A PAPER REVIEW ON THE POTENTIAL OF USING MUSHROOM AS
ALTERNATIVE TO POLYSTYRENE PACKAGING
A Final Requirement in SCI 401- General Chemistry
For Bachelor of Science in Chemical Engineering
First Semester, AY 2021-2022
Submitted by:
Rabi, Anna Lea B.
Sagum, Princess R.
Untalan, Leidi Tintin A.
Viaña, Renelie B.
Submitted to:
Dr. Eufronia M. Magundayao
December 2020
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DEDICATION
This study is wholeheartedly dedicated to our beloved parents, who have been our
source of inspiration and gave us strength when we thought of giving up, who
continually provide their moral, spiritual, emotional, and financial support.
To our brothers, sisters, relatives, professors, friends, and classmates who shared
their words of advice and encouragement to finish this study.
And lastly, we dedicated this study to Almighty God, thank You for the guidance,
strength, power of mind, protection and skills and for giving us a healthy life. All of
these, we offer to You.
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Table Of Contents
Title Page......................................................................................................................................... i
Dedication.......................................................................................................................................ii
Table of Contents..........................................................................................................................iii
Chapter I THE PROBLEM AND ITS BACKGROUND
Introduction................................................................................................................1
Objectives of the Study..............................................................................................2
Chapter II REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
Conceptual Literature............................................................................................... 3
Polystyrene..........................................................................................................3
Polystyrene Packaging (Styrofoam).................................................................. 3
Mushroom...........................................................................................................4
Mycelium (fungi’s root system)........................................................................ 4
Mushroom Packaging.........................................................................................5
Advantages of mushroom-based packaging.....................................................6
Sustainable packaging of mushrooms..............................................................6
Properties of mushrooms packaging................................................................7
Related Literature........................................................................................................7
Synthesis..............................................................................................................8
Chapter III METHODOLOGY
Research Design..........................................................................................................10
Materials and Methods..............................................................................................10
1.1 Collecting and Purchasing of mycelium, cotton stalk and
other agricultural material..........................................................................................................10
1.1.1 Collecting cotton stalk and other agricultural material..................10
1.1.2 Purchasing of mycelim....................................................................... 10
1.2 Sterilizing the cotton stalk and introducing the fungus............................ 10
1.3 Incubating the mixture................................................................................. 10
1.4 Molding the product..................................................................................... 11
1.4.1 Putting the product in the plastic mold.............................................11
1.4.2 Sealing the plastic mold...................................................................... 11
1.5 Removing from the mold...............................................................................11
1.6 Pressing the molded mycelium/cotton stalk block...................................... 11
1.7 Testing the properties of the finish product................................................ 11
1.7.1 Testing the chemical properties.........................................................11
1.7.2 Testing the mechanical properties.....................................................11
1.7.3 Testing the physical properties of the final product........................ 12
Statistical Treatment of Data....................................................................................12
Chapter IV PRESENTATION, ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION OF
DATA
1.1 Identify the role of mycelium from mushroom as an alternative
for packaging material................................................................................................................ 13
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2.1 The chemical components of cotton stalk, fungus incubated cotton
stalk and different types of composites...................................................................................... 13
2.2 Mechanical properties of mycelium/cotton stalk composites under
varied pressing temperature....................................................................................................... 15
2.3 Physical properties.................................................................................................16
Chapter V SUMMARY, CONCLUSION, AND RECOMMENDATION
Summary........................................................................................................................18
Findings..........................................................................................................................19
Conclusions....................................................................................................................20
Recommendations......................................................................................................... 20
BIBLIOGRAPHY
References......................................................................................................................21
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Chapter I
THE PROBLEM AND ITS BACKGROUND
Introduction
In the Philippines, the vast amount of garbage encountered spread across the
shore is plastic; candy wrappers, PET bottles, plastic containers, and styrofoam or
polystyrene. For a long time, people have been using polystyrene packaging in
almost everything. It is used in packaging food, appliances, gadgets, etc. Packaging
has brought convenience to all for so many years now but most of the material used
in existing packaging is non-biodegradable and non-eco friendly. These types of
materials cannot be broken down by air, water, sunlight and ground soil. An example
of this is polystyrene (EPS) foam and plastics. These materials take thousands of
years to decompose and they piled up in landfills, taking up too much space. They
also produce greenhouse gas and methane, which is one of the factors in global
warming. Non-biodegradable materials also have toxins in it which is very harmful
for the human and animals (Green Journal, 2017).
Sustainable packaging was never a priority for most industries in the world.
Plastics are prominently used in making packaging because of its low-cost production.
More than 35 million tons of packaging board and 160 million tons of plastic
packaging are produced annually in the United States. When these packaging are
discarded, it will be put into landfills that contribute to packaging wastes (Kim and
Ruedy,2019). These packaging wastes become a burden to the people and the
environment. Thus, making sustainable packaging a goal to eliminate the use of
plastic and polystyrene in the market.
The replacement of styrofoam as a packaging material has a huge impact on
the environment. This will lessen people’s consumption of plastics. For this reason,
mushroom packaging is a great idea. In accordance to this, the study of Rajput et. al.
(2017), said that it is eco-friendly and economical quality and it consumes only onetenth the energy which is used to manufacture foam packaging. There is no toxic
waste eradicated from the making of the product until the product is made.
Moreover,it is biodegradable and costs effectively. In addition to this, it also lasts
long for it undergoes biofabrication which gives high strength to materials for
durability.
Mushroom packaging brings new innovation in our society. Giving the option
for consumers to have biodegradable packaging that not only makes their stuff safe
but also not harming the environment. This study is beneficial for the society to
ensure that the future generation can still enjoy the beauty of the environment. It can
also help business owners to give them an alternative option for their packaging.
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Moreover, it can generate new jobs that can give livelihood to the farmers. Lastly,
this study can help as an effective basis for future researchers in finding alternative
ways to eradicate the use of polystyrene.
Objectives of the Study
Generally, this study aimed to discover the potential of using mushrooms as
an alternative to polystyrene packaging. Specifically this study sought to achieve the
following:
1. Identify the role of mycelium from mushroom as an alternative for packaging
material.
2. Investigate the properties of the packaging material produced from mushroom
in terms of:
2.1 Chemical properties
2.1.1 halocellulose
2.1.2 α-cellulose
2.1.3 lignin contents
2.2 Mechanical properties
2.2.1 thickness swelling
2.2.2 modulus of rupture
2.2.3 modulus of elasticity
2.2.4 internal bond strength
2.3 Physical Properties
2.3.1 shelf life
2.3.2 biodegradable
2.3.3 R- value
2.3.4 cost
2.3.5 melting point
2.3.6 density
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Chapter II
Review of Related Literature
This chapter presents the conceptual and research literature relevant to the
present study. The concepts of this work were based and formed from different
articles and researches. These were reviewed to gain deeper insights into this field of
study.
Conceptual Literature
Polystyrene
Polystyrene is a polymer containing synthetic aromatic hydrocarbons
consisting of styrene monomers. From ethylene and benzene, styrene is made.
Ethylbenzene is formed when ethylene passes through benzene in the presence of an
aluminum trichloride catalyst, which is transformed into styrene and hydrogen after
moving through a catalyst such as iron oxide or magnesium oxide at high
temperatures. Widely available polystyrene is an amorphous, glassy polymer that is
usually rigid and comparatively inexpensive. Polystyrene consists of linear molecules
in total and is chemically inert. In the production of products such as molded
containers, lids, jars, bottles, radio and television cabinets, toys, foamed plastics, and
other household items, polystyrene is commonly used. Polystyrene can be formed,
friction molded, and extruded effectively and has strong flow properties at
temperatures that are comfortably below deterioration ranges (Begum et al. 2020).
Polystyrene Packaging (Styrofoam)
Polystyrene or Styrofoam is a less environmentally friendly petroleum
derivative, but is safe for food use, justifying its widespread use. As a light material,
it also makes silence a good packaging option for electronics and other delicate
products. In terms of energy usage and greenhouse gas emissions, polystyrene
processing has the worst environmental impact, second only to aluminum production.
Polystyrene has been a main component in urban litter and marine debris since when
they are used excessively for single-use products like food plates or food takeout
containers. They are non-recyclable and non-biodegradable, which makes it also
detrimental to wildlife (Abhijith et al. 2017).
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Fig.1. Polystyrene is widely used as a packing material. However, it is non-biodegradable, which becomes
harmful to the environment.
Mushroom
Mushroom is a kind of fungi usually edible. It is used in different cuisines all
over the world. Most of these mushrooms can be bought in supermarkets and have
been cultivated by many farmers for commercial use. Sharma (2015) defined
mushroom as a fungus with a stem cap and gills under the cap. It can be edible, wild
and some of them can be toxic. Mushroom has an exotic taste and it also has a lot of
benefits. In the study of Abhijith et al. (2017), it is stated that mushrooms are
agricultural products of biological origin that can be cultivated on the basis of
agricultural waste, agro-industrial waste or even industrial waste. Mushrooms are
considered protein-rich foods and are the source of protein from a single cell that is
equivalent to eggs, milk or meat. They have high amounts, but few sugars and low
calories of fibers, amino acids, phenylalanine, threonine and tyrosine. For industrial
processes like bio pulping and bio bleaching, mushrooms are also used.
Mycelium (fungi’s root system)
Mycelium is fungi’s root system that acts as a linking agent for surrounding
materials. It can be combined to produce standardized, biodegradable goods along
with agricultural products. Moreover, this substance decomposes faster than plastic
and polystyrene at a fraction of the speed. This product seeks to substitute or
eliminate current packaging items used by large corporations such as Amazon, FedEx,
and other companies (Krivanek, 2020).
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Fig.2. Mycelium is a vegetative component of a fungus-like bacterial colony composed of a branching mass,
thread-like hyphae.
Mushroom Packaging
Mushroom packaging is fundamentally done by developing the fungi that
require no hydrocarbons and almost no assets; the energy consumed to create items is
not as much as the plastic manufacturing. The mycelium development cycle can
develop from different waste materials (for example, corn/rice husks, cotton
squanders) that can be sourced locally with reduced transport costs. All of these
aspects allow mycelium-based products, more accessible to manufacture than plastic.
Compared to polystyrene that relies on fossil oil production, mushrooms can be
easily cultivated and extracted from nature or in a laboratory (Manning, 2017).
Mushroom packaging is made from fungus roots and agricultural residues that
has several sustainability advantages. One is it is 100% biodegradable and a
renewable material. Then, after using this it can be broken down and contributed into
a new agricultural material again (Sustainability Guide, 2018).
Fig.3. Mushroom Packaging is a biodegradable and reusable product that can be recycled directly in and by nature.
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Advantages of mushroom-based packaging
Mushroom-based packaging has been on the rise in the manufacturing world.
Research from a variety of sources shows that transitioning to sustainable packaging
will bring benefits to having a devoted and youthful consumer base that cares more
about green labeling than the actual cost and spreads to all kinds of businesses from
increased sales revenue. As noted, the primary material for this packaging is the
mushroom (fungi) which ensures that it is not harmful to the environment.
Furthermore, this being derived from biomass is known to be biodegradable, which
can be reused and recycled over time (Abhijith et al., 2017).
The emergence of mushroom packaging does not require the same cost of
production like the traditional cardboard and plastic packaging. With most consumers
and business owners that are being aware of the environmental effects of the
traditional packaging available, this innovation is a big deal (Kim & Ruedy, 2019).
According to Abhijith et al. (2017), in line with the commitment to advocate
enhancements in the mushroom packaging through a rigorous design, the material
uses the influence of living organisms to create an alternative to conventional
packaging.The status quo of environmentally polluting, unpredictable and
irresponsible waste streams could be interrupted by cost-competitive technologies.
The good thing about this packaging is that it is 100% biodegradable and is
very beneficial to the environment. Unlike the existing packaging now that takes
thousands of years to decompose, this packaging naturally biodegrades. In addition,
mushroom packaging is easily made and can be moulded into a variety of forms and
sizes (Charlotte Packaging, 2017).
Sustainable packaging of mushrooms
According to Kim and Ruedy (2019), mushroom packing is a sustainable and
biodegradable packaging. Made from the creation of Ecovative Design, the company
who pioneered in making mushroom packaging. It is an effective, efficient, cyclic,
and environmentally friendly packaging.
The mycelium (mushroom roots) can be cultivated for various items in a mold
to form different shapes and they quickly develop into a dense substance. The
material is dehydrated once the desired density and shape is reached, to stop further
growth. Mycelium-based materials can be left out in your backyard after their useful
life as a packaging material, and they decompose within a few weeks. When
manufactured on a wide scale, the material is much cheaper and is much easier to
biodegrade than to recycle (Abhijith et al. 2017).
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The mushrooms, like Mycelium, have unusual biological properties that can
grow miles of thread-like roots in days. The organism grows amazingly quickly,
more like thick foam to match every mold. They grow everything from finely
detailed laptop packaging, to big home insulation panels. By stopping the growth
process sooner or later, it is also possible to regulate the density of each product. This
proves that mushrooms are sustainable enough in providing eco-friendly packaging
to alter the production of polystyrene (Krivanek, 2020).
Properties of mushrooms packaging
The primary material to make this product possible is mushroom - one form
of biomass. The fungal material feedstock will serve as an additional source of
income for farmers as it paves the way for their agricultural waste to be used. The
substance breaks down in manure and landfills instead of persisting for decades,
intended for temporary usage. Efforts to have a true, beneficial effect on packaging
with the aid of mycelium would have the ability to make hazardous and enduring oilbased materials redundant and fundamentally change the way industry impacts the
environment. The feed on which the mushrooms grow will vary according to the
locally available materials, making the product suitable for worldwide production:
the inputs of the raw material are selected on the basis of the regional agricultural byproducts available (Krivanek, 2020).
According to Abhijith et al. (2017), mycelium is part of a mushroom that is
renewable and natural. It can be obtained from biological and agricultural wastes.
The fibers formed by mycelium cultivate rapidly and it produces tiny white fibres
that are binded into a strong and environment friendly material. There are an array of
possible applications of mycelium especially because of its characteristics. It is cost
efficient and environmental friendly raw material that could replace polystyrene in
the market.
Related Literature
Abhijith et al. (2017) in their research titled “Sustainable Packaging
Applications from Mycelium to Substitute Polystyrene: a review”, emphasizes
mycelium-based material as a safe alternative to polystyrene for packaging. The
fungi-based mushroom packaging material can be viewed as an alternative to
traditional plastic and is comparable in cost with any other regular foams. The feed
on which the mushrooms grow will vary according to the locally available materials,
making the product suitable for worldwide production. Ecovative has conceived the
concept of using foam based mushrooms and has gone a long way to making the
process efficient while maintaining intact the key properties of the material. In
addition, there are well-known companies, like Dell who had decided to use
mushroom materials in its packing cases, Ford who had decided to use mushroom
based foam as a key component in their automotive parts like bumpers, side doors,
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and dashboards, and Ikea who is determined to reduce its use of fossil fuel-based
materials and has been looking for alternatives to polystyrene for its packaging foam.
The production of mycelium-based mushroom packaging therefore has the possibility
to dominate polystyrene packaging.
Krivanek (2020), in his study titled "Fungal Mycelium; The Key to a
Sustainable Future," shows that a fungal mycelium combined with hemp has
sufficient characteristics and properties to be used as a global packaging material. It
also indicated a proper understanding of how fungal mycelium can be combined with
other materials to manufacture an eco-friendly product. It presents no danger to
human health as polystyrene does, and it has a wide variety of health benefits.
Moreover, the shipping mechanism has been too quick and straightforward to use;
customers have developed unsustainable behaviors. Therefore, the result suggests the
possibility of using mushroom in making sustainable packaging.
Bernal et. al. (2017) in their study “Active and Smart Biodegradable
Packaging Based on Starch and Natural Extracts”, shows that it is possible to make a
biodegradable plastic made out of cassava and extracts of green tea. Furthermore, it
only took 2 weeks for the biodegradable plastic decomposed into the soil. Therefore,
the results have the potential to discover other biodegradable material in making
sustainable packaging.
Marichelvam et. al. (2019) studied corn and rice starch as an alternative for
existing non-biodegradable packaging materials in their study titled “Corn and Rice
Starch-Based Bio-Plastics as Alternative Packaging Materials”. Their study showed
that corn and rice starch have better decomposability than the existing plastic
packaging materials. They concluded that bioplastics can possibly be an alternative to
Low-Density Polyethylene (LDPE) and High-Density Polyethylene (HDPE) plastic
bags. Unlike the existing packaging materials, this is not harmful to human health
and is not a threat to the environment. Hence, it is highly possible to make an
alternative packaging out of biodegradable materials with much better sustainability
and biodegradability from the existing non-biodegradable packaging.
Synthesis
The current research is comparable to the study of Abhijith et al. (2017)
titled,“Sustainable Packaging Applications from Mycelium to Substitute Polystyrene:
a review”, for instance that it discusses how fungi-based material will be an
alternative for polystyrene packaging. Also, this tackles how the mushroom foam based will remain its property when used like in the industries nowadays.
The research conducted by Krivanek (2020) titled, "Fungal Mycelium; The
Key to a Sustainable Future" can be compared to this study, wherein he also
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discussed the possibility of creating reusable and biodegradable packaging out of
fungal mycelium.
This study can be compared to the work conducted by Bernal et. al. (2017)
titled “Active and Smart Biodegradable Packaging Based on Starch and Natural
Extracts”, where they researched about making sustainable and biodegradable
packaging out of plant materials.
This can be compared to the study conducted by Marichelvam et. al. (2019)
titled, “Corn and Rice Starch-Based Bio-Plastics as Alternative Packaging Materials'',
wherein they also studied the possibility of making a sustainable and biodegradable
packaging out of agricultural products.
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Chapter III
METHODOLOGY
Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, the researchers were not able to do the
actual experimentation for this study. Nevertheless, this section contains the research
design of this study, and all materials that Li et al. (2020) and Liu et al. (2019), as
well as the procedures that they undertook on conducting their study.
Research Design
The researchers reviewed, analyzed and summarized the data and information
from previously published studies. A paper review, sometimes called literature
review, is an article or paper that analyzes and summarizes the present understanding
on a topic. Review article survey the current information existing in a published
study rather than conducting similar research for new facts and information
(Editage,2015).
Materials and Methods
1.1 Collecting and Purchasing of mycelium, cotton stalk and other agricultural
material
1.1.1 Collecting cotton stalk and other agricultural material
Cotton stalk which is grounded into particles within the size of 0.1 to
50 mm with 5 % of bran were collected. Regents such as corn flour,
potassium dihydrogen phosphate (KH2PO4), dipotassium hydrogen phosphate
(K2HPO4), magnesium sulfate (MgSO4) and glucose used for fungus
incubation were also collected (Li et. al, 2020).
1.1.2 Purchasing of mycelium
Mycelium, a white-root fungus of Ganoderma lucidum, was bought
for this will serve as a binder for the solution (Li et. al, 2020).
1.2 Sterilizing the cotton stalk and introducing the fungus
Cotton stalk particles were sterilized at 121°C for 1 hour. After cooling down
to 40°C, the fungus was inoculated using a liquid substrate as a carrier, which was
filtered from 20 min of boiling liquid containing 20 % of cotton bran, 10% of corn
flour and 1000 ml of water. And 1 % of potassium dihydrogen phosphate (KH2PO4),
1 % of dipotassium hydrogen phosphate (K2HPO4), 0.5 % of magnesium sulfate
(MgSO4), and 20 % of glucose were applied to the liquid (Li et. al, 2020).
1.3 Incubating the mixture
The mixture was poured into a conical flask and sterilized at 121°C for 1 hour.
In a clean workbench, the conical flask was cooled down to 25°C and the fungus
strain was inoculated into the conical flask. The conical flask was transferred to a
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biochemical incubator at 25°C, a Relative Humidity (RH) of 65% for 7 days, and a
liquid substrate was obtained. Sterilized cotton stalk particles and liquid substrate at a
mass ratio of 10:1 were combined in an agitator at 60 r/min for 3 min (Li et. al, 2020).
1.4 Molding the product
1.4.1 Putting the product in the plastic mold
1150 g blend was pressed into a 480 × 290 × 35 mm plastic mold in
the desired form. The plastic mold was carefully hand packed and any waste
was removed.
1.4.2 Sealing the plastic mold
The instrument was sealed to preserve a consistent microenvironment
for fungal dissemination that was incubated at 25°C and 65% Relative
Humidity (RH) for 7 days when mycelium colonized the mixture (Li et. al,
2020).
1.5 Removing from the mold
The block was dried at 65°C for 10 hours before removing from the mold.
After it was removed, the block was soaked in distilled water and the percent rise in
weight was measured for the intake of water (Li et. al, 2020).
1.6 Pressing the molded mycelium/cotton stalk block
After soaking, the block was hot-pressed at 200°C for 6 minutes. Pressure
was held at 3.5–4.0 MPa with a steel clearance gauge at the optimal density of 0.6
g/cm3 for mat treatment at a size of 500 × 300 × 12 mm. To prevent a blast, the
pressure was extended at 2 MPa for another 1 min. Afterwards the press was
completely released. The mat was collected and stored for 2 weeks at 23°C and 65%
Relative Humidity (RH) (Li et. al, 2020).
1.7 Testing the properties of the finish product
1.7.1 Testing the chemical properties
After being stored for 2 weeks, both front and back of the product
were sanded away for 1 mm with 240 mesh sand paper to eliminate the
bundled up mycelium before testing. After that, the chemical components in
terms of holocellulose, α-cellulose, and lignin contents were done with
respect to the chlorite method, TAPPI 203 cm-09, and TAPPI T 222 om-11,
respectively.
1.7.2 Testing the mechanical properties
The bundled up mycelium undergoes mechanical testing. The
modulus of rupture (MOR) and modulus of elasticity (MOE), which are
commonly used to test the mechanical properties of a panel, were also
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performed (Li et. al, 2020). Moreover, the 2h thickness swelling, flexural test,
and internal bond strength test were also carried out to test its properties (Liu
et al., 2019).
1.7.3 Testing physical properties of the final product
Whereas, in the study conducted by Krivanek (2020), the mushroom
packaging and polystyrene were stored for three weeks to test its shelf
life,density, and biodegradable ability.
Statistical Treatment of Data
The Thickness Swelling, Modulus of Rupture, Modulus of Elasticity and
Internal Bond Strength (IB) was evaluated. Twenty samples from each group were
checked for standard deviations. The results were analyzed with a one-way analysis
of variance (ANOVA) supplemented by a multiple-range evaluation for Duncan's
means of reference. The ANOVA was conducted on SPSS software and the
likelihood was set to 0.05 (p < 0.05).
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Chapter IV
PRESENTATION, ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION OF DATA
As the result of the COVID-19 pandemic, the researchers were unable to
conduct the experimentation process in the study. However, this chapter discusses,
analyzes and interprets the findings of a scientific analysis performed by scholars.
1.1 Identify the role of mycelium from mushroom as an alternative for
packaging material.
Li et. al (2020) in their study they used mushroom as a binder and
stated that the mycelium grew on the cotton stalk and bonded the particles together
by growing its fibrous threads and bio-adhesives, for example the chitin and βglucan-based oligosaccharides.
2.1 The chemical components of cotton stalk, fungus incubated cotton
stalk and different types of composites
The mushroom with cotton stalk was incubated together with other
composites for 7 days. Presented in Table 1 is the result of the chemical testing done
to the samples.
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Table 1
Chemical Components of neat, fungus incubated cotton stalk and different
composites
(Li et.al.,2020)
Label
Water uptake Extractives
before hot- (%)*
pressing (%)
Neat
stalk
Holocellulose
(%)
α-cellulose
(%)
Lignin (%)
cotton -
3.85
68.4
31.6
19.4
Fungus
incubated cotton
stalk
5.57
58.7
30.2
12.5
Control
composite
10
6.89
57.8
30.3
13.5
Composite-20
20
5.39
53.6
30.2
15.3
Composite-30
30
4.26
52.9
30.4
16.7
Composite-40
40
4.03
52.9
30.4
16.7
Composite-50
50
3.81
52.8
30.4
16.8
The neat stalk’s chemical properties resulted,3.85%, 68.4%, 31.6%, and
19.4%, for its extractives, holocellulose, α-cellulose, and lignin contents respectively.
When you subtract α-cellulose and holocellulose you will obtain the hemicelluloses.
After incubating the fungus the holocellulose and lignin decrease while the
extractives increase. It is because the fungi can degrade lignin and can consume noncrystal sugars like hemicelluloses. However, it can not use α-cellulose in early stages.
Before the composites uptake 30% of water, the lignin increased while the
hemicelluloses decreased. When water reacts with the composite the lignin contents
will be activated but after the 30% uptake of water the plant fibers will reach its
saturation point. Based on the table the extractives also decrease as the water uptake
increases. Proving the presence of mycelium even after incubating it (Li et al., 2020).
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2.2 The mechanical properties of mycelium/cotton stalk composites under
varied pressing temperature
The bundled up mycelium undergoes mechanical testing. The table 2 below
discusses the mechanical properties of mycelium/cotton stalk composites under
varied pressing temperature.
Table 2
Mechanical properties of mycelium/cotton stalk composites under varied
pressing temperature
(Liu, R. et al., 2019)
Pressing Temperature
2 h Thickness MOR (MPa)
Swelling (%)
MOE (MPa)
IB (MPa)
160 °C
36.3(6.6)
1.4(0.1)
260(40)
0.05(0.01)
180 °C
23.2(1.8)
2.2(0.2)
420(70)
0.09(0.02
200 °C
8.2(0.9)
4.6(0.2)
680(20)
0.18(0.02)
Note: Values in the parentheses represent the standard deviations of replicates. Thus,
a combination of radical and ionic polymerization reactions occurred during hotpressing.
The results of Thickness Swelling (TS) after soaked in water for two hours,
Flexural Test and Internal Bond Strength Test (IB) of composites of mycelium/cotton
stalk under Table 2 displays the various pressing temperatures. The physical
property evaluated was thickness swelling after two hours of immersion in water. The
result showed that the value decreased significantly as the pressure temperature rose.
At a pressing temperature of 160 ° C, the average 2 h TS value was 36.3 % with a
standard deviation of 6.6 %, at 180 ° C, the value was decreased to 23.2 % with a
standard deviation of 1.8 % , and at 200 ° C, the value decreased dramatically to
8.2 % with a standard deviation of just 0.9 %, implying that the composite's water
repellency benefited from high temperatures. The interpretation may be clarified by
the enhanced bonding power at high temperatures. Thus, the composites after two
hours being immersed in water at 200° C, were not significant, exhibiting p-values
greater than 0.05.
All mechanical properties increased with an increase in pressing temperature
due to improved interfacial bonding strength. The Modulus of Rupture (MoR) was
measured based on certain temperatures. At 160°C, the MoR valued at 1.4 MPa with
a standard deviation of 0.1, at 180°C, it resulted in 2.2 MPa and a standard deviation
of 0.2, and at 200°C, it gained 4.6 MPa with a standard deviation of 0.2. As
temperature rises, the values also rise which means that the composites have high
15
bending strength. In connection to this, the results, based on their standard deviation,
were not significant since they had p-values greater than 0.05.
The Modulus of Elasticity (MoE) was also evaluated based on the varied
pressure temperature. The value of MoE at 160°C is 260 MPa with a standard
deviation of 40, at 180°C, it increased at 420 MPa and a standard deviation of 70, and
at 200°C, it continued to rise at 680 MPa and 90 as its standard deviation. This means
that with the increasing temperature, the modulus of elasticity decreases. In relation,
the values of MoE were not significant since they had greater p-values than 0.05.
The Internal Bond Strength (IB) was measured to determine the strength of
the composites as they are binded with each other. The values were 0.05 MPa with a
standard deviation of 0.01, at 160°C , 0.09 MPa and a standard deviation of 0.02, at
180°C , and this increased at 200°C gaining 0.18 MPa and 0.02 as its standard
deviation. Despite the fact that the values are increasing, the values are still
significant for they had lesser p-values than 0.05. The internal bond strength of these
composites are well enough but since the thickness swelling and modulus are not,
this has a huge impact on the product itself. As a result, the structure of the cotton
stalk particles was loose with poor mechanical strength but still can be useful for
lightweight objects. (Liu, R. et al., 2019).
The results above are also true based on the study of Li et al.(2020) on which
it states that water can react with the hydroxyl groups in cotton stalks to further
improve the interfacial bonding strength. Also, the study incorporates the mechanical
properties of the composites for lightweight particle board is acceptable for all
composites.
2..3 Physical properties
The table 3 manifests the characteristics, content, and efficacy of fungal
mycelium as an alternative packaging material. It also discussed the decomposition
properties.
Table 3
Physical Properties
(Krivanek, 2020)
Physical
Properties
Shelf Life
Biodegradable
R-Value
Mycelium
product
2-3 weeks
Yes
Polystyrene
product
1,000
years+
No
Cost
Melting
Point
Density
3.5
. $3/lb
˚F.h/BTU (varies)
260 ˚C
1.10
5
. 4 cent/lb
˚F.h/BTU
240 ˚C
1.06
16
The result shows the effectiveness and properties of fungal mycelium as a
packaging material. When the density is measured, the immediate differences became
apparent because the mycelium is more or less 100 times thick. The two products
have several properties in common, with very narrow melting points and R values.
The lifespan of the fungal mycelium is around 2-3 weeks, depending on the situation.
After this, it continues to break down very rapidly and becomes mold-prone.The
treatment of polystyrene products in waste disposal sites needs far higher costs than
sustainability composting.It is also stated in the table that mycelium packaging has a
higher melting point than the polystyrene. The apparent advantage is biodegradable
since it is a vegetative fungi structure commonly found in soils and other organic
matter.
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Chapter V
SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
This section presents the summary of the findings based from different studies,
the conclusions drawn from the findings and the corresponding formed
recommendations based on the conclusions.
SUMMARY
One of the major environmental problems today is plastic pollution. It has
been a problem for so many years but the case about that matter hasn't been better but
rather it gets worse as the years pass by. With that being said, a lot of studies about
making an alternative for plastics have arised. One of these studies is making an
alternative packaging for polystyrene using agricultural crops and renewable biomass
sources, and mycelium. According to Krivanek (2020), mycelium is fungi’s root
system that acts as a linking agent for surrounding materials. It can be combined to
produce standardized, biodegradable goods along with agricultural products.
Moreover, this substance decomposes faster than plastic and polystyrene at a fraction
of the speed.
This study aimed to discover a new alternative to polystyrene packaging
using mushroom as a biopolymer. Specifically this study sought to achieve the
following:
1. Identify the role of mycelium from mushroom as an alternative for packaging
material.
2. Investigate the properties of the packaging material produced from mushroom
in terms of:
2.1 Chemical properties
2.1.1 halocellulose
2.1.2 α-cellulose
2.1.3 lignin contents
2.2 Mechanical properties
2.2.1 thickness swelling
2.2.2 modulus of rupture
2.2.3 modulus of elasticity
2.2.4 internal bond strength
2.3 Physical Properties
2.3.1 shelf life
2.3.2 biodegradable
2.3.3 R- value
2.3.4 cost
2.3.5 melting point
2.3.6 density
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In the study of Li et al. (2020), cotton stalks, agricultural materials and
mycelium were used in making mushroom packaging. The cotton stalk was sterilized
and was introduced to the fungus. The mixture was poured in a conical flask and
sterilized for 1 hour before incubating for 7 days. After the incubation, the mixture
was combined in an agitator for 3 mins before putting it in a plastic mold. The plastic
mold was sealed and was incubated for another 7 days. After that, the mold was dried
for 10 hours and soaked in distilled water and the percent rise in weight was
measured for the intake of water. Thereafter, the mold was pressed for a mat
treatment and after pressing, the mat was stored for 2 weeks. Lastly, after being
stored for 2 weeks, the chemical, mechanical, and decomposition properties of the
mold were tested.
FINDINGS:
1. The role of mycelium from mushroom in making an alternative polystyrene
packaging is to act as a binder to the cotton stalk and other agricultural
materials that were used in making the alternative packaging.
2.1 The chemical properties after incubating the fungus made the holocellulose
and lignin decrease while the extractives increased. It is because the fungi can
degrade lignin and can consume non-crystal sugars like hemicelluloses. The
water uptake of the composite also has a different effect to the packaging material.
In addition, comparing the neat stalk from the fungus incubated cotton stalk
proves to have a difference in the presence of the fungus that binds the mixture
together.
2.2 The composite such as the cotton stalk’s water repellency benefitted as the
temperature rose. All mechanical properties increased with an increase in
pressing temperature due to improved interfacial bonding strength. The internal
bond strength of the composite is well composed which differs from the other
properties such as the thickness swelling, modulus of rupture, and modulus of
elasticity. As a result, cotton stalk as a composite is weaker than the other fibers
which made the structure of the cotton stalk particles loosen and have poor
mechanical strength and modulus.
2.3 The physical properties show that the fungal mycelium can be used as an
alternative packaging for polystyrene because it degrades faster. Although it costs
more than polystyrene, fungal mycelium as a packaging material will be an
important step to achieve sustainable development. Besides, the fungal mycelium
is biodegradable, and it can be combined with other products to produce
environmentally friendly products that are made from vegetative fungi found in
soils.
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CONCLUSIONS
1. Mushroom can be used to make an alternative packaging to polystyrene.
2. Mushroom packaging can only accommodate lighter items.
3. Mushroom packaging is a biodegradable and reusable product that will not
damage the ecosystem.
RECOMMENDATIONS
1. Conduct and allot time for the actual experimentation process.
2. Use other agricultural products and use mushroom mycelium as a binder to
make a mushroom packaging.
3. Test and compare the chemical, mechanical and physical properties of the
polystyrene and mushroom packaging.
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