Module 1
Importance of Anatomy
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The study of structure- derived from Greek “cut apart”
o Histology- microscopic
o Gross anatomy- macroscopic
o Neuroanatomy
o Embryology
Unity of Form and Function
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Form and function are linked in all levels of organization molecules-organ syxtemxs
Organization of bodily structures are the means by which their specific functions are carried out
Proper form= proper function
Disrupted form= possible dysfunction
Organization of the Human Body/ Anatomical Nomenclature
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Organization of the Human body from microscopic to macroscopic
o Chemical level
o Cellular level
o Tissue level
o Organ level
o Organ system level
o Organismal level
Two main regions= Axial and Appendicular
Axial region- the main vertical axis of the body incl. head, neck, and trunk
Appendicular- limbs or appendages attached to the axis
Organ systems
o Integumentary system- body covering including skin, hair, and nails
o Skeletal system- bones and joints
o Muscular system- muscles for movement and support
o Nervous system- brain, spinal cord, and nerves
o Endocrine system- glands that produce and secrete hormones
o Digestive system- long tube running from mouth to anus
o Respiratory system- nose, air passageways, and lungs
o Cardiovascular system- blood, blood vessels, and heart
o Lymphatic system- lymphatic vessels, cells, and structures for immune response
o Urinary system- kidneys, ureters, bladder, and urethra
o Reproductive system enables sexual maturation/ procreation
* Endocrine and nervous systems function in the integration and coordination of the body as a single unit
*function together in the processing and transportation of nutrients, oxygen, and waste
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Major Cavities of the Body
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Anatomical position
o Standing upright with feet parallel and on the floor
o Head level and looking forward
o Arms at side of body with palms facing forward
Directional Terms
o Superior/Inferior (Cranial/Caudal)
o Anterior/Posterior (Ventral/Dorsal)
o Medial/Lateral
o Proximal/Distal
o Superficial/Deep (closer to/ farther from the surface of the body)
o Parietal/Visceral (components of the body/cavity walls (outer covering)/lines the surfaces
of the outer organs (inner covering)
Planes of the body
*Longitudinal plane- any plane perpendicular to the Horizontal Plane
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Body Quadrants in the abdominal & pelvic cavities- UL, LL, LR, UR
Basic Tissue- Epithelial Tissue
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Epithelial tissue- composed of closely apposed (side by side) cells with little or no intervening
substance
2 types of epithelial tissue
o Covering epithelium-covers external and internal surfaces
o Glandular epithelium- produces and secretes products like hormones
Characteristics of epithelium
o Cellularity- cells are joined by junctions (tight/ adhering/ gap junctions, desmosomes)
o Regeneration- cells are renewed continuously
o Attachment- cells are attached to the basal lamina (membrane)
o Avascularity- has no direct contact with blood vessels
o Polarity- exposed (apical) surface faces the exterior, basal surface is attached to underlying
tissue
Functions of epithelium
o Permeability- allows substances to be absorbed into the body
o Support and Protection- protects underlying tissue from injury, pathogens and dehydration
o Sensation- some are able to detect sensory stimuli
o Secretion- some secrete specific substances
Classification of Epithelium
o Cell organization= simple (single layer of cells) or stratified (multiple cell layers)
o Cell shape= squamous (flat), cuboidal, or columnar (tall)
o Classification is a combination of the organization and shape (e.g. Simple squamous)
Simple Squamous
Simple Cuboidal
Simple Columnar
Stratified Squamous
Stratified Cuboidal
Stratified Columnar
Transitional
Pseudostratified (ciliated
columnar)
Thin barrier between vessels and tissue allows for rapid
exchange (e.g. lining blood vessels)
Can be found lining glands
Thin barrier between vessels and tissue allows for rapid
secretion/absorption (e.g. lining the GI tract)
Basal cells may be more cuboidal (e.g. most superficial layer
of skin, protects from abrasion/damage)
Functions=secretion, protection, and strengthening walls of
ducts/glands
Rare in the human body, function to protect and secrete (e.g.
male urethra)
Multiple layers of cells that allow for stretching. Cells vary
in shape (e.g. domed when relaxed, flattened when
stretched)
Single layer of cells with nuclei positioned as if it’s
stratified. Cilia on surface help move mucus (e.g. respiratory
tract)
Basic Tissue- Connective Tissue
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Most widespread/ abundant in the human body
Functions of connective tissue
Exchange of Nutrients and Waste- e.g. blood
Defense- e.g. physical barrier, immune defense (white blood cells)
Support/ Protection- e.g. bones of skull, fat padding around kidneys)
Structural Framework- e.g. cartilage in trachea/ears/nose, bone framework for skeletal
muscles
o Storage/ Repair- e.g. bones and fat
Components of Connective Tissue
o Cells- can be diverse/ not diverse, fixed/wandering
o Fibres
 Elastic- branched, wavy, able to stretch
 Collagen- most common type of fibre, flexible with high tensile strength, rope like
structure
 Reticular- thin, form branching interwoven network, no common alignment
o Ground Substance- occupies the space between cells, high water content, transparent,
viscous
Types of Connective Tissue
o Connective tissue proper Loose CT- more ground substance, less fibres (e.g. adipose)
 Dense CT- less ground substance, more fibres (e.g elastic tissue)
o Supporting Connective Tissue
 Bone
 Cartilage
o Specialized (Fluid) Connective Tissue
 Blood
 Lymph (fluid that bathes cells)
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Cartilage
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Firm tissue, but softer than bone
Found in many areas
o Joints between moveable bones
o Between spinal vertebrae
o Ears and nose
o Bronchial tubes/ airways
Components of cartilage
o Cells- primarily chondrocytes, located in spaces called lacunae in ground substance
o Fibres- various collagen or elastic fibres
o Ground substance- firm gel that makes cartilage solid
o Perichondrium- dense irregular CT that envelopes cartilage to provide it nutrients (not all
cells have one)
Types of Cartilage
Type
Hyaline
Characteristics
Location
Most common. WearJoint surfaces, walls of nose,
resistant, bears and distributes trachea, bronchi, ribs.
Fibrocartilage
Elastic
weighs, strong, flexible.
Tough, inflexible, durable,
resists compression.
More flexible than hyaline
Intervertebral discs,
symphysis pubis.
External ear, epiglottis.
Bone
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Functions of Bone
o Blood cell production
o Locomotion
o Mineral metabolism
o Protection
o Support
Composition of Bone
o 1/3 organic (cells, fibres ground substance)
o 2/3 inorganic (minerals, salts)
Structural Unit of Bone- Osteon
o Concentric rings
o Central (haversian) canal- contains bool vessels/nerves
o Cellular components located between concentric rings
Module 2
Organization of the Skeletal System
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Composed of bones, cartilage, joints, and ligament
20% of body mass
206 bones
Divided into axial and appendicular skeletons
Functions of Skeletal System
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Support- leg bones= pillars for trunk, ribs= anchor thoracic wall, anchors all soft organs
Protection- ribcage, skull, vertebrae
Blood Cell Formation (Hematopoiesis)- within bone marrow cavities
Storage- Fat/ bone matrix (minerals)
Movement- levers for muscles
Composition of Bone
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Two layers
o Outer cortical layer- compact bone
o Inner cancellous layer- porous, spongey bone
Medullary cavity- contains bone marrow for blood production
Types of Bone
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Flat bones- e.g. bones of the skull
Irregular bones- e.g. vertebrae
Long bones- e.g. femur
Short bones- e.g. wrist/ankle bones
Long Bone Structure
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Epiphysis- knobby, enlarged regions at end. Form joints, serves as attachment sites for
tendons/ligaments
Metaphysis- region between the epiphysis and the diaphysis
Diaphysis- elongated cylindrical shaft
Articular cartilage (Hyaline)- covers epiphysis to reduce friction/absorb shock in joints
Periosteum- dense, irregular connective tissue that covers the bone surface
o Contains blood vessels/ nerves for the bone
Medullary cavity- contains bone marrow for blood production
Axial Skeleton
Skull- 22 bones total
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Cranial Bones
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o 1 Frontal- forehead and roof of eye sockets
o 2 temporal- lateral/inferior walls of the skull. Features: zygomatic process, external
auditory meatus (ear hole), mastoid process
o 1 Sphenoid- joins cranium and facial bones, looks like a bat
o 2 Parietal bones- superior/lateral skull surface (back corners)
o 1 Occipital- posterior wall/ base of skull. Features: foramen magnum (spinal cord exit) and
occipital condyles (articulate with 1st vertebra)
Cranial Sutures
o Coronal- between frontal and parietal bones (think coronal plane)
o Sagittal- between parietal bones (think sagittal plane)
o Lambdoid- between occipital and parietal bones (upside down V)
o Squamous- Between temporal and parietal bones
Cranial Vault/ Skullcap
o Formed by frontal, parietal and occipital bones
o Roof that encases the brain
Cranial Base
o Three fossae- anterior/ middle/ posterior cranial fossa
o Floor of the cranium the brain sits on
Facial Bones
o 2 maxillary- upper jaw (beside nose, down to teeth)
o 2 nasal- bridge of nose
o 2 zygomatic- cheekbones, temporal process connects to the temporal bones (zygomatic
arch)
o 1 mandible- lower jaw. Features: body (chin/teeth), angle (jawline), ramus (vertical part,
connects to rest of skull)
Vertebral Column- 26 bones
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Division of the Spine
o 7 cervical vertebrae
o 12 thoracic vertebrae
o 5 lumbar vertebrae
o Sacrum- 5 fused vertebrae
o Coccyx- 3-5 fused vertebrae (usually 4)
Vertebrae Structure
o Body- anterior
o Vertebral arch- posterior, extends into the 1 spinous and 2 transverse processes
o Vertebral foramen (canal)- houses the spinal cord
Vertebral Articulations
o Intervertebral disc- disc of Fibrocartilage between bodies of vertebrae
o Intervertebral foramina- anterior, lateral facing openings allowing nerves to exit the spine
C1 ad C2
o C1 (Atlas)
 Anterior arch- surface for articulation of the dense in C2
 Lateral masses- surface for articulation with occipital condyles
o C2 (Axis)
 Dens- rests within the anterior arch of C1
o C1/ occipital condyles joint- allows for yes movement
o C2/ C1 joint- allows for no movement
Ribs- 12 pairs
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True Ribs (pairs 1-7)
o Articulate directly/ individually with the sternum
o Pair 1 articulates with the Manubrium
False Ribs (pairs 8-10)
o Join to rib 7 to articulate with the sternum
Floating Ribs (pairs 11-12)
o No articulation with the sternum
Rib Structure
o Long, flat, twisted
o Head (articulates with bodies of 2 thoracic vertebrae), neck, tubercle, angle, costal groove
(sharp border), and shaft
Sternum- 3 parts
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Manubrium (rib 1)
Body (ribs 2-7)
Xiphoid process
*** Thoracic cage consists of the 12 thoracic vertebrae, ribs, and sternum
Appendicular Skeleton
Upper Limb- 30 bones pectoral girdle- hand
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Pectoral girdle
o Clavicle- S-shaped, joins with the manubrium and the scapula
o Scapula- triangular in shape
 Coracoid process stabilizes joint (anterior)
 Acromion and spine (posterior)
 Glenoid fossa (lateral) that articulates with the humerus
Humerus (arm)
o Single bone
o Articulates with the glenoid fossa proximally (shoulder joint) and the radius/ulna distally
(elbow joint)
o Proximal features- head, neck, surgical neck
o Distal features
 Anterior- capitulum (lateral), trochlea (medial), lateral/medial epicondyles
 Posterior- olecranon fossa
Forearm
o Radius- lateral to the ulna
 Head- articulates with the capitulum and ulna, round disc shape
 Neck
Shaft
Distal end- articulates with the carpal bones, wide and flat with the styloid process
placed laterally
o Ulna- medial to the radius
 Proximal end- olecranon fits with the olecranon fossa of humerus, trochlear notch
interlocks with trochlea of humerus
Wrist/ Hand
o Carpal bones- 8 short bones
o Metacarpal bones- 5 long bones
o Digits/ Fingers- 14 phalanges (long bones)
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Lowe Limb- 32 bones pelvic girdle- foot
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Pelvic Girdle- Ilium, Ischium, Pubis
o Ilium- largest bone of the girdle, located superiorly
 Features from anterior to posterior: AIIS, ASIS, iliac crest, PSIS, PIIS
o Ischium/ Pubis
 Pubis fuses with the ilium and ischium
 Pubis symphysis (fibrocartilage) unites the two pubis bones
 Features: pubis symphysis (anterior), ischial spine (superior posterior)/ ischial
tuberosity (inferior posterior)
o Features of the pelvis
 Greater sciatic notch- between the PIIS and the ischial spine, allows passage of
nerves and vessels from pelvic cavity to the lower limb
 Lesser sciatic notch- between ischial spine and ischial tuberosity, allows passage of
structures from pelvic cavity to genital region
 Acetabulum- deep depression, articulates with the femur
 Obturator foramen- large opening between ischium and pubis, for passage of
nerves and vessels
Femur (Thigh)
o Single bone- articulates with the acetabulum proximally and the tibia/patella distally
o Proximal Features- head, neck, bumps/ridges for muscle attachment
o Distal features
 Medial and lateral condyles- posterior/lateral features, articulate with the tibia
 Patellar surface- anterior groove, articulates with the patella
Leg
o Tibia- medial to the fibula
 Only weight bearing bone of the leg
 Proximal end- medial/lateral condyles articulate with the medial/lateral condyles of
the femur, tibial tuberosity
 Shaft
 Distal end- medial malleolus
o Fibula- lateral to the tibia
 Does not bear weight, but provides ankle stability
 Proximal end- medial head articulates with tibia, neck
 Shaft
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 Distal end- lateral malleolus
Ankle/ Foot
o Tarsal bones- 7 short bones
o Metatarsal bones- 5 long bones
o Digits/ Toes- 14 phalanges
Articulation (Joints)
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Where a bone meets another bone
Degrees of mobility and stability are antiparallel to each other
Structural classification- based on type of material that unites the bones
Functional classification- based on the extent of movement they permit
Synovial Joints
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Articulating bones are enclosed by a joint capsule
Fluid filled cavity
Ex. shoulder, knee, hip
Movements
o Gliding- bones slide over each other
o Angular- changes a joint angle (flexion/extension, abduction/adduction)
o Rotation- joint pivots around own axis (medial/lateral rotation)
o Special movements- supination/pronation (radius over ulna), inversion/eversion
(sickle/wing), circumduction (combines flexion, extension, adduction and abduction)
Module 3
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Types of muscle- Skeletal, cardiac, and smooth
Skeletal muscle
Cardiac muscle
Smooth muscle
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Features
Helps body moved. Mostly
attached to bone via tendons.
Found in the heart. Contracts
rhythmically. Modulated by neural
activity/hormones. Intercalated
discs connect cells.
Found in the blood
vessels/digestive system etc..
Controlled by nervous system/
hormones. May respond to
stimulation or be rhythmic.
Striated/ Smooth
Striated
Voluntary/Involuntary
Voluntary
Striated
Involuntary
Smooth
Involuntary
Morphological Characterization
o Striated
 Marked by light and dark bands (striations)
 Long muscle cells with multiple nuclei (peripheral in skeletal, centrally in cardiac)
o Smooth
 Fusiform shaped cells (no striations)
 Cells contain one centrally located nucleus
Functional Characterization
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o Voluntary
 Consciously controlled
o Involuntary
 Not consciously controlled
Muscle Function occurs because of two properties:
o Excitability- ability to receive and respond to nerve signals/hormones
o Contractility- ability for the muscle to shorten causing contraction
Skeletal Muscle
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About 700 named muscles
Only voluntary muscle tissue
Composed of skeletal muscle, epithelial, connective, and nervous tissues
Skeletal Muscle Functions
o Produce movement
o Maintain posture/stabilize joints
o Control excretion and swallowing
o Produce heat
o Support and protect internal organs
Tissue Organization in Skeletal Muscle
o Connective tissue, muscle fibre/ cell (myofiber), myofibrils, myofilaments
Connective Tissue in Skeletal Muscle
o Epimysium- surrounds the entire muscle, is continuous with tendon
o Perimysium- surrounds a bundle of muscle fibres (fascicle)
o Endomysium- surrounds muscle cells/ fibres
Microscopic Anatomy of Skeletal Muscle Tissue
o Muscle Cell (Myofiber)
 Sarcolemma- cell membrane, different from the endomysium
 Sarcoplasmic reticulum- surrounds each myofibril, stores calcium
 Transverse Tubules- extensions of the sarcolemma, surround myofibrils, transmit
nerve stimulation to sarcoplasmic reticulum
 Nuclei- multiple, located peripherally
 Myofibril- structural unit, bundle of myofilaments
o Myofilaments
 Actin and myosin
 Responsible for contraction
 Organized into repeating units call sarcomeres
o Sarcomere Structure
 A-band- thick and thin filaments (mostly thick myosin with some overlap)
 I-band- thin filaments, transverses the Z-line dividing sarcomeres (actin where
there’s no overlap)
 M-line- proteins where thick filaments (myosin) attach down the centre of the
sarcomere
 Z-line- zig-zagging proteins where thin filaments (actin) attach, marks sarcomere
ends
Muscle Contraction
o Occurs when actin and myosin filaments slide over each other, shortening the sarcomere,
increasing muscle tension
Axial Muscles
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Facial Expression Muscles- insert into the skin
o Frontalis- covers frontal bones, lifts the eyebrows (forehead wrinkles)
o Orbicularis Oculi- surrounds eye, connects to frontal/maxillary bones, closes eye
o Zygomaticus- extends zygomatic arch to corners of mouth, causes smiling
o Orbicularis Oris- surrounds mouth, connects to mandible/maxillary bones, puckers lips
Mastication Muscles- involved in chewing
o Temporalis- fan shaped, temporal fossa to coronoid process, retracts the mandible
o Masseter- extends zygomatic arch to angle of mandible, protracts mandible (forward)
Head and Neck Muscles- grouped anterior and posterior
o Sternocleidomastoid- anterior, flexes the neck (bilateral contraction), rotated head to
opposite side (unilateral contraction
o Semispinalis Capitis- posterior, extends the neck (bilateral contraction), turns face to
opposite side (unilateral contraction)
o Splenius Capitis- posterior, extends the neck (bilateral contraction), flexion/lateral rotation
(unilateral contraction)
Thorax Muscles- aid in breathing
o External Intercostals- most superficial, run anteriorly/inferiorly
o Internal Intercostals- lie deep to the externals, run anteriorly/superiorly
Back Muscles
o Erector Spinae- group, run down both sides of the spinal column, help keep spine erect
Abdominal Wall Muscles- facilitate trunk movement, aids in breathing
o External Oblique- runs anterior/inferior, compresses abdominal wall (bilateral), lateral
flexion/rotation of the spine (unilateral)
o Internal Oblique- runs anterior/superior, compresses abdominal wall (bilateral), lateral
flexion/rotation of the spine (unilateral)
o Transverse Abdominus- runs horizontally deep to obliques, compresses abdominal wall
(bilateral), lateral flexion of the spine (unilateral
o Rectus Abdominus- runs vertically, separated by the linea alba, separated by tendinous
intersections, flexes trunk