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UNIT ONE
SUBJECT MATTER OF
PSYCHOLOGY
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1.1. Meaning and goals of psychology
 Derived from two Greek two words
1. Psyche- meaning “mind” or “soul/life/spirit”
2. Logos or Logy meaning “study/knowledge/discourse
Therefore, literally the term refers the study of mind” or
“soul/life/spirit”
 We humans are social animals
 We are better in intelligence, memory, habits, customs, values,
than other animals, hence we want to know about others &
ourselves and we ask such questions as:
 Who/what are human beings?
 What is our behavior, attitude, personality, etc.?
 Why we feel happy/sad?
 Why do we prosocial/antisocial?
A systematic body of knowledge has emerged to answer these and
other similar questions,
i.e. psychology
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Definition: Psychology is defined as the scientific study of behavior and mental
processes
This definition consists of three key terms. Psychology:
1. is a scientific discipline (empirical science) - to study phenomenon, it
employs critical observation and experimentation based on concrete data
2. studies about behavior – the overt characteristic - any action/reaction that can
be observed and recorded, e.g., talking, walking, writing, kicking, etc
3. studies about mental processes – the covert characteristics - the internal
(mental), subjective experiences, that can not be observed and recorded but
inferred from the overt characteristics, e.g., sensation, perception, memory,
emotion, thinking, attitude
Psychologists often conduct scientific research on animal behavior which
might sometimes beLEARN
related
to the behavior of human beings
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General Goals of psychology
 Describing behavior – reporting the clear picture of the existing
behavior
 Explaining behavior - establish cause-effect relationship
 Predicting behavior – speculate what will happen in the future
 Controlling behavior – improve a person’s life so as to help him/her
to enjoy quality life
 Modifying abnormal behavior - managing and changing negative or
anti-social aspects of behaviors and maladjustment problems
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1.2. Historical Development of Psychology
A. Philosophical Roots of Psychology
 Dates back to the ancient Greek philosophers: Socrates, Aristotle,
Plato, - explored about the origin of knowledge, beauty, desire,
memory and the subjective nature of perception, human traits,
questions like: are people inherently good, how can people attain
happiness, what motives or drives do people have?
 Socrates, Plato & Hippocrates - about cause of mental illness
 A Frenchman named R. Descartes argued that the mind and the physical
body are separate entities (dualism) and he speculated how the they
communicate
 J. Locke argued that the mind at birth is a blank slate – a “white paper”
on which experiences writes.
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B. Biological Roots of Psychology
 Stimuli enter into our body via sense organs and travel by neurons to brain to
be interpreted, hence sciences that study on such aspects of organisms are
biological roots to psychology
Some of these sciences include:
 Physiology –findings on nervous and digestive system
 Medicine –findings on nerve patients and mental disorders
 Evolution - C. Darwin’s theory of evolution - as natural selection/survival to
the fittest for adaptation to physical environment, psychological and social
characteristics of our ancestors helped to our present survival
As a science of mental life, psychology emerged in 1879 with the opening of the
first scientific psychological laboratory by Wilhelm Wundt in Leipzig,
Germany
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1.3. Perspectives of Psychology
 EARLY PERSPECTIVES
 Structuralism - psychology should focus on analyzing conscious
experiences of the mind into its basic parts
 Functionalism - psychology should focus on investigating the
purpose of consciousness “the ways that the ever-changing stream of
conscious experiences help us adapt to a complex and challenging
world”
 Gestalt Psychology - German word gestalt refers to form, whole,
configuration or pattern
 the mind should be thought of as resulting from the whole pattern of sensory
activity, the relationships and organizations with in this pattern
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Contemporary Perspectives
 The Biological Perspective - behavior has biological basis -
basic questions raised: How individuals nerve cells are joined
together? How heredity influence behavior? What are the
physiological responses when we confront to d/t phenomenon?
 The Cognitive Perspective - emphasizes on mental processes:
how we perceive, how we remember, and how we think and solve
problems
 The Learning/Behavioral Perspective – focus on observable
behavior and its environmental determinants
 Humanistic perspective - a person’s capability for personal
growth and development,
freedom to choose their destiny
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Perspectives (contd)
 The Psychodynamic Perspective -the hidden, often he called
the “unconscious”, part of a brain governs human behavior;
consisting dynamic forces (psychic energy) - strong sexual and
aggressive drives within an individual
 The Evolutionary Psychology Perspective– how evolutionary
process favors social and psychological characteristics to
increase organisms’ reproductive success and the ability to pass
their genes to the next generation
 The Sociocultural Perspective -culture, ethnicity, and gender
are essential to understand behavior, thought and emotion
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1.4. Sub-Fields of Psychology
 Abnormal psychology: diagnosis of mental malfunctioning
and maladjustment problems
 Counseling psychology: deals with personal problems such
as academic, social, emotional, personality or vocational
problems
 Clinical psychology: diagnosis and treatment of
psychological disorders and to promote subjective well-being
and personal development
 Developmental Psychology: studies about changes in
human behavior across the life span
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Sub-Fields (Contd)
 Forensic psychology: deals with the application of psychology on
legal aspects of human behavior focusing on deviance,
delinquency and crime
 Personality Psychology: Concerned with differences in behavior
among individuals
 Social psychology: studies the effects of people have on one
another, factors affecting interpersonal attraction
 Industrial/organizational psychology: applies principles of
psychology on work place to employees’ potential - selecting,
evaluating and improving effectiveness, management styles on
worker motivation,
job-satisfaction
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1.5. Research methods in psychology
 Observational method: studying participants in their
natural setting as they go about their usual activities. It
takes 2 forms:
 Naturalistic observation
 Participant observation
 Case Study: in-depth study of a person (few students)
typically conducted to gain knowledge about a certain
psychological phenomenon
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Research methods (Contd)
 Correlational method: focuses on the degree of rssp b/n
2 or more mutually occurring variables.
 It shows the degree and direction of rssp b/n variables
by a correlation coefficient
Coefficient of correlation is a numerical value that
ranges from +1.00 (a perfect positive correlation) to -1.00 (a
perfect negative correlation)
 Survey method: collecting data about the opinions,
beliefs & attitudes of people towards an event/issue, or
personal
experiences
questionnaire
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by
using
interview
and
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Research methods (Contd)
 Experimental method: an experimenter works with two groups
of subjects:
1)
the experimental group which is exposed to the experimental
condition (independent variable), and
2) the control group which does not so that the expected change
(dependent variable) will be confirmed.
• The researcher also excludes variables that might affect the
outcome of the experiment (extraneous variables)
 dependent variable
 independent variable
 extraneous variable
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Research Ethics in Psychology (APA's ethical guide lines)
 Informed consent
 Deception
 Confidentiality
 Physical, social & psychological well being of participants
 Debriefing
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THE END
THANK YOU
VERY MUCH
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UNIT TWO
SENSATION AND
PERCEPTION
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INTRODUCTION
 Sensation and perception are fundamental topics in psychology b/c we know
and understand the world around us through them
 24 hour a day, stimuli bombard and stimulate our sense organs
 They supply the data that we use, hence, they are basis & stares for:
 all psychological experiences,
 learning,
 remembering, problem solving,
 motivation, emotion
 to make interpersonal relationship with others and so on
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WHO GIVE ANSWER TO SUCH QUESTIONS AND OTHERS?
 What processes enable you to see and hear?
 How do you differentiate sugar from lemon?
 How do you know whether an object is hot or cold?
 How do you distinguish one instructor from the other?
The processes of sensation and perception provide
you answer for such and other similar questions
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Sensation
Basic terms & concepts in sensation &perception
• Sensation - the process of detecting a stimulus and responding
to that energy by a sensory system
• Perception is the process whereby the brain organizes and
interprets sensory information, enabling us to recognizing the
stimuli as meaningful objects and events
• Stimulus - a source of physical energy that produces a response in the sense
organs such as sound waves, light waves, chemical, heat, pressure…
• Response - any reaction of an organism to a stimulus
• Transduction - the sequence of operation by which physical energy is
transformed into patterns of neural impulse (electrical energy) that give rise to
sensory experience
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Basic terms and concepts (contd)
• Absolute threshold - the smallest intensity of a stimulus that must be present
for it to be detected for e.g.,
 Sight- a candle flame can be seen 30 miles away on a dark, clear night
 Taste – a teaspoon of sugar can be detected in 9 liters of water
 Smell – 1 drop of perfume can be detected in a 3 room apartment
 Hearing – the ticking of a watch can be heard 20 feet away under quiet
 Touch – the falling of a bee’s wing from 1 cm height can be felt on a cheek
• Difference threshold (Just Noticeable difference) - the smallest detectable
difference between two stimuli
• Sensory adaptation - an adjustment in sensory capacity following long period
of exposure to stimuli
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Basic terms and concepts (contd)
Factors Affecting Sensation
 Noise
 The nature of sense organ
 Intensity of a stimulus
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Perception
Concepts and definition
• Sensation and perception blend into one continuous process
• Once stimuli detected & encoded as neural signals, they travel to the brain
• The brain organizes and interprets our sensations – a process called
Perception
Factors Affecting Perception
Context and expectation
Motivation
Emotion
Values, Culture, & personality
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Perceptual processes
• The brain does not interpret all stimuli that bombard our senses, it select some
of them and leave others
• It does so through attention and organization processes and finally
interpretation
• Attention - to the selective aspects of perception which function so that any
instant an organism focuses on certain features of the environment to the
exclusion of other features
 process of attention divides our file of experience in to two
1. Focus - Stimuli that we perceive clearly are at the focus field of experience
2. Margin - Stimuli that are perceived dimly, vaguely with less attention are at
our margin field of experience
• Organization: constructing process of our senses by working together to
provide an integrated view of understanding stimuli
• Interpretation: constructing a meaningful situation from sensation
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Factors Affecting Attention
 Intensity
 Size
 Duration or repetition
 Emotional content
 Novelty
 Contrast
 Movement
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Theories of sensation and perception
The Gestalt laws of perceptual organization
• Closure: perceiving the whole object by filling in the gaps
• Proximity: elements that are close together in space or time are grouped and
perceived together •• •• •• •• •• (perceived as pair of dots not a row
of single dots)
• Similarity: elements that are similar in appearance are perceived together
••••••••••
□ □ □ □ □ □ □ □ (perceiving
••••••••••
□□□□□□□□
the horizontal dots & squares not vertically mixed ones)
• Simplicity: observing a pattern in the most basic,
simple and straightforward manner
•
(perceiving a square with 2 lines not letter W from
•
the top or letter M to the bottom)
• Figure-Ground perception: perceptual relationship between the
object of focus (the figure) and the field (the ground)
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Theories (contd)
• Feature analysis theory
• To perceiving an object in our environment, starting from
individual components such as, shape, pattern, object or scene
and moving to comprehend the overall nature of what we
perceived
• perceptual process moves through two stages:
 Pre-attentive Stage - focusing on the physical feature of a
stimulus such as its size, shape, color, orientation, or direction of
movements
 Focused-attention stage - paying attention to particular features of
an object, choosing and emphasizing features that were initially
considered separately
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Theories (contd)
THE TOP-DOWN AND BOTTOM-UP PROCESSING APPROACH
• Top-down processing: guided by a higher-level of knowledge, experience,
expectations, and motivations.
• Bottom-up processing: consists of recognizing and processing information
about the individual components of the stimuli
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Theories (contd)
• Signal detection theory – we can make mistakes in our
attempt to detect a stimulus in two ways:
1. Reporting a stimulus as existing when it is non-existent
2. Reporting a stimulus as non-existent when it actually exists
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THE END
THANK YOU
VERY MUCH
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UNIT THREE
LEARNING
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Meaning of Learning
What is learning?
Learning capacity is a distinct and important feature of
human beings
 Learning a foundation for many of our behavior, i.e. our
habits, traditions, beliefs, values, attitudes, skills, and
knowledge - whether it be good/bad, prosocial or antisocial
 It will not necessarily lead to attitude or behavior change
Thus, learning helps us to control and change our
environment
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Meaning of Learning (contd.)
Is learning only limited in a classroom to a
teacher and students? Why?
In psychology, however, learning is much more than
a classroom activity
It can occur everywhere and it progresses
throughout the life span
Try to explain how and where learning occurs
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Definition of Learning
 Learning is a relatively permanent change of an organism’s
behavior that results from prior experiences
Important features of the above definition
 Learning is a process: cannot be observed directly but
inferred from what occurred
 Change: alteration of behavior, i.e. thinking, perceiving, or
reacting to the environment in a new way
 Relatively permanent: a change more than temporary and
not everlasting
 Past experiences: change as a result of past experiences,
practices, repetitions, studies,, or observations that one has
made
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Definition (contd)
 In modern psychology, changes due to maturation,
adaptation, injury, disease, and fatigue do not qualify
as learned responses
Theories and Principles of Learning
 Learning occurs in three principal ways:
1. Conditioning,
2. Observation, and
3. Cognitive processes
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Theories (contd)
1. Conditioning
A. Classical Conditioning (I. Pavlov)
 Classical conditioning is a form of association learning that
involves pairing of two stimuli, it mainly emphasized on
learning involuntary emotional behaviors such as fear,
salivation
 a neutral stimulus that does not have an initial capacity to
elicit the response of interest is paired with a meaningful
stimulus (UCS) that has the capacity to evoke unconditioned
response (UCR).
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Summary of classical conditioning procedure
A. Before conditioning
Food (UCS)
Salivation (UCR)
Bell (NS)
No salivation
B. During conditioning
Bell + food
NS + UCS
Salivation
UCR
C. After conditioning
Bell
Salivation
CS
CR
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Features of classical conditioning
Acquisition - the initial learning of the conditioned response
Extinction - weakening of CR in the absences of the UCS
Implication – a conditioned behavior can be forgotten & disappear
Spontaneous recovery – recurrence of a conditioned response
after it is extinguished
Implication – a forgotten behavior can recur again, e.g. addiction
Generalization - responding to a stimulus other than the
conditioned one but similar to it
Implication – we may perceive a monkey as a dog
Discrimination - distinguish between the CS and other stimuli
similar to the conditioned one.
Implication – we may not blame all students for one student’s mistake
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Applications of classical
conditioning in humans
 Give answers for each of the following questions
based on your personal preferences
 What type of food you like and hate most?
 What type of color you like and hate most for clothing?
 What type of behavior you like and hate most?
 What type of animal you like and hate most?
 What is the course that you most like and hate?
Why do you like or hate each of the above?
 What is phobia?
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Applications of classical conditioning (contd.)
 Classical conditioning provides explanations for many of our
phobias (irrational or unreasonable fears); for example
 Developing fear of a doctor (hospital) because of painful
experiences by needle.
 Developing fear of a car (driving) after having been in an
automobile accident.
 Developing fear of fear of dogs after having been bitten
by one dog.
 To develop good habits or positive attitude,
 Used in psychotherapy, to eliminate conditioned fears
(phobias) and to break bad habits (by counter conditioning)
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B. Operant conditioning (B.F. Skinner)
- Also known as instrumental conditioning
- It is a form of association learning in which the
consequences of behavior produce changes in the
probability of the behavior’s occurrence, between a
response and its consequences
- It is a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if
followed by reinforcement or diminished if followed by
punishment
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Procedures of operant conditioning
 A hungry animal in a cage with 2 rooms having a door
 In one room the animal and in the other room a food




for the animal to eat
The animal is expected to inter into the other room by
opening the door, first spontaneously
Then, the animal will be returned to the first room
Doing this activity repeatedly
Finally, the animal will learn …
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Basic Principles/Operations in Operant
Conditioning
Reinforcement - to strengthen a behavior by using reinforcer a
stimulus whose presentation or removal increases the frequency of
a response to occur
Reinforcement can take two forms positive or negative
1. Positive reinforcement is adding a desirable stimulus
2. Negative reinforcement is elimination of an aversive stimulus
Punishment - an undesirable event that follows a behavior it
intends to eliminate
Shaping - rewarding successive approximations of desired behavior
or establishing novel behaviors by reinforcing responses that gradually
approach the behavior that is desired
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Basic Principles/Operations (contd)
 Extinction, Spontaneous recovery,
Generalization, and Discrimination are also other
features of operant conditioning
Types of reinforcers - reinforcers – can be
primary or secondary
 Primary – food, cloth, sex, …
 Secondary – material, money, praise, hug, attention,
recognition, etc
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Schedules of reinforcement in operant
conditioning
 Fixed interval (FI) – reinforcing a response only after
a specified time has elapsed
 Variable interval (VI) - reinforcing a response at
unpredictable time intervals
 Fixed ratio (FR) - reinforcing a response only after a
specified number of correct responses
 Variable ratio (VR) – reinforcing a response after an
unpredictable number of correct responses
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Applications of operant conditioning
 At school and home - to control maladaptive behavior
(behavior modification) and to increase desirable behavior
 At work – to increase workers’ productivity,
 In sport – to enhance athletes’ performance
 to improve self-control, to develop interpersonal skills, to
reduce fear of social situations, to cope with stress, to
control aggressive behavior and reducing conflict
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2. Social or observational learning or
Imitation (A. Bandura)
 A tendency for individuals to reproduce the actions, attitudes
or emotional responses displayed by real life or symbolized
models
 we acquire knowledge, skills, attitudes, and behaviors more by observing
others or models such as parents, friends, and teachers without showing
any response
The Process of Learning in Social Learning Theory
Observational learning involves four main phases (processes):
attention, retention, motor reproduction, and reinforcement.
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Social learning (contd)
1. Attention – noticing behaviors of the model (what s/he
says/dos)
2. Retention - encoding and storing of observed behaviors in
memory
3. Motor reproduction – starting to perform the newly acquired
behavior from the model
4. Reinforcement – motivating situations to perform the
behavior frequently
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The Effects of observational learning
(Applications)
 learning both new adaptive or maladaptive behaviors
 Learning the already forgotten behaviors
 It helps to increase/decrease the frequency of
previously learned behavior
 it can encourage previously forbidden antisocial
behaviors
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3. Cognitive processes of learning
it deals with the mental mechanisms that mediate the
processing of information in some meaningful fashion.
It extends into the realms of memory, thinking, problem
solving and the use of language.
Examples:
 Latent learning - a hidden form of learning in which a
behavior is not manifested for the time being but it might
appear when situations are favorable
 Insight learning - a sudden change in our perception that
comes while encounter and struggle with life challenging
problem
 The cognitive map - an organism’s mental representation of
the physical space – where things are located
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SUMMARY
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

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

Meaning and concepts of Learning
Definition of Learning
Important features of the definition
Theories and principles of Learning
How Learning occurs?
1. Conditioning,
2. Observation, and
3. Cognitive processes
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LARNING (SUMMARY)
1. CONDITIONING
1A. Classical conditioning (I. Pavlov)
 Procedures of classical conditioning
 Features of classical conditioning
 Extinction, Spontaneous recovery,
 Generalization, and Discrimination
 Applications of classical conditioning
1B. Operant conditioning (B. F. Skinner)
Procedures of operant conditioning
Basic operations in operant conditioning
 Reinforcement (Positive and negative )
 Punishment
 Shaping
 Extinction, Spontaneous recovery, Generalization, and Discrimination
 Applications of classical conditioning
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THE END OF THIS
UNIT
THANK YOU
VERY MUCH!!
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LARNING (SUMMARY)
 The purposes or goal of psychology
 How behavioral psychologists explain behavior?
 Which school of psychology assumes that human mind should
be analyzed as H┼O═ H₂O in chemistry?
 Identify the biological root of psychology
 If students’ performance is predicted from their seating
position, which research method is used?
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LARNING (SUMMARY)
 Why doctors unaware the smell of alcohol in hospital?
 About Gestalt principles
 About sensation and perception
 Why do we sometimes unable to distinguish b/n the original CD
and its photocopy?
 If we develop fear of a phone ring after hearing a tragic
message through a telephone call, what is the conditioned
stimulus?
 If a police assumed that the husband might be involved in
theft, but not the wife, which feature of classical conditioning
illustrated?
 Why do addicts of cigarette suffer from giving up smoking
habit once and for all?
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LARNING (SUMMARY)
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Maslow’s human motivational needs
A proverb that indicates motivational conflict
The executive structure of personality
How does the ego operates?
A student who is failed in a test refused to pick up his/her result
Encoding an event by associating with your personal life or
with some examples and concepts
Repeating names frequently when we are introduced too many
new friends at a party
About STM and LTM
Why people do not forget riding a bicycle even though they
haven’t ridden once since they were young?
About retrieval and causes of forgetting
About abnormal behaviors
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UNIT FOUR
MEMORY AND
FORGETTING
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The Meaning of Memory
 an organism’s mental ability to receive, retain, store and
recall information over time
 everything we do or say depends on memory systems
 significant to put information into our mind and to retrieve
to perform all of our life’s activity
Dimensions (stages) of memory
 Memory is more than a single process and the
corresponding processes are encoding, storage and
retrieval.
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I. Memory Encoding
 It is the process of converting information into a form that can be
stored in memory, and it requires the following efforts:
 Rehearsal- a conscious repetition of information without
imparting any meaning
 deep processing- an intense and higher level of information
processing
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Encoding (contd)
 elaboration- an extensive processing at any depth with
examples, concepts, and self-references
 imagery- storing of information as verbal or as an image
code
 Organizing- an arrangement of information in some
retrievable manner such as alphabetical order,
hierarchically, or chunking
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II. Memory Storage
 is the process whereby an encoded information is
held/kept in memory system for future use
 memory storage can be distinguished by different time
frames and its contents
Time Frame Theory 0f Memory
This theory assumes that memory has three stages:
Sensory memory, working (short term) memory
(STM), and long-term memory (LTM).
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Memory Storage (contd)
1.
Sensory Memory (very short) 0-25 seconds
2. Working (short term) Memory (STM)
 short span - about 30 seconds
 also known as working memory
 holds the data used for conscious cognitive activities
 is the problem-solving area
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Memory Storage (contd)
 some of STM contents are lost after 30 seconds, but
some are converted to LTM
 its capacity is 7±2 bits of information
 contains input from two sources:
 contents of sensory memory that we are paying
attention
 information recalled from LTM for retrieval
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Memory Storage (contd)
3. Long-Term Memory (LTM) (potentially for
a lifelong)
 holds what we usually think
 limitless in capacity & duration but limited by encoding
& retrieval.
Memory’s contents
LTM contents are divided into 2 types: declarative & nondeclarative
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Memory Storage (contd)
1)Declarative ((or explicit) memories - memories that
can be consciously recalled and described information
This further subdivided in to semantic and episodic
memory
 semantic memory - a person’s field of expertise,
academic knowledge about facts, meanings, figures,
concepts, places, persons and things
 episodic memory - events in the past that include
information about what happened along with when
and where it occurred
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Memory Storage (contd)
Non-declarative ( (or implicit or procedural)
memories
 Are previous experience memories that can be accessed
without our conscious (or verbal) involvement
 tell as how to perform particular activities
 their contents cannot easily describe in words, hence,
they are considered to be implicit memories.
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III. Memory Retrieval
 is the process whereby a stored memory is brought in to
consciousness through recall
 is the process of putting the contents of LTM in to working
memory
some concepts used in retrieval
 Tip-of-the-tongue (TOT):
 Serial position effect:
 Retrieval cues and retrieval tasks:
 Emotional memories:
I. Flashbulb memories
II. Personal trauma
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Forgetting
 it s the apparent loss of information stored in LTM or
 it is the inability to retrieve and use information stored
in memory system
Reasons of forgetting (theories)
 Theory of Decay: fading with the passage of time
 Motivated Forgetting (Repression): pushing
information to the unconscious part of mind
purposefully
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Reasons of forgetting (contd)
 Theory of interference: intervening activities
 Retroactive interference - if a new learned material
disrupts recall of an older
 Proactive interference - when an older memory
interferes with the recall (encoding) of newer
 Retrieval Failure: non-availability of appropriate
events for retrieval
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Reasons of forgetting (contd)td)
 Abnormal or pathological Forgetting: also called
amnesia - a complete block of memory as a result of
damage of brain beyond repair
it takes two forms:
1. anterograde amnesia - a memory disorder preventing
retention of new information
2.retrograde amnesia - memory loss for a segment of the
past
Improvement of memory
 A non-threatening atmospheres free from cut throat
competition
 Organization of the subject matter
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SUMMARY
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MEMORY AND FORGETTING (BRIEF SUMMARY)
 MEMORY
Dimensions (stages) of memory
I. Memory Encoding
 Rehearsal, deep processing, elaboration,
imagery, and OrganizingII. Memory Storage
A. Time frame theory of memory
1. Sensory memory, v. short 0-25 sec
2. Working/short term memory (STM) - about 30
sec
 data used for conscious cognitive activities
 problem-solving area
 its capacity is 7±2 bits of information
 contains input from two sources:
1. contents of STM that we are paying
attention
2. Information recalled from LTM for
retrieval
3. Long-term memory (LTM)
 holds what we usually think
 limitless in capacity & duration
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B. Memory’s contents
LTM contents are divided into 2 types:
1. Declarative/explicit memories - information that
can be consciously recalled and described
This further subdivided in to semantic and episodic
 Semantic field of expertise, knowledge about facts,
meanings, figures, concepts, places, persons and
things
 Episodic events in the past including what
happened along with when and where it occurred
2. Non-declarative/ implicit or procedural
memories- previous experience that can be accessed
without our conscious (or verbal) involvement
 tell as how to perform particular activities
 their contents cannot easily describe in words
 III. Memory Retrieval
some concepts used in retrieval
 Tip-of-the-tongue (TOT):
 Serial position effect:
 Retrieval cues and retrieval tasks:
 Emotional memories:
I. Flashbulb memories
II. Personal trauma
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Forgetting
 it s the apparent loss of information stored in LTM or
 it is the inability to retrieve and use information stored in memory system
Reasons of forgetting (theories)
 Theory of Decay: fading with the passage of time
 Motivated Forgetting (Repression): pushing information to the unconscious
part of mind purposefully
 Theory of interference: intervening activities
 Retroactive interference - if a new learned material disrupts recall of an older
 Proactive interference - when an older memory interferes with the recall
(encoding) of newer
 Retrieval Failure: non-availability of appropriate events for retrieval
 Abnormal/pathological Forgetting: also called amnesia - a complete block of
memory as a result of damage of brain beyond repair and it takes two forms:
1. anterograde amnesia - a memory disorder preventing retention of new
information
2. retrograde amnesia - memory loss for a segment of the past
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THE END
THANK YOU
VERY MUCH
August, 2005
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UNIT FIVE
MOTIVATION AND
EMOTIONS
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The Meaning and Concepts of
Motivation
Just as a force moves an object, motivation moves and
energizes a person to do an activity
Definition
Motivation is the dynamics of behavior or a force that initiates,
energizes, directs and sustains activities of a person toward a
goal
Motivation is a cycle of three stages:
1. a motivating state within the organisms,
2. behavior aroused and directed by this state, and
3. an intended goal toward which the behavior is directed
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Meaning and Concepts (contd)
The first stage, has various names; needs and drives.
 Needs are specific states with the organism which is based
on some deficit and that may elicit behavior.
 Drives are internal states with the organism which pushes
the organism into action towards a particular goal
 Incentives are external motivating stimulus such as money,
praise, fame or attention
The second stage is the behavior that is activated by the
motive
The third stage is the reduction or satisfaction of the motives
which is ordinarily achieved by reaching some goal
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Meaning and Concepts (contd)
 A model of motivation
Need
Drive
Response
Goal
(Need reduction)
Types of Motives
A. Primary and Secondary Motives
 Primary Motives
 Secondary Motives
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The most studied areas of social motives
 The Need for Achievement: to do better, to improve
performance, to accomplish tasks, to rival and surpass others
 The Need for Affiliation (relatedness): to seek and enjoy
cooperation with others, to make friends
 The Need for power: a motive to produce intended effects
on another person - to influence, control, persuade, and
charm others
 B. Extrinsic and Intrinsic Motivation
 Extrinsic Motivation:
 Intrinsic Motivation:
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Theories of Motivation
A. Instinct Theory: Born to Be Motivated - motivation is
the result of biological or genetic program
B. Drive–Reduction Theory: Satisfying our Needs
motivation is driven by internal biological needs, i.e. drives.
Drive: is a motivational tension that energizes behavior in
order to fulfill some end, the restoration of homeostasis
C. Arousal Theories: Beyond Drive–Reduction
the aim of motivation is to maintain an optimal level of
arousal that is pleasurable
D. Incentive Theory: Motivation’s pull: pull Theory
our motivation is influenced by external goals or stimuli which
are known as incentives
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Theories of Motivation
(contd.)
E. Psychodynamic Theory
- humans have only two basic drives: Eros and Thanatos, or the
Life and Death drives everything we think, feel, and do has
one of two goals: to help us survive (Life drive) or prevent our
destruction (Death drive)
Life instinct (Eros) and Death instinct (Thanatos)
unconsciously motivate our behavior.
F. Cognitive Theories: The thoughts behind Motivation
- our thoughts, expectations, and understanding about the
world or ourselves influence our motivation
G. Humanistic Theories of Motivation
– we are driven to achieve our maximum potential and will
always do so unless obstacles, such as hunger, thirst, lack of
finance or safety, are placed in our ways
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Ordering
Motivational
Needs
Self–actualization needs
Self-esteem needs
Love and belongingness needs
Safety and security needs
Physiological Needs
Figure 1. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
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Maslow’s Hierarchy (contd.)
 Self–Actualization needs:- A state of self–fulfilment in which
people realize their highest potential in their own unique way
 Esteem needs:- esteem relates to the need to develop a sense
of self-worth by knowing that others are aware of one’s
competence and value
 Love and belongingness needs:- the needs to obtain and give
affection and to be a contributing member of some group or
society, such as communication, relationships, and sexuality
 Safety needs :- includes sensory function, a secured
environment, safety, legal and economic protection
 Physiological needs :- are the most basic needs (primary
drives) such as needs for water, food, sleep, sex, and the like
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Motivational problems
Frustration – is a person’s negative emotion due to actual or
imagined
 diversion from a goal,
 blocking of goal-directed behavior, or
 loss of an already achieved goal.
If motives are frustrated or blocked, emotional feelings and
behaviors often result.
Sources of frustration
 Personal inadequacies (lack, failure, losses, laziness,
aloofness)
 Environmental (both physical & social environment)
 Conflict Induced (conflicts of motives) – incompatible goals
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Types of motivational conflict
 Approach-approach conflict- motivated to approach equally
desirable alternatives, but forced to choose one, e.g.; eating
and then going to bed
 Avoidance-avoidance conflict- when we are presented with
two equally unattractive, as caught “b/n the devil & the deep
blue sea” we are motivated to avoid each of the two, but must
choose one
 Approach-avoidance conflict- being attracted and repelled
by a single goal which has both negative and positive impacts
- we would like to approach; at the same time, we would like to
avoid it
 Multiple approaches-avoidances conflict - double
approaches-avoidances conflict, in which a person is
motivated to both avoid and approach two different goals
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The Meaning and Concepts of
Emotions
 pleasant and very unpleasant experiences
 joy of love, the sorrow over someone’s death, or the
anguish of inadvertently hurting someone
 Emotion is a physical departure from homeostasis that
is subjectively experienced in strong feeling like love,
hate, desire, or fear and manifests itself in
neuromuscular respiratory, cardiovascular, hormonal
and other bodily changes
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Concepts of Emotions(contd.)
 Emotion consists of three components:
1) Physiological change - internal bodily change
2) subjective cognitive state (mental state) - beliefs or
expectances towards certain things that we feel and
label as emotion
3) expressive behaviour - out-ward or overt manifestation
of behaviour by verbal or non-verbal channels
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The physiology of Emotion
 When frustration or anxiety - nerves are on edge
 When overjoyed – flying
 Such expressions demonstrated that strong
emotions are associated with physiological
arousal
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The Expression of Emotion
 Non-verbal expressions - private emotional




experiences - cannot be directly observed but
inferred from expressive behaviours
Body movements or gestures
Facial expressions - emotions that our faces give
away
Words and voice expressions
Prosody - vocal features of speech, other than the
words
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The Experience of Emotion
 subjective - internal or mental experience of d/t
kinds of feelings
Few basic emotions
 joy, fear, anger, disgust, sadness, surprise,
acceptance and anticipation
 complex emotions (e.g. anxiety, worry, curiosity)
arise from mixtures of these basic ones
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Theories/Dimensions of Emotions
 Biological Dimension - there are specific bodily reactions that
cause us to experience a particular emotion
 sympathetic and par sympathetic nervous systems involved in
emotion to arouse and calm the body respectively
The James–Lange Theory:
 Environmental
influence
Physiological change
(arousal)
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The Cannon–Bard Theory
 emotion and physiological reactions occur
simultaneously
Arousal
 Environmental stimuli
Emotion
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Cognitive Dimension
 body and thought involve in emotion - understanding how
people interpret events
The Schachter–Singer Theory (Two-Factor Theory)
 emotion is determined by physiological arousal and
cognitive labelling
Physiological arousal
 Perceived
External stimuli
Emotion
Cognitive labelling
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Behavioral Dimension
The Facial–feedback Theory:
facial expressions can influence emotions as well as reflect
them
 facial muscles send signals to the brain, which help
individuals, recognize the emotion
Sociocultural Dimension
 emotion display rules for emotions are not culturally
universal
 universal basic emotions include: happiness, sadness,
fear, anger, surprise, and disgust
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THE END
THANK YOU
VERY MUCH
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UNIT SIX
PERSONALITY AND
HUMADEVELOPMENT
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MEANING AND CONCEPTS OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT
Development is a progressive series of changes that occur in

orderly and predictable pattern from conception to death
physical, emotional, intellectual, social, perceptual, and
personality development

Some terms related with development
Growth: a change in our body size
 Learning: changes of behavior as a result of experience
 Development: a comprehensive and functional change of
behavior due to growth, maturation and learning

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ASPECTS OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT
Physical development – change in body parts
 Cognitive development – change in thinking,

understanding

Psychosocial development – change in emotional
and interpersonal relationship
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STAGES OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT


Prenatal development
postnatal development









Infancy
Babyhood
Early childhood
Late childhood
Adolescence
Early adulthood
Middle adulthood
Late adulthood
Old age
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THEORIES OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT
A. Theory of cognitive development (J. Piaget)
Assumptions:

development is a change in the underlying cognitive structure
(scheme or knowledge) guide people’s thinking and behavior

scheme- a cognitive structure that an individual involves for
dealing with a specific kind of situation in the environment
 development consists of two basic processes: assimilation and
accommodation
 Assimilation: the process of taking in and interpreting new
information
 Accommodation: the process of changing and adjusting a scheme
to make it a better match to the world of reality
 Piaget distinguishes four stages in the development of cognition
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PIAGET’S STAGES OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
Stages
Sensori motor
(birth-2 years)
Characteristics
Reflex actions-vision, hearing, grasping…,
object permanence, stranger anxiety
Preoperational
(2-6/7 years)
Symbolic thinking- language development
words, phrases and sentences representation
Egocentrism, pretending play
Concrete operation
(7-11/12 years)
Formal operation
(12 years and above)
 Operational and logical thought in concrete
situation
 Conservation of numbers, mass, liquid
 Classification of objects
 Abstract and hypothetical reasoning
 Deductive reasoning
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THEORIES (CONTD)
B. Theory of moral development (L. Kohlberg)
Assumptions:

internalizing the elements of one’s culture such as traditions,
norms, values, beliefs, attitudes, and other systems in
shaping individuals behavior
Internalization is the developmental change in the capacity
to reason about rightness or wrongness of various actions or
behaviors across ages that are controlled externally to
behaviors that is controlled internally, self-generated
standards and principles
Kohlberg claims three levels of moral development, each
consisting two stages

•
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KOHLBERG’S STAGE OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT
Levels and stages
Reasons for a behavior
Level 1- Pre conventional
Stage 1
Punishment-obedience orientation –
to avoid punishment/to be obedient
Stage 2
Instrumental orientationfor self/others’ need satisfaction
Level 2- Conventional
Stage 3
Good boy-nice girl orientation- to get social approval
Stage 4
Social order orientation- for preserving social order
Level 3- Post conventional
Stage 5
Legal/social contract orientationto respect law, individual’s rights
Stage 6
Universal-ethical principles orientationfor self-chosen ethics, inner conciseness, abstract reason
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THEORIES (CONTD)
C. Theory of Psychosexual Development (S. Freud)
Assumptions:
•
•
•
The hidden, “unconscious” part of the mind and early childhood
experiences
personality is determined by the way we resolve conflicts between
the early experiences of pleasure and the demands of reality
 When the conflicts are not resolved, a person is said to be fixated
 Fixation refers to the defense mechanism that occurs when a
person remains locked in an earlier developmental stage, because
needs are under–or over gratified
Freud posited five maturational stages of psychosexual development
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FREUD’S STAGES OF PSYCHOSEXUAL DEVELOPMENT
Stage
Center of
pleasure
Oral
Mouth
Anal
Anus
Phallic
Genitalia
Latency
No specific
area
Genital
Genital
Sources of Pleasure
Sucking, biting
holding & letting faces
touching or rubbing genitalia
Oedipus complex, castration anxiety
Electra complex, penis envy
playing, language skill, social skills
sexuality outside a family member
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THEORIES (CONTD)
D. Theory of Psychosocial Development (E. Erikson)
Assumptions:
• ego is free of intra psychic conflicts rather conflicts
arise between the individual and the society
• individuals develop socio emotionally through
interactions and understanding of each other
• Erikson believed that we progress through a series of
eight personality stages
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ERIKSON’S STAGES OF PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT
Stages
Positive outcomes
Trust vs. Mistrust
Autonomy vs. Shame & Doubt
Initiative vs. Guilt
Industry vs. Inferiority
Trust and confidence
Dependence and suspicious
A sense of independence
Uncertainty, embarrassment
Eager or ready to do activity
Self blame
Hard worker, turn energy
to activities
Identity vs. Confusion
Intimacy vs. Isolation
vs.
Stagnation
Integrity vs. Despair
A sense of inadequacy,
incompetent
Confidence and sure about
Insecure about new roles
themselves and their lives
and adult statuses
Good interpersonal relations
Loneliness, social exclusion or
(friendship) with partners
Generativity
Negative outcomes
Feeling of productive and
useful for a society
A Sense of satisfaction and
success about past lives
withdrawal
Unproductive, worthless or no
function for a generation
A sense of misery or sadness
about past lives
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THE CONCEPTS AND DEFINITION OF PERSONALITY



a psychological concept that represents who the person is
personality characteristics – outgoing/shy, aggressive/ calm,
considerate/uncaring, etc.
These and other altogether make up traits- enduring parts
that makeup an individual as a person
points to be considered in describing personality



an integration, organization or system of behaviors
an identity of individual
a consistent, unifying, and articulate philosophy of life
Personality is the dynamic organization within the individual of those
psychophysical systems that determine his/her thoughts, feelings and
behaviors, unique adjustment to the environment
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THEORIES OF PERSONALITY

Trait theory
Traits are enduring dimensions of personality characteristics
along which people differ
 certain personality traits seldom relate with average social
behavior across many situations

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THE BIG-FIVE MODEL
Factors of
Descriptions
personality
Agreeableness
Soft-hearted
Vs
suspicious,
Helpful
Vs
Well-organized
Vs
uncooperative
Conscientiousness Careful
Vs
careless,
disorganized
Emotional
Calm Vs anxious, secure Vs insecure
stability
Extraversion
Sociable Vs retiring, affectionate Vs reserved,
Fun loving Vs sober
Openness
Imaginative Vs practical, preference for variety Vs
routine
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THEORIES (CONTD)


Learning Approaches
A. Behavioral theories
B. Cognitive theories
Humanistic theories
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PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORIES
Theory of psychosexual development (S. Freud)
 much more of our mind is unconscious than conscious
and that held the key to understand personality
 each of our lives is filled with tension and conflict; to
reduce these we keep information locked in our
unconscious mind which later appear influencing our
behavior
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FREUD’S STRUCTURES OF PERSONALITY
Freud broke the human personality down to three components: the
ID, EGO and SUPER EGO

Id is the biological, primitive and animalistic part of human
being that ensures our survival and operates on pleasure
principle

Ego is the executive part of personality governed with the
reality principle that creates a balance between the impulsive id
and perfect superego

Superego is moral branch of personality that represents
socially approved values, social components of human beings
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EGO DEFENSE MECHANISMS
there is a continuous inner war (intra psychic conflict) between the
demands of id and superego
 the ego control the conflicts through ego defense mechanisms
 When the ego fails to manage the ongoing inner fight, anxiety results
here are some examples of ego defense mechanisms


Repression:- the ego pushes unacceptable impulses out of awareness.
E.g., a young girl was sexually abused by her uncle attempts to forget when
becomes an adult

Rationalization:- using fallacious and plausible reasons to make things
justifiable. E.g., habitual drinkers may say they drink with their friends “just
to be sociable”.

Displacement:- The ego shifts feelings toward an unacceptable object
to another, more accessible object. Example, a man who can’t take his
anger out on his boss goes to home and kick his wife
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EGO DEFENSE MECHANISMS (CONTD)

Sublimation:- The ego replaces an unacceptable impulse with a socially
acceptable one. Example, A man with strong sexual urges becomes an
artist who paints nudes.

Projection:- The ego attributes personal shortcomings, problems and
faults to others. E.g., a man who has strong desire to have an extra marital
affair accuses his wife flirting with other men.

Reaction Formation:- The ego transforms an unacceptable motive in to
its opposite. Example, A woman who fears her sexual urges becomes a
religious person.

Denial:- The ego refuses to acknowledge anxiety producing realities.
Example, a man won’t accept that he has cancer although a team of
doctors has diagnosed his cancer

Regression:- The ego seeks the security of an earlier developmental
period in the face of stress. E.g., facing the anxious first days of school, a
child may regress to the oral comfort of thumb-sucking
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THE END
THANK YOU
VERY MUCH
ALL THE BEST!!
E. W/G
August, 2005
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