EXAMPLE QUESTIONS FOR THE FIRST TERM LABS
Lab 1: Motor Skills (Mirror Tracing)
In the Motor Skills Lab we identified two major sources of error that any
experimental design must take into account. Describe how the effects of these sources
of error were minimized in our experiment.
Progressive error was minimized by counterbalancing, a technique which changes the
order of trials (ABBA) so that no one condition benefits from the practice of previous
trials. For example, in the dart board example, in order to prove that blowing on one’s
hand improves throwing accuracy, one must ensure that the control and experimental
trials are "mixed up", so to speak. If all the trials for one condition follow all the trials
for another condition, the second will benefit from all the previous trial practice.
Random error was minimized by calculating means to eliminate extreme scores which
could skew a data plot. For example, in the golf ball example, an average distance was
taken of all the balls hit, rather than an individual score which may not be
representative of the subject’s true ability.
Lab 2: Laterality
Why are subjects asked to stare at a fixation point during the hemispheric
specialization task? How is this critical for measuring the degree of lateralized
function?
Because of the structure of the visual neural pathways, information presented to the
right visual field is processed by the left hemisphere of the brain, and vice versa.
Subjects must stare at a central fixation point so that the stimuli can be presented on
either side. This ensures that the correct stimulus will be administered to the
appropriate visual field. Some cognitive functions are lateralized; therefore, accuracy
will be higher when stimuli are presented in the visual field connected to the
appropriate hemisphere. In order to more accurately measure the degree of
lateralization, we must be able to present different types of stimuli to different
hemispheres. If one stares directly at the stimulus, both hemispheres will process the
information, and assessment of laterality becomes impossible.
Lab 3: Polygraph & Pavlovian/Classical Conditioning
Describe the design of our classical conditioning experiment and the procedures
adopted to measure the size of the GSR.
A pre-test/post-test design was used to measure the effect of classically conditioning a
subject to respond to a two-second tone (Conditioned Stimulus — CS) as though it
were a one-second shock (Unconditioned Stimulus — UCS), by means of delay
conditioning (one-second delay). The change in the size of the galvanic skin response
(GSR) was measured after four training trials, and again after extinction trials. There
were three pre-tests: the tone alone to measure orienting response, the tone alone
again to observe habituation and the shock alone to measure the Unconditioned
Response (UCR). A post-test was done to measure the GSR to tone (CS) alone after
four CS-UCS pairings. GSR was measured again after the fifth and tenth extinction
trials. In order to measure the GSR, the screen was paused and a rectangle was drawn
to measure latency of the response from the onset of the stimulus to the start of the
response. Then, a second rectangle was drawn to measure the amplitude and duration
of the response by "framing the GSR valley".
Lab 4: Sniffy & Operant Conditioning on Continuous Reinforcement Schedules
(CRF)
Draw a diagram illustrating the cumulative record when conditioning has been
completed followed by extinction. Make sure you label the points at which the
learning and extinction criteria have been met. In two brief sentences, define these
criteria.
The learning criterion was two pen resets on the cumulative record, or 150 bar
presses. The criterion for extinction was the end of the first five-minute period
containing fewer than three bar presses.
Lab 5: Sniffy & Partial Reinforcement Schedules (PRF)
Describe the "Johnny B. Good" example to illustrate the advantages and
disadvantages of CRF and PRF reinforcement schedules.
This example suggests a "Johnny B. Rotten" in an elementary school classroom who
is disruptive to the learning of other students. The teacher begins a process of
continuous reinforcement (CRF) whereby she praises every positive thing that Johnny
does. Johnny quickly learns that good behaviour will be rewarded, so he performs it
more and more often. However, the teacher must eventually focus her attention on the
other students in the class and Johnny will no longer receive the reinforcement he
seeks. His good behaviour was easily conditioned using a CRF schedule (advantage),
but will quickly extinguish (disadvantage) in the absence of positive reinforcement.
On the other hand, if the teacher continues reinforcing Johnny, but gradually reduces
the frequency (i.e., a partial reinforcement (PRF) schedule), Johnny will learn that it is
best to be well-behaved all the time. Behaviour on a PRF schedule is more difficult to
condition (disadvantage), but will have a more long-lasting effect (advantage).
Lab 6: Decision Time
Describe the logic of the subtractive technique and how we used it to measure the
decision time in the light bulb reaction time task.
The subtractive technique requires two tasks that are identical in all processing steps
except one. The task with the extra step should have longer reaction times (RT).
Therefore, the difference in the two task RTs should be an estimate of the time for the
extra step. In the Decision Time lab, the subtractive technique was used to estimate
the decision time required for a choice task, compared to a simple task. The simple
task (one light bulb flashes, push a key) required no decision, but merely the
encoding, comparison, and response stages of processing. The choice task (one of two
bulbs flashes, push appropriate key) required subjects to encode, compare, DECIDE
and, finally, respond. By subtracting the Simple RT from the Choice RT, the
remaining time is that of the decision stage of processing.
EXAMPLE QUESTIONS FOR THE SECOND TERM LABS
LAB 7
Describe the component skills involved in reading comprehension.
Reading and understanding written text involves multiple processes. Proficiency in
reading comprehension comes from the successful interaction of different cognitive
skills. Before one can apply the component skills of reading comprehension, one must
first possess sufficient language and problem solving skills, and good memory.
Language skills involve lexical recognition of words in the text, semantic
understanding of their meaning, and syntactic knowledge of how those words can be
correctly combined and chained together in a sentence. Problem solving skills require
making inferences and learning from the text. Both a good short-term and long-term
memory also serve as the foundation upon which to lay the building blocks of solid
reading comprehension. With those basic skills already in place, the efficient reader
distinguishes him/herself by the application of more precise and interactive skills.
According to Hannon and Daneman (at press), the first step of the skilled reader is to
access prior knowledge from long-term memory. This provides the referential
framework that facilitates understanding. Next, one must integrate this knowledge
with the novel information being processed. Making connections to existing network
structures increases retention and comprehension. Third, one uses the network
connections in this cognitive framework and the information in the text to make
inferences about meaning. Finally, one must recall the newly-processed information
from memory to solidify the learning and encoding process.
LAB 8
What are the advantages of multi-factor experiments?
There are three main advantages of multi-factor experiments. First, because this kind
of design uses two or more independent variables, it is possible to test multiple
hypotheses in a single experiment. Rather than perform several experiments on related
hypotheses, it is more economical and practical to condense the studies into a single
experiment. This leads to the second advantage, which is another aspect of economy.
By reducing the number of independent studies which need to be done, one can
consequently reduce the number of subjects required to prove each hypothesis. If one
wanted to perform three experiments, each requiring one hundred subjects, the study
would need three hundred participants! In addition to the man-hours required for a
study of this magnitude, research is often costly, and additional time and subjects
mean further budget constraints. To condense this study into a single experiment
would require one third the number of participants, and could involve substantial
financial savings. Finally, the third advantage to multi-factor designs is that one can
test for the interaction between independent variables, thus bringing a study more
depth and purpose, as well as higher experimental validity. Successful interaction
studies can often open doors to different aspects of further research.
LAB 9
Draw and label a figure illustrating whether or not there is an interaction in a
"Problem Solving" experiment exploring the effects of type of music and presence of
lyrics on number of guesses to solve problems. Clued involved informed and revealed
direct hits only. When subjects listened to rock music without lyrics it took an average
of 12 guesses, classical music with lyrics took 7 guesses, rock music with lyrics took
15 guesses, and classical music without lyrics took 10 guesses. THIS ANSWER IS
NOT EASY TO BE POSTED ON THE WEB - TRY IT ON YOUR OWN
LAB 10
How does a healthy self-esteem allow you to disengage from control dramas?
According to the humanistic approach supported by Maslow, people who have high
levels of self-esteem are those who are approaching, or have already reached, selfactualization. People who attain self-actualization are accepting of themselves and
others, have an appreciation of life, an accurate perception of reality, and an overall
sense of well-being. According to the psychosocial approach, people with high selfesteem have had good, authoritative parents, and were likely raised in an atmosphere
of love, warmth, and acceptance. They have had good role models in their lives, have
been taught limits to their behaviour, and respect for themselves and others. These are
all variations of the same theme, which can also be looked at from the cognitive
perspective. In this view, control dramas occur between the Parent and Child ego
states. Together, they create a passive-aggressive struggle for dominance. The Parent
states, "intimidator" and "interrogator", exert their power by controlling others.
Conversely, the Child states, "Poor Me" and "Aloof", receive their gratification by
drawing others into their manipulative guilt structure. Rising above all of these is the
Adult Ego state, which is akin to Maslow's self-actualized individual. When one is in
the Adult state, one has no need for petty control dramas; one is comfortable with
one's own self, and the relationship one has with others. So, the higher one's level of
self-esteem, the more self-actualizes one becomes, and the more one is able to
disengage oneself from control dramas.
LAB 11
Explain how we determined whether a subject was demonstrating perceptual defence
in any of the four conflict categories, both in terms of the speed and accuracy of their
responses.
A perceptual defence exists when the ego defends itself against stimuli which will
provoke a negative response, often learned from an early repressed trauma. In this
experiment, there were two indicators that a subject may have been demonstrating a
perceptual defence in the conflict categories. The first indicator was that of speed of
response. If the conflict words in a given category had longer reaction times than
control words, it may indicate a defence mechanism, such as repression. Because the
ego is blocking the stimulus that will otherwise provoke a negative response, it takes a
little longer. In other words, the ego "stalls". For example, if the subject has a conflict
with the word "doctor", he/she may still input the correct response, only the response
will be more latent. The second indicator of possible perceptual defence is that of
accuracy of response. The less accurate a response, the more likely the subject is
expressing a defence mechanism, such as sublimation. In an effort to suppress the
harmful stimulus, the ego, in a sense, replaces the conflicted stimulus with a nonthreatening one. In other words, the ego tries to "bluff" the self. Using the above
example, the subject who has a conflict with "doctor" may input something different
(low accuracy), like "dock" or "tractor", which the ego finds non-threatening.
LAB 12
Describe how dream issues, dream elements, and dream triggers are involved in the
DreamLog interpretation method.
Dream elements such as locations, objects, people, events, actions, and other physical
conditions may represent recent images seen in real life by the dreamer or, more often
than not, may by symbolic representations of different aspects of the dreamer's
consciousness. It is important is to examine how one felt during the dream, while
these events were occurring. The dream issues are the underlying spiritual, emotional,
and psychological meanings of the dream. These may be central issues in a dream or
peripheral ones, and may represent an issue which is very important to the dreamer, or
which elicits a high emotional response. A dream trigger is a recent event, object, or
person in the dreamer's life which has somehow sparked a subconscious effort
towards resolution of a deep personal issue. The trigger can be blatantly obvious, or it
can be very subtle. "