical
Grammatical
Rhetorical
Lexical Repetition
Lexical Chains
Synonyms and Antonyms
Pronouns
Substitution
Ellipsis
Coordinators and
Subordinators
Comparison
Tense
Questions
Parallel Structures
Lexical Devices
Grammatical
Devices
Rhetorical
Devices