Italian and German expansion 1933 – 1940
Mussolini and Fascist Italy.

Interwar years:
o
Economic and political turmoil.
o
Revolutions and attempted revolutions.
o
First Fascist country: Italy.
o
Expansion of Fascism:
o
Britain, France, Germany (1933).

Spain and Portugal (semi – fascist goverments).
Nationalism was another important factor.

o

Characteristic of Fascism:
The political philosophy of fascism originated with Mussolini and his Fascist Part. It consisted of:


An expansion of nationalism.

Support for industrialists and (supposedly) workers.

Anti – communist beliefs.

Obedience to the state.

Single – party government headed by an authoritarian leader.
Impact of the WW1 and the Peace Treaties 1914 – 19:
o
Italy joined the Allies based on the territorial promises made to Italy in the Treaty of London in 1915.
o
Britain and France ignored these promises at the Paris Peace Conference.
o
The effects of the WW1 became known as the “Mutilated Victory”.

Post – war Italy:
o
Chaos, turbulence and violence spread throughout Italy.
o
Mussolini created a gang called the Black Shirts and received support from industrialists, bankers and conservatives.
1

o
Support for Mussolini:
His nationalism and anti – communist efforts attracted key supporters such as the King, industrial leaders and the middle class.

The March on Rome, October 1922:
o
In October 1922, he threatened to seize power from an ineffective government in a March on Rome.
o
The King appointed Mussolini Prime Minister.´
o
Soon he was known as Il Duce, The Leader.

Mussolini repressed internal opponents:
o
Banned all political partied except the Fascist Party.
o
Banned opposition newspapers.
o
Outlawed labor unions.
o
Used violence and intimidation.

Mussolini worked to gain support by:
o
Creating youth groups based on fascist ideology.
o
Reconciling the government with the Catholic Church regarding territories seized in the 19th century, including Rome.
o
Relying on propaganda to depict Mussolini’s rule as a return of the glory of Ancient Rome.

Fascism:
o
Fascism embraced expansion, war and imperialism.
o
Great nations were great because they conquered and ruled other nations.

The emphasis on war led to:
o
Women’s role as mothers being stressed
o
The goal of a high birth rate to supply future armies
o
The belief that men should be soldiers ready to sacrifice themselves for the state
2
Fascist foreign policy 1922 – 34:

Cautious foreign policy:
o
Mussolini had to be cautious in achieving his foreign policy goals.
o
An economy that was weak meant that Italy could not build a strong large military.
o
Italy’s economy was dependent on foreign trade with Britain, France and the USA.

1920s: opportunist foreign policy.
o
Greece was forced to pay an indemnity to Italy in the Corfu Incident.
o
A dispute between Italy and Yugoslavia over the city of Fiume (today’s Rijeka), resulted in Yugoslavia giving the city to Italy.

1920S: cautious policy with France:
o
Other aims: areas of south-eastern France and the island of Corsica for Italy (dialects of Italian were spoken)- since France was greater enemy, these desires were postponed).
o
France wanted to isolate Germany, including Italy in its diplomatic efforts and was not concerned with Italy’s weak military.
o
While Italy needed France economically, there was little friction between the two states.

1920s: creation of an Italian empire.
o
The idea of an Italian Empire began before Mussolini came to power.
o
With the weakening of the Ottoman Empire, Italy took control of Libya.
o
All of these territories were poor, as oil had not yet been discovered in Libya, providing few benefits to Italy.

The Great Depression and Italy:
o
Money received from the USA after the war was withdrawn when the Depression began.
o
Italian farmers were hit by collapse grain prices.
o
Industry and banks suffered from a drop in demand.

Change in Italian trading patterns:
o
Manufactured goods depended on the export of manufactured goods.
o
Trade barriers erected in response to the Great Depression severely affected Italy’s ability to export its goods. Trade with countries in Eastern Europe compensate the loss of markets.
3

The change of Italian trading patterns impacted Italy’s foreign policy:
o
Italy became less concerned with economic retaliation from Britain, France and the USA.
o
Therefore, Italy had more freedom to act on its foreign policy goals.

Government expands control:
o
Mussolini used the economic crisis of the Great Depression to increase government control.
o
The government created a ‘corporate state’ and industrial boards involving government in business and labor concerns.

As a result:
o
Government and consumer spending increased
o
Employment increased.
o
The expansion of the army and navy provided further employment to up to 1 million men.
o
Italy had a healthy economy.

Aims of Mussolini’s foreign policy:
o
Acquire territory rich in resources. This gives Mussolini more cash and power especially needed iron ore and oil .
o
Acquire new lands for settling the increasing population.
o
Increase military.
o
Expand the empire. Take Abyssinia, restore pride after Italy was beaten in Adowa in 1886.
o
Unify lands they already have.

o
Intimidation of Germany, July 1934.
Mussolini viewed this as a German threat to Italian interest and security because:

Austria bordered Italy.

Italy worked with Britain and France to isolate Germany.

Italy worried Austria as a way for Germany to extend its influence into southern-eastern Europe.

Italy had significant economic and political interests in this region.
4

Reaction to Mussolini’s actions:
o
Germany’s army was weak, and Hitler did not have full control over it.
o
Hitler did not intervene in Austria.
o
More importantly for Mussolini, he had demonstrated his strength and convinced himself and others that Italy was a major military power.

o
Stresa Front, 1935:
The Stresa Front was formed in 1935 by Britain, France and Italy as a united front against Germany. The Stresa Front formed partially in response to German meddling in Austria and its decision to remilitarize in 1935.

Breakdown of the Stresa Front:
o
Shortly afterwards, Britain and Germany agreed to a naval treaty allowing Germany to increase the size of its navy in violation of the Treaty of Versailles.
o
Italy and France explored the idea of military cooperation until Italy became involved in the Abyssinian Crisis.
The Abyssinian Crisis:

Importance of the Abyssinian Crisis:
o
The Abyssinian Crisis had a great effect on European relations and significant consequences for the League of Nations.
o
It developed from Mussolini’s desire for an expanded Italian empire.

Italian Empire:
o
Italy had missed out on the 19th century “Scramble for Africa” and the development of an overseas empire.
o
Italy considered this area of North and East Africa to be within its own sphere of influence, a claim that was recognized by GB and France in 1906.

Early imperial expansion:
o
Italians were defeated by the Ethiopians at the Battle of Adwa – Adowa (1896), and many Italians sought revenge for this humiliation and their treatment in the Paris Peace conferences.
o
The empire they had was not impressive to Italians or anyone else.

Mussolini and nationalistic aims:
o
Mussolini wanted to make Italy into a Great Power like Britain or France by creating an empire.
o
Italy possessed colonies, but they were poor. It needed more impressive territory.
5

Pros and cons of the invasion:
o
Pro: Abyssinia bordered the colonies of Eritrea and Somaliland, and the borders were weakly defended.
o
Con: Abyssinia offered little economic benefit and war would strain Italy’s economy.
The Wal – Wal Incident and war.
o
In December 1934, Italian and Abyssinian troops skirmished at the small Abyssinian oasis of Wal – Wal.
o
Two Italian and 100 Abyssinian troops were killed.
o
This became known as the Wal – Wal Incident.

Mussolini’s reaction to the Wal – Wal Incident:
o
Italy had been preparing for an invasion of Abyssinia since December 1934.
o
Britain and France knew of Italy’s plans, but didn’t want to risk their good relations.

Modern weaponry:
o
Italian forces annihilated the Abyssinian armies with the use of aerial bombing, poison gas, poisoning water, destroying crops, et.
o
Hundreds of thousands of Abyssinians died.

The creation of Italian East Africa:
o
Italian Somaliland, Eritrea and Abyssinia were then merged into one large colony: Italian East Africa.
o
The capital of this new colony was Addis Ababa, Abyssinia’s capital city.
o
The King of Italy was retitled as Emperor of Ethiopia.
Responses to the Abyssinian Crisis.
→
ABYSSINIA:
o
Mussolini ordered the violent repression of Abyssinia. Over 750,00 people were killed in Abyssinia during the war.
o
The wholesale destruction of villages and livestock, execution of resistors and the use of poison gas demonstrated Italian ruthlessness.
o
Guerrilla attacks occurred throughout Italian occupation but with minimal impact.
o
There was no large-scale revolts, probably because the lack of weapons and organization but also due to the violence of the Italian’s military’s response.
6
→
LEAGUE OF NATIONS:
o
Condemned the Italian invasion of Abyssinia on October 1935 and voted to impose economic sanctions.
o
An oil embargo on Italy would hurt its economy. But the League didn’t impose it.
o
Britain didn’t close the Suez Canal to Italian shipping, claiming it could lead to war.
o
France didn’t threaten Italy either.
o
Abyssinia was condemned to defeat.

o
The consequence of the Abyssinian Crisis for the League of Nations:
The LoN was proven impotent and had lost all legitimacy in international affairs.


Destruction: it had allowed the destruction of a member state by another member state.

Britain and France: they proved more concerned with their own agenda than the success of the League.

Manchuria and Abyssinia: it had failed in Manchuria and again in Abyssinia with Japan and Italy withdrawing from the League.
→
BRITAIN AND FRANCE:
The Abyssinian Crisis created a dilemma for Britain and France:
o
France: Jan 1935, the French Foreign Minister, Pierre Laval, promised Mussolini that France would not interfere in Abyssinia.
o
Britain: hoped to negotiate a settlement allowing Italy to administer Abyssinia without annexing it.

Domestic political problems in Britain and France:
o
Britain: Britain’s National Government faced an election in Nov 1935 with a significant proportion of voter favoring economic sanction against Italy.
o
France: socialist supported the League and conservatives supported Italy.

Concerns about Germany:
o
Concerns about Germany also shaped Britain’s and France’s actions towards Italy.
o
Germany had a rapidly expanding economy and began rearmament.
o
Italy was driven closer to Germany by League actions.
7

Why did they support Italy:
o
War: neither Britain nor France wanted their actions against Italy to escalate to war.
o
Economy: their economies were not strong enough for war and could not afford to rearm for war specially to support a country far away in Africa.
o
Anti-communism: Mussolini’s anti- communism was important to defend against communism’s rise in Europe.
→
USA:
o
The USA unsuccessfully encouraged Mussolini not to invade Abyssinia.
o
After Italy’s invasion of Abyssinia, the USA banned sales of military goods to Italy and Abyssinia in compliance with its Neutrality Acts.
o
The ban hurt only Abyssinia because Italy produced its own military goods.
o
The USA refused to recognize the new colony of Italian East Africa, abiding by the Stimson Doctrine earlier invoked against Japan.
→
SOVIET UNION:
o
The Soviet Union proclaimed that Abyssinian independence must be guaranteed by the League of Nations.
o
The Soviet representative condemned Italy’s actions.
o
In response to the League’s failure to protect Abyssinia, the Soviet Union joined in economic sanctions and imposed an embargo on all trade on Italy.
→
o
Italy withdrew from the League of Nations in May 1936.

o
ITALY:
Closer ties with Germany:
The political and economic consequences of the Abyssinian Crisis allowed Italy more independence in its foreign policy. Italy began developing closer relations with Germany.

International diplomacy consequences:
o
The Rome-Berlin Axis: it created mutual foreign policies and spheres of interest between Italy and Germany.
o
Collapse of the Stressa Front: Italy ended cooperation with Britain and France, resulting in a collapse of the Stressa Front.
o
Anchluss: Italy declared that it would not oppose German annexation of Austria.
8
Italy 1939:

o
Italy and Mussolini supported the conservative Spanish nationalist General Franco in the Spanish Civil War from 1936 to 1939.

o
Spanish Civil War: Non – Intervention Agreement:
Mussolini hoped that France would become involved, allowing Italy to seize Corsica and territory in south-east France.

o
Spanish Civil War: great commitment for Italy.
Italy’s involvement required a large military commitment that the economy could not easily afford.

o
Germany and Italy in the Spanish Civil War:
Spanish Civil War: new territorial aims:
When France stayed out of the war, Mussolini decided to seize territory elsewhere.
Italy’s interest in Albania.

o
Italy’s growing control and war 1931 – 9:
Tensions developed between Italy and Albania, beginning in 1931.

Increasing tensions:
o
Mussolini attempted to gain control of Albania’s economy and demanded land for Italian settlement.
o
Italian military advisors and instructors were forced out of Albania.
o
Albania closed Italian – operated schools Mussolini suspended loans to Albania.

Albania – closer to France:
o
Albania appealed to France for help. France demanded even more territory than Italy.
o
King Zog reopened negotiations with Italy.

o
Italy demanded more rights:
Landed Italian navy in Durrës, Albania’s major port in June 1934.
9
o
Albania was prohibited from alliances except with Italy
o
Restrictions on trade with Italy ended
o
Italy’s navy was allowed to use Durrës as a naval base.

Ultimatum to Albania:
o
In 1939, Mussolini sent an ultimatum to Albania demanding almost complete control of Albania.
o
King Zog offered to give Italy some concessions.

Annexation of Albania:
o
On 7 April 1939, Italian soldiers, ships and aircraft landed at Durrës.
o
By 10 April, all of the country was occupied.
o
Italy annexed Albania and declared Italy’s king to be the new King of the Albanians, as well as Emperor of Ethiopia.

Limited response to Italy annexing Albania:
o
The League of Nations refused to act
o
Britain and France did not act.
o
Neighboring countries did nothing.
o
The Soviet Union verbally protested; it was the only country to protest.
Second World War begins, 1939:

o
In May 1939, Italy and Germany formed the Pact of Steel. The two countries agreed to support each other in case of war and to economic and military cooperation.

o
War was not imminent:
Germany promised Italy war was not imminent. Italy was reassured by the promise. Its economy was weakened by its military adventures and the use of deficit spending.

o
May 1938: Pact of Steel.
Invasion of Poland:
Germany did not abide by the terms of the Pact of Steel or its promise. Germany did not warn about the possibility of war with Poland until August 1939.
10

o
o
Italy wasn’t ready for war:
Weak economy:

Great Depression.

Deficit spending for war preparations, the invasion of Abyssinia and the Spanish Civil.
Weak military:


Smaller for economic reasons.

Supplies consumed in previous conflicts.
Germany only wanted diplomatic and political support:
o
Economic help in order to participate: Mussolini declared that Italy was not ready for war. He made economic and military demands on Germany if Italy was to be prepared for war.
o
Diplomatic and political support Germany agreed that Italy could remain in the alliance without fighting in return for diplomatic and political support, and Mussolini quickly agreed.

o
World War II 1940 :
France was all but defeated by 10 June when Italy declared war and began the invasion of France’s southeast provinces and Corsica.
German foreign policy.
German foreign policy 1933 – 40.

o
Hitler and the consolidation of power:
Hitler and the Nazi Party implemented the policy of Gleichschaltung (‘making the same’), merging the government with the party. Key effects included:


Banning all political parties except the Nazi Party.

Abolishing labor unions.

Filling governing organizations and offices with Nazi Party officials.

Giving all police power to the SS.
Internal purge:
o
Hitler also eliminated threats to his power from members of the Nazi Party.
o
In 1934, he executed his most serious rivals within the party in the Night of the Long Knives.
11

The army:
o
Only the German army ended his control, here the conservative nobility, who made up the officer corps didn’t trust Hitler.
o
By 1938, the top commanders had been replaced with men loyal to Hitler. He now controlled the army.
Nazi Germany’s economy.

The German economy before 1914:
o
After unification (1871): rapid economic growth.
o
After 1890: Germany one of the world’s fastest – growing industry.
o
Building and increasingly strong navy.

Financial situation worsened with the terms of the Treaty of Versailles:
o
Territorial loss.
o
From 1921: Germy has to pay reparations (6.6 billion pounds).
o
90% merchant fleet surrendered to the allies.

The “New Plan”:
o
Gave more power to the government to control the economy.
o
Germany only traded with countries if their exports were equal to or greater in value than their imports.
o
Trade increased with states that exported raw materials to Germany and bought German manufactured goods.

As a consequence:
o
Food became cheaper in Germany.
o
More money became available to use for rearmament.
o
Increased trade with central and eastern European states made them rely economically, and therefore politically, on Germany.

Recovery from the Great Depression:
o
Germany’s economy recovered more quickly than other states.
o
Because Britain and France relied on imperial preference, this allowed Germany to increase its political influence throughout the rest of Europe.
12

o
The Four Year Plan 1936 – 9:
The New Plan had been designed to strengthen Germany’s economy, but pressure caused increasing spending on military priorities. Schacht wanted to stay focused on the economy.

o
Self – sufficiency:
The government hoped to gain greater self – sufficiency. This would reduce Germany’s vulnerability to embargoes and blockade like the one in the First World War.

Inflation and workers discontent:
o
German military production increased, but it contributed to inflation.
o
Some historians argue that political pressure from workers and economic problems were a major cause of Germany going to war in 1939.
Rearmament.

Vulnerability after 1919:
o
Germany was disarmed, but the countries that bordered it, France and Poland, had large armies and formed an alliance.
o
France also formed the Little Entente with Czechoslovakia, Romania and Yugoslavia in 1920 and 1921.
o
Many Germans felt encircled.

World Disarmament Conference 1932:
o
The League of Nations had a World Disarmament Conference in Geneva, Switzerland, in 1932.
o
The goal was to decrease the size of armies.
o
France refused to reduce its military without a security guarantee from Britain and the USA. Both countries refused.
o
France’s insistence on a large army increased Germany’s desire for rearmament.

Rearmament in Germany:
1933
1939
Army of 100,000 men
1200 bombers and 98 divisions of their Army.
No tanks
1200 bombers
No warplanes
2 battleships, 2 armored cruisers, 17 destroyers and 47 U – boats
13
International response to rearmament, April 1935.
→
FRANCE’S RESPONSE:
o
Although France was a great military power, it sought a new ally.
o
Britain and Poland were not reliable.
o
In May 1935, France and the Soviet Union signed the Franco-Soviet Treaty of Mutual Assurance. They agreed to:
→

Work through the League of Nations for peace

Aid each other in case of conflict.
BRITAIN’S RESPONSE:
o
Following the First World War, there was little support for rearmament.
o
Economic problems from the Great Depression strengthened this reluctance.
o
Germany’s decision to rearm changed British attitudes toward rearmament.
o
Britain began to rearm on a large scale.
o
Military spending increased over 600% between 1935 and 1939.
Germany foreign policy 1933 – 5

Germany’s foreign policy 1933 – 5:
o
Between 1933 and 1935, Hitler had a cautious foreign policy.
o
Germany’s economy and military was weak. Politically, Hitler was consolidating his power.
Nazism and foreign policy:

Nazi philosophy and beliefs influenced German foreign policy:
o
Completely revising the Treaty of Versailles.
o
Pan-Germanism or all Germans should live in Germany
o
Anti-communism Germany needed living space or lebensraum
o
Germans were superior race destined to conquer and rule non- German inferior races
o
Democracy created weak states
o
Germany needed strong leadership.
14
The Polish – German Non – Aggression Pact, Jan 1934:

Polish – German Non – Aggression Pact:
o
In January 1934, Poland and Germany signed the Polish- German Non-Aggression Pact.
o
Both countries agreed not to attack each other for a period of ten years.
o
Poland felt it had little to fear from Germany because:
o

Poland possessed a large army

Poland had an Alliance with France

Poland worried more about the Soviet Union
Germany benefited because:

They could rearm without fear about Poland.

They had weakened the alliance between France and Poland

It would lead to more trade with Poland, a source of food and metals
International responses:
→
FRANCE:
o
France was furious with Poland. Their alliance and trust was weakened.
o
But, France could do little about it. The non-aggression pact may have been a cause of France seeking better relations with the Soviet Union.
→
SOVIET UNION:
o
Favorable relations had existed between Germany and the Soviet Union since the Rapallo Treaty established international relations in 1922.
o
Trade and limited military cooperation soon developed.
o
This cooperation continued after the Nazis came to power.
Austria, 1934.

Anschluss and Pan – Germanism:
o
Pan-Germanism appealed to many in Austria and Germany, including Hitler who was born in Austria.
o
Political instability in Austria may have led to the desire for stability offered by Germany.
15

1934: first attempt for the Anschluss:
o
June 1934: Hitler discussed with Mussolini the idea of making Austria a German satellite state.
o
Mussolini rejected this idea Hitler encouraged the Austrian Nazi Party to stage a coup. This led to the Stresa Front Germany was too weak to intervene militarily.
Soar Plebiscite 1935:
o
The Saar was an iron and coal rich region in Germany administered by the League of Nations.
o
In a January 1935 plebiscite, more than 90% or Saar residents voted to join Germany.
Anglo-German Naval Treaty, June 1935:
o
In June 1935, Britain and Germany signed the Anglo-German Naval Treaty.
o
Britain considered Germany had legitimate concerns, but should be limited militarily.
o
For Britain, the treaty accomplished these goals by limiting Germany’s navy to 35% of Britain’s navy.

France and Italy reaction:
o
France and Italy judged the treaty as encouraging German rearmament.
o
The Stresa Front was seriously weakened and then collapsed with Italy’s invasion of Abyssinia later in 1935.
German foreign policy 1936 – 39.
Remilitarization of the Rhineland, March 1936:

o
ToV: demilitarization of the Rhineland:
The Treaty of Versailles created a demilitarized Rhineland, German territory bordering France, Belgium and Luxembourg.

Demilitarization- humiliated and vulnerable:
o
Germany’s inability to defend the Rhineland was one of the sources of humiliation.
o
Demilitarization made Germany vulnerable to attack.

Abyssinia and the Rhineland :
o
Hitler saw the political turmoil from the Abyssinian crisis as an opportunity to act in the Rhineland.
o
In December 1935, he ordered the German army to create an occupation plan.
16
International response:
→
FRANCE:

Did not respond:
o
German did not violate the French border.
o
The French army believed Germany would not attack through the Rhineland.
o
Military plans prepared for a defensive war and therefore had no plans to invade Germany, even if the Rhineland was remilitarized.
o
France refused to fight Germany alone.
o
Military spending increased.
→
BRITAIN:
o
Reassured France of support should Germany invade
o
Viewed the occupation as Germany walking in its ‘own back garden’
o
Believed it removed one of Germany’s grievances against France and Britain
o
Hoped Germany would become more cooperative.
Germany ends diplomatic isolation 1936.

The Rome – Berlin Axis, October 1936:
o
Germany and Italy formed the Rome – Berlin Axis, a new diplomatic relationship.
o
It was intended to show that Germany and Italy were the new dominant powers in world affairs.

The Anti – Comintern Pact, November 1936:
o
The Soviet-sponsored Communist International (Comintern) supported communist groups around the world.
o
Japan and Germany formalized their opposition to these efforts in the Anti-Comintern Pact signed in November 1936.

The Anti – Cominterm Pact – Italy joins:
o
The agreement was primarily symbolic, but did announce that neither country was diplomatically isolated.
o
Global anti-communist sentiment minimized concern with the new relationship.
o
Italy joined the Pact in November 1937.
17
Anschluss, March 1938:

Italy and the Anschluss:
o
A factor in the formation of the Rome – Berlin Axis was Italy withdrawing objections to Germany annexing Austria.
o
In addition to the concept of Pan – Germanism, Austria offered other key advantages to Germany:


Large industrial development.

Many skilled workers.

Significant gold reserves.

Vital natural resources.
Anschluss, 1938:
o
By 1938, Germany’s economy and military were strong.
o
Hitler began pursuing Anschluss, German for connection or annexation with Austria.

Austria and Germany negotiated:
o
The Austrian government entered negotiations with Germany to prevent annexation. Hitler demanded:

The appointment of Arthur Seyss-Inquart, an Austrian Nazi Party member, as Minister of Public Security, giving him control of all police.

The release of all jailed Nazi-Party members.

Further demands:
o
When the Austrian government agreed to these demands, Hitler declared that millions of suppressed Germans be reunited with Germany.
o
This was a challenge to Austrian independence.
o
In an attempt to prevent a German takeover, Austria’s Chancellor Kurt Schuschnigg scheduled a plebiscite to decide if Austrians wanted Anschluss.
o
Hitler claimed that rioting broke out in Austria requiring Germany to send troops to restore order.

Schuschnigg resigned to avoid an invasion:
o
Hitler claimed that rioting broke out in Austria requiring Germany to send troops to restore order.
o
He then threatened invasion unless Schuschnigg resigned, which he did.
o
Swys-Inquart was made Chancellor, and he immediately requested German assistance.
18

Anschluss, March 1938:
o
On 12 March 1938, German troops entered Austria.
o
The next day Austria became part of Germany in violation of the Treaty of Versailles.

The League of Nations did nothing in response because:
o
Austria had invited German troops to enter the country.
o
Austrian citizens overwhelmingly voted in favor of joining Germany.

Neither Britain or France made any serious objections to Anschluss:
o
They could do little militarily
o
Both countries believed Germany could be useful in the fight against communism.
o
It appeared to be a case of Germans wanting to live in Germany.

Appeasement:
o
Appeasement was the policy of negotiating by Britain and France to address Germany’s grievances with the ToV.
o
Many believed it encouraged Hitler to be more aggressive because the policy made by Britain and France seem weak.
o
Britain believed negotiating made more sense than confrontation, especially since Britain was still rebuilding its military.
o
Many at the time saw Germany’s demands as reasonable.

International response - Soviet Union:
o
The Soviet Union protested, but had no other options.
o
Internal political strife in the forms of purges resulted in the imprisonment and execution of many senior government and military officials, including its foreign policy and diplomatic experts.
o
The violence contributed to Britain and France having little reason to work with the Soviet Union.
Sudeten Crisis.

Sudeten Crisis, October 1938:
o
Inspired by the Anschluss, Germans living in the Sudeten area of Czechoslovakia and the Sudeten Party, close allies of the Nazi Party, demanded to become part of Germany.
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
Konrad Helein – the Karlsbad Program:
o
After meeting with Hitler in March 1938, Konrad Henlein, head of the Sudeten German party, issued a list of demands called the Karlsbad Programme.
o
The main demand was autonomy for Germans in Czechoslovakia.

Czechoslovakia- Edvard Benes:
o
President Edvard Benes of Czechoslovakia rejected autonomy and offered greater rights for Sudeten Germans.
o
Many saw Henlein working on behalf of Germany.

The May Crisis:
o
Czechoslovakia partially mobilized its military at the end of May 1938 when it appeared that Germany might attack.
o
Germany did not attack, but it became aware that Czechoslovakia would fight.
International response to the Sudeten Crisis.
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FRANCE:
o
One of Czechoslovakia’s alliance was a military alliance with France.
o
However, France intended the alliance as a defense against German aggression. It had not intended to come to the aid of Czechoslovakia.
o
In addition, France was not ready for confrontation with Germany and had no battle plans prepared to attack Germany in any event.
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SOVIET UNION:
o
In 1935, Czechoslovakia and the Soviet Union signed a mutual defense treaty.
o
The Soviets expected the alliance to work in connection with the mutual assurance treaty they had with France.
o
Therefore, the Soviet Union would assist Czechoslovakia only if France acted as well.
→
o
BRITAIN:
Leaders of Britain’s government put pressure on the government Of Czechoslovakia to agree to Henlein’s demands because they:

Had some sympathy for the idea of Germans wanting to live in Germany.

Were not willing to fight over Czechoslovakia.
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
Hitler ready to invade:
o
Although Hitler did not want war with Britain and France, he thought the two countries would not go to war for Czechoslovakia.
o
Hitler ordered the army to prepare an invasion for 1 October.
Munich Agreement, 30 Sep 1938:
o
The threat of war worried Mussolini because Italy was not militarily prepared.
o
Mussolini called for a meeting with Hitler, Chamberlain and Daladier.
o
Leaders of Czechoslovakia and the Soviet Union were not invited. The four leaders met in Munich and reached an agreement on 30 September.

Terms of the Munich Agreement included:
o
The Sudeten would become part of Germany.
o
German troops would occupy the Sudeten in stages.
o
A plebiscite would determine which country residents preferred.
o
Germans would be released from Czechoslovakian military service.

Czechoslovakia force to accept:
o
Czechoslovakia had little choice but to accept these terms.
o
Britain and France stated that they would not fight Germany if Czechoslovakia did not abide by the agreement.
Results of the Sudeten Crisis:
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FRANCE:
o
The Munich Agreement was popular in France.
o
However, it left France less secure:

The power of Czechoslovakia, a major ally, was diminished.

France’s abandonment of the mutual assistance guarantee damaged relations with the Soviet Union.

Britain continued to refuse military alliance with France.

France – War and Peace:
o
In November 1938, France increased military spending by 300%
o
A Franco-German Declaration pledge to respect borders and pursue peace was signed in December 1938.
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
However, there were concerns:
o
A weakened France might seek and agreement to avoid conflict with Germany.
o
Britain had no reliable ally.
o
Germany had come close to going to war indicating that Germany saw war as a way to address its grievances or resolve its demands.
o
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SOVIET UNION:
o
The Soviet Union could not trust Britain and France to join them in case of a German attack.
o
Because the two countries seemed to favor fascist states like Germany and Italy, the Soviets delivered the two countries might join Germany in a war against the Soviet Union.
o
The Soviet Union was isolated.
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GERMANY:
o
Hitler had been willing to go to war with Czechoslovakia but not Britain and France.
o
After the annexation of the Sudeten, the German military realized the strength of Czechoslovakia's defenses. Victory would not have been easy.
o
A plot developed to assassinate Hitler and end Nazi rule.
o

Popularity in Germany:
However, the Munich agreement made Hitler immensely popular in Germany.
o
Concerned about the public’s reaction to an assassination, the military ended the plot.
Results of the Sudeten Crisis.
o
Between 2 October and 20 November, Czechoslovakia was dismantled by Slovaks, Hungary, Poland and Germany.
o
Only a rump state remained.
o
On 14 March 1939, Hitler threatened Czechoslovakian President Emil Hácha. Hitler gave Hácha two options.

Agree to make Czechoslovakia part of Germany.

Germany would invade

The hopes for peace were gone:
o
Czechoslovakia became part of Germany.
o
Slovakia was separated from the rest of the former state and became an independent country, as well as a German ally. The hopes for peace from Munich Agreement were gone in only six months.
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The final crisis and the outbreak of war 1939.

Treaty of Versailles and Poland:
o
At the Paris Peace Conference, Poland was created partially using German land.
o
The desire to regain the Free City of Danzig and the Polish Corridor, which separated Germany from the German territory of East Prussia, influenced German actions.
Polish Crisis, 1938 – 9:
o
o
After the occupation of the Sudeten, Germany entered talks with Poland to:

Build transport links with East Prussia.

Enter a 25 year non – aggression pact with Poland.

Help Poland gain territory elsewhere.
Hitler benefited from other developments as well:

Britain was sympathetic to many of Germany’s goals.

France and Britain could not agree how to respond to German actions.

Few countries would cooperate with the Soviet Union. Italy developed a favorable foreign policy towards Germany.

Appeasement was about to end:
o
German demands for Danzig created popular outrage in Britain and France.
o
It was thought Germany’s territorial demands had ended with the Munich agreement.
o
The British and French governments were pressured not to give in to German demands.
o
Britain also worried that France might negotiate a security agreement with Germany.
o
In February 1939, Britain announced military support for France.

Guarantee to Poland’s borders:
o
The combined military production of Britain and France would be greater than Germany’s by autumn 1939.
o
Britain began creating an anti-fascist network of alliances. It signed mutual assistance agreements with Greece, Romania, Albania and Turkey.
o
Despite their guarantee, Britain and France refused to give Poland military and financial assistance.
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
Britain and France negotiate with the Soviet Union:
o
Britain and France proposed that the Soviet Union join their anti-fascist coalition.
o
They argued that Soviet support of Poland would prevent a German attack.

Britain and France negotiate with the Soviet Union:
o
Britain & France pledged to maintain the current borders of eastern Europe.
o
The Soviet Union had lost territory in eastern Europe after the First World War, including the Baltic states, Finland, Poland and part of Romania.
o
The Soviet Union wanted these territories restored to them.
o
Poland refused permission for the Soviet forces to enter its territory.

The Soviet Union wad not impressed:
o
Without the permission to enter Poland, the German army would be on the Soviet border before they could be fought.
o
In addition, Britain and France sent low-level diplomats to negotiate with the Soviet Union.
o
The Soviets came to understand that they were not legitimate allies for Britain and France, only a tool to be used.
→
GERMANY’S RESPONSE:
o
Britain and France had not shown resolve during the Sudeten Crisis.
o
Hitler believed they would not go to war for Poland.

Plan to invade Poland:
o
Shortly after Poland’s borders were guaranteed, Hitler ordered the army to develop an invasion plan for Poland called Case White.
o
On 28 April, Germany withdrew from the Polish – German Non – Aggression Pact.
Pact of Steel, May 1939.
o
Pressure from Britain and France led Germany to create a formal alliance with Italy, known as the Pact of Steel. The terms of the agreement included:

Closer co- ordination of foreign policies, the press and propaganda.

Supporting each other in war.

Developing war plans together.
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
o
Nazi – Soviet Pact, 23 August 1939:
On 23 August 1939, after secret negotiations, Germany and the Soviet Union signed the Treaty of Non- Aggression between Germany and the Soviet Union, better known as the Nazi-Soviet Pact.

Agreements in the Nazi – Soviet Pact:
o
Not to fight one another
o
To give Germany freedom in diplomacy
o
That areas in Poland that one belonged to Russia would be reabsorbed into the Soviet Union.
o
Germany no longer had to fear Soviet intervention in Poland.
Invasion of Poland, 1 Sep 1939
Polish crisis:
o
During the crisis, Britain and France hoped Poland would grant Germany’s demands.
o
Poland continued to refuse to negotiate.
o
Britain and France maintained their support of Poland.

On 25 August, Hitler delayed the invasion because of two developments:
o
Britain and Poland announced a military alliance.
o
Mussolini stated that Italy was not prepared for war and could not abide by the Pact of Steel.
o
The Pact of Steel was modified to allow Italy to support Germany in other than military ways.

As well as warning not to violate Poland’s borders, Britain also ordered:
o
British ships in the Baltic and Mediterranean seas to leave their bases in case of surprise attack.
o
Implementation of emergency rationing of food and essential supplies in Britain.
o
These moved did not convince Hitler than Britain would go to war.

31st August:
o
Hitler met the Polish ambassador in Berlin.
o
Hitler demanded the return of Danzing and added a new demand the return of the Polish Corridor
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o
The Polish ambassador did not have the authority to sign a treaty.
o
Germany announced that Poland had rejected negotiations.
Poland invaded, 1 September.

International response to the invasion of Poland:
o
Britain and France called for an end to hostilities.
o
An Italian call for a conference of world powers to resolve the crisis was ignored.

o
Britain and France declared war on Germany on 3 September 1939:
Accounts indicate that Hitler was shocked by the declaration of war.

WWII began:
o
A localized war between Germany and Poland turned into a European war.
o
The war that would become the Second World War in Europe and north Africa had started.
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