Ethics
2. Lesson 1: Introduction: Key Concepts in Ethics
Module 1 contains discussions of the key concepts in Ethics which include
topics such as; how ethics is being defined per se, and the distinction between
moral and non- moral standards through examples. Ethics includes the
importance of rules to a man that serves as the foundation for any healthy
society. It tackles moral and non-moral standards - two different concepts that
focus on the standards of right or wrong. Moral dilemmas explain how a
person faces tough choices and that it is only humans that can be considered
as ethical. Ethics also clarifies the minimum requirements for morality which
are the reasons and impartiality.
4. Topic#1: Ethics and Morality
Ethics and Morality
Welcome! First, let us know what the word “Ethics” means. Take note that
terms and concepts are crucial in understanding about Ethics.
Figure __ Morals and ethics are closely related yet they mean
differently.
Ethics is derived from the Greek word “Ethicos” which means character,
custom or manners. It is a science of character of an individual expressed as
right or wrong conduct or action. Ethics is related to moral principles that
prescribe codes and explains what is right and good, good or bad. It tells us
how choices are to be made and what the consequences it will yield. To be
ethical, you need to understand on what you do is right or wrong, good or bad,
so that you will be able to arrive at the right or good decision for you to be
called ethical.
In other words, Ethics seeks to resolve questions of human morality by
defining concepts such as good and evil, right and wrong, virtue and vice,
justice and crime.
To put it simply, Ethics and morality are closely related concepts. Ethics
pertains to specific rules, actions and behaviors while Morality refers to the
guiding principles or the standard of society which is used to decide what is
right or wrong behavior.
5. Topic 1.1. Ethics as A Philosophy
Ethics and Philosophy
Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle are the three major figures in ancient
philosophy and considered ethics as a philosophical engagement. They were
the ones who were able to see the possibility of thought and action, or theory
and practice that exist in dynamic unity.
1. Socrates - On a day in 399 BC the philosopher Socrates stood before a jury
of 500 of his fellow Athenians accused of "refusing to recognize the gods
recognized by the state" and of "corrupting the youth." If found guilty; his
penalty could be death.
2. Plato -He was Socrates’s student who took over the task when He
(Socrates was executed for allegedly “Corrupting the youth’s minds of Athens.
Plato discussed every kind of philosophical idea, including Ethics wherein he
enhanced the ethical orientation of philosophy by presenting on human life as
a struggle to live what life is ought to be.
3. Aristotle, a student of Plato, is a towering figure in ancient Greek
philosophy, who made important contributions to logic, criticism, rhetoric,
physics, biology, psychology, mathematics, metaphysics, ethics, and politics.
His works include the necessity of finding one’s purpose and practicing
moderation in life in order to achieve what we
call “eudaimonia meaning happiness”.
6. Topic#2: The Importance of Rules to Social Beings
Rules serve as the foundation for any healthy society. It tells us what is or
what is not allowed in a specific situation or context Say, a mother tells her
son the proper way of crossing the street that is to follow the road signs in
order to avoid accidents.
Another example is school rules that schools provide to all stakeholders such
as the employees, the faculty members, and the students in order to maintain
a harmonious relationship among them. Rules refer to explicit regulations
governing conduct within a specific activity. (“Rule”,n.d.) It tells us what is or
what is not in a particular context. Social rules systems include institutions
such as norms, laws, regulations, taboos, customs, and a variety of related
concepts and are important in the social sciences and humanities.
What do you think would happen if rules do not exist?
Without rules, society would likely fall into anarchy.
Rules are established to protect the weaker class in society since they are at
a disadvantage if such regulations are broken. When rules are properly set
and followed, they provide a stable environment and human co-existence in a
community, resulting in peace and order.
Rules benefit man in various ways:
ü Rules protect social beings by regulating behavior - rules build boundaries
that limit man’s behavior. The rule is a means for imposing consequences on
those who violate them.
ü Rules help to guarantee each person certain rights and freedom. Rules
serve as frameworks for society. Rules on a division of power and checks and
balances further to protect individuals' freedom and liberty.
ü Rules produce a sense of justice among social beings. Rules are needed to
keep the strong dominates the weak, in other words, it prevents exploitation
and domination.
7. Topic #3: Moral Vs. Non Moral Standards
Moral standards keep everyone to act in the right way, for you and me to
show an acceptable manner or behavior. Moral standards are norms that we
have about the kinds of actions believed to be morally right or wrong. It also
involves our values in promoting the welfare and well being of humans as well
as animals, and the environment. Non-Moral standards, on the other hand,
refer to standards /Study the table below and are able to differentiate Moral
and non-moral standards
Moral Standard
ü Moral standards are norms that
individuals or groups have about the
kinds of actions believed to be morally
right or wrong, as well as the values
placed on what we believed to be
Non-Moral standard
- Non-moral standards refer to
standards by which we judge what is
good or bad and right or wrong in a
non-moral way.
morally good or morally bad.
- Examples of non-moral standards
are standards of etiquette by which we
judge manners as good or bad,
ü Moral standards normally promote
“the good”, that is, the welfare and well- standards we call the law by which we
judge something as legal or illegal, and
being of humans as well as animals
standards of aesthetics by which we
and the environment.
judge art as good or rubbish.
ü Moral standards, therefore, prescribe
ü Hence, we should not confuse
what humans ought to do in terms of
morality with etiquette, law, aesthetics,
rights and obligations.
or even religion.
8. Topic #5: What is the minimum requirement for Morality?
Reason and impartiality are the minimum requirements for a person to be
considered moral.
Reason for morality tells those human feelings may be important but sound
reasoning helps us to evaluate whether our feelings and intuitions are correct
and defensible.
Impartiality, on the other hand, refers to the idea that each individual’s
interests and point of view are equally important.
In short, impartiality is a principle of justice that holds a decision to be
objective rather than bias.
9. Topic #4: Dilemma and Moral Dilemmas
Dilemma is a term used to a situation in which a tough decision is to be made
between two or more options.
A moral dilemma or ethical dilemma involves conflict between moral
requirements.
The example above shows the conflict between two moral norms which is (1)
repaying one’s debt, (2) protecting others from harm. In simpler terms, a
person who faces a dilemma is required to do two or more actions, but cannot
do both of the actions. Quite intriguing! Let’s ask some ethics experts about
moral dilemmas. Some ethicists propose that when one conflicting moral
actions override the other the case is not a genuine dilemma.
What are the three levels of moral dilemmas?
1. Personal dilemmas - are dilemmas that are experienced on the personal
level.s
2. Organizational dilemmas - refer to ethical cases encountered by people
in an organization.
3. Structural dilemmas - is wider in scope in which it involves cases of a
network of institutions that encompass multi-sectoral organizations.
Module # 2: PART I: THE MORAL AGENT
Introduction
Module 2 contains two parts. The first part includes discussions on the role of culture in
moral behavior. The Social Convention Theory and the Social Conditioning Theory are
compared through examples of various real life situations. We will analyze what we call as
Cultural Relativism; its valuable lessons as well as its ethical faults. We will dive into a
deeper understanding of Asian Morality, focusing on Filipino Moral Characters and its
strengths and weaknesses. The second part of Module 2 features discussions on the
importance of developing virtue as a habit. We learn the close and circular relationship
between acts and character and finally, we will embark on Lawrence Kohlberg’s Six Stages
of Moral Development.
3. Topic #1: Definition of Culture and its Role in Behavior
4. Topic #2: Theories Explained
Among the popular notions which attempt to give account for basic
concepts in Ethics are the so called SOCIALL CONVENTION and
SOCIAL CONDITIONING theories. These theories are the consequence
of the fact that we can gain knowledge regarding morality through
culture and socialization.
4. Topic #2: Theories Explained
4.1. Social Convention Theory
Among The popular notions which attempt to give account for basic concepts in Ethics are the
so called “social convention” and social conditioning theories. These theories are the consequence of
the fact that we can gain knowledge regarding morality through culture and socialization.
4. Topic #2: Theories Explained
4.1. Social Convention Theory
Social convention theory
By this theory, it is claimed that the rules and moral standards that are in place are actually merely
inventions of man. Convention refers to the usual or customary ways through which things are done
within a society or community. Since these rules supposedly made by man, it is believed that the rules
could have been different if man wanted it to be different.
An example of this would be the rule that people must keep on the right of the road. This is true in the
Philippines but may be different in other countries where the norm would be to keep on the left.
4. Topic #2: Theories Explained
4.2. Social Conditioning Theory
By this theory on the other hand it is claimed that the rules people follow only echo social approval or
disapproval. This may be compared with peer pressure where the decisions of one may be influenced by
the people around him.
An example of this would be the decision to engage in the pre-marital sex. Although many people
around us may believe that to engage in such act is neither immoral nor moral, one may think that it is
ethically wrong despite potential influences around him. This in turn refers to the sense of moral
obligation where in a person feels that an action is morally wrong, he is morally obliged to disobey or
deviate from the society’s conditioning or insulations.
5. Topic #3: Analysis of Cultural Relativism
Cultural relativism is the most known form of moral relativism. Moral relativism holds that no act is good
or bad objectivity. Thus it believes that the morality or immorality of every act must be seen and
evaluated depending on different situations. Cultural Relativism dictates that an act is moral if the
cultural society approves of fit, and an act is therefore immoral if the cultural community disapproves of
it.
6. Valuable Lessons and Ethical Faults
Valuable lessons
Cultural relativism discourage being judgmental. It reminds us that different culture has different
standards that must be respected by all. It further teaches us that tolerance is necessary for a peaceful
world. Tolerance is needed so that different cultures with different set of rules may co-exist in this
world.
Ethical faults
Cultural relativism discourages analytical thinking and independent decision making. Because it is taught
that any act which the society approves is correct. It is required that an act be done without suspicion.
The society is the only basis, regardless of the morals stand of an individual.
8. Topic #4: Asian Moral Understanding (Filipino Moral Character) and
Universal Values
Filipino cultural morality primarily centers on having smooth interpersonal relationship with others.
There are numerous basic Filipino values that highlight our desire of peaceful relations with our peers, I
including PAKIKISAMA, HIYA, UTANG NA LOOB, HOSPITALITY AND RESPECT FOR ELDERS.
Though at the onset, having these values makes a great and respectable individual, we should be aware
of its weaknesses and its tendency to be abused. An example of this would be when an individual
subjects himself to immoral acts for the sake of PAKIKISAMA. An individual may be pressured into
engaging in different vices to be accepted by his peers and for the sake of PAKIKISAMA
UNIVERSAL VALUES
Refers to those that are practically shared among different cultures around the world. Example of what
we would call as universal values would be that parents are generally protective of their children , telling
of truth is a must, respecting life and considering murder as an immoral act.
1. Topic #5: Moral Character and Virtues
Moral character is defined as the existence or lack of virtues. When a certain individual has good moral
character , it means that he or she is a good person who possesses virtues, on the other hand, If one
lacks virtue, he or she may have vices instead of virtues
12. Topic #6: The Circular Relationship of Acts and Character
An individual actions determine his or her moral character. A moral character itself genmerates acts that
help in developing virtue or vice.
Thus, in above example the act of telling the truth would generate the moral character of being honest.
In turn, the moral character of virtue of being honest will generates more acts of telling the truth. Thus
the circular relations of acts and character.
14. Topic #7: Kohlberg’s Six Stages of Moral Development
American psychologist Lawrence Kohlberg taught that there are three different levels of moral reasoning
each with two sub stages, equaling to six stages of moral development. He claimed that people can only
pass through these levels in the order listed. Each new stage replaces the method of reasoning from the
previous stage.
14. Topic #7: Kohlberg’s Six Stages of Moral Development
14.1. Level 1 (Stage 1 & 2)
Level 1 pre conventional morality
This level is supposedly seen in individuals ranging from 1 to 10 years of age.
Stage 1 obedience and punishment orientation
In this stage, individuals make decisions based on his best interest without due regard for the feelings of
others. One will obey rules established by a higher authority, but may disobey if they are likely not to get
caught and punished.
Stage 2 individualism and exchange
This is where recognition of others feelings and needs develop. Individuals may try to satisfy other’s
needs if their own needs are satisfied. Right and wrong actions are determined by its consequences.
14.2. Level 2 (Stage 3 & 4)
Level2 conventional morality
This level is supposedly reached by individuals aged 8 to 16 and above.
Stage 3 good interpersonal relationships
Individuals make decisions based on the reactions of people and what will
please others. One is concerned maintaining good relationships with other
people and thus one may take other people’s perspectives into consideration
before making a decision.
Stage 4 maintaining social order
Individuals look to the society as a whole for the rules and guidelines
regarding what are right and wrong. They recognize laws and social orders.
14.3. Level 3 (Stage 5 & 6)
Level3 post conventional morality
These last levels are supposedly reached by adults, however, not all adults
reach before making decisions. Stage 6 is rarely seen even in adults.
Stage 5 social contract and individual rights
Individual recognize the meaning of the law and rules set out by the society.
The individual is equipped with better understanding of the rules and why they
are in place, their meaning and their purpose.
Stage 6 universal principles
People in this stage stick to a few abstract, universal principles such as
equality, respect for human dignity and or commitment to justice. They answer
to a strong personal conscience and readily disobey laws that are in violation
of their own ethical principles.