MODULE 1 Chapter 1 LEADERSHIP AND MANAGEMENT: HISTORICAL VIEWS Overview Before there are no widely accepted terms and terminologies for leadership and management concepts and principles, but evidence abound that these were already being practiced in different geographical locations and in varying cultural, political and economic settings. Some of the documented historical accounts of the evolutions that helped shaped the modern day leadership and management concepts, theories and principles along with the personalities that inspired their birth are discussed here. As future police officers the breadth of topics contained in this material is of tremendous help and importance to your profession. It will enable you to prepare and become more effective and efficient law enforcers given the nature and characteristic of the PNP as an organization and the management practices that they implement. A. Learning Outcomes; At the end of this module you will be able to; 1. Discuss the different historical perspectives of leadership and their corresponding peculiarities; 2. Explain what is leadership; 3. Elaborate the Trait and Process theory of leadership; 4. Differentiate Trait and Process theory from each other; 5. Expound the different factors of leadership. The Prince, written by Niccolò Machiavelli (pictured), argued that it is better for a ruler to be feared than loved, if you cannot be both. Sanskrit literature identifies ten types of leaders. The defining characteristics of the ten types of leaders are explained with examples from history and mythology. In the field of political leadership, the Chinese doctrine of the Mandate of Heaven postulated the need for rulers to govern justly and the right of subordinates to overthrow emperors who appeared to lack divine sanction. Pro-aristocracy thinkers have postulated that leadership depends on one's "blue blood" or genes. Monarchy takes an extreme view of the same idea, and may prop up its assertions against the claims of mere aristocrats by invoking divine sanctions. On the other hand, more democratically inclined theorists have pointed to examples of meritocratic leaders, such as the Napoleonic marshals profiting from careers open to talent. In the autocratic/paternalistic strain of thought, traditionalists recall the role of leadership of the Roman pater familias. Feminist thinking, on the other hand, may object to such models as patriarchal and posit against them "emotionally attuned, responsive, and consensual empathetic guidance, which is sometimes associated with matriarchies". "Comparable to the Roman tradition, the views of Confucianism on 'right living' relate very much to the ideal of the (male) scholar-leader and his benevolent rule, buttressed by a tradition of filial piety." Leadership is a matter of intelligence, trustworthiness, humaneness, courage, and discipline ... Reliance on intelligence alone results in rebelliousness. Exercise of humaneness alone results in weakness. Fixation on trust results in folly. Dependence on the strength of courage results in violence. Excessive discipline and sternness in command result in cruelty. When one has all five virtues together, each appropriate to its function, then one can be a leader. — Jia Lin, in commentary on Sun Tzu, Art of War. Machiavelli's The Prince, written in the early-16th century, provided a manual for rulers ("princes" or "tyrants" in Machiavelli's terminology) to gain and keep power. Prior to the 19th century, the concept of leadership had less relevance than today - society expected and obtained traditional deference and obedience to lords, kings, master-craftsmen and slave-masters. (Note that the Oxford English Dictionary traces the word "leadership" in English only as far back as 1821) Historically, industrialization, opposition to the ancient regime and the phasing out of chattel slavery meant that some newlydeveloping organizations (nation-state republics, commercial corporations) evolved a need for a new paradigm with which to characterize elected politicians and job-granting employers - thus the development and theorizing of the idea of "leadership". The functional relationship between leaders and followers may remain, but acceptable (perhaps euphemistic) terminology has changed. From the 19th century too, the elaboration of anarchist thought called the whole concept of leadership into question. One response to this denial of élitism came with Leninism - Lenin (1870-1924) demanded an élite group of disciplined cadres to act as the vanguard of a socialist revolution, bringing into existence the dictatorship of the proletariat. Other historical views of leadership have addressed the seeming contrasts between secular and religious leadership. The doctrines of Caesaropapism have recurred and had their detractors over several centuries. Christian thinking on leadership has often emphasized stewardship of divinely-provided resources—human and material—and their deployment in accordance with a Divine plan. Compare servant leadership. Chapter 2 WHAT IS LEADERSHIP? Some view leadership as a series of specific traits or characteristics. Others see it as comprised of certain skills and knowledge. And some think of leadership as a process. This view of leadership, as a process, places an emphasis on social interaction and relationship. This is the idea that leadership is a type of relationship, one that typically includes influencing others in a certain direction. Leadership is a relationship that involves the mobilizing, influencing, and guiding of others toward desired goals. This definition does not assume that the goals are shared or even explicit. The word desire simply means that someone in the relationship, perhaps just the person in a leadership role, wants a particular outcome. The following are some definitions that have a bias toward leadership as a process: “Leadership is a process of giving purpose (meaningful direction) to collective effort, and causing willing effort to be expended to achieve purpose.” (Jacobs & Jaques) “Leadership is the process of influencing the activities of an individual or a group in efforts toward goal achievement in a given situation.” (Hersey & Blanchard) “Leadership is an attempt at influencing the activities of followers through the communication process and toward the attainment of some goal or goals.” (Donelly) “Leadership is defined as the process of influencing the activities of an organized group toward goal achievement.” (Rauch & Behling) “Leadership is interpersonal influence, exercised in a situation, and directed, through the communication process, toward the attainment of a specified goal or goals.” (Tannenbaum, et al) Below are a few definitions of leadership that are grounded in skills and traits. “Leadership is a function of knowing yourself, having a vision that is well communicated, building trust among colleagues, and taking effective action to realize your own leadership potential”. (Bennis) “Leadership is about articulating visions, embodying values, and creating the environment within which things can be accomplished.” (Richards and Engle) “Leadership is the creation of a vision about a desired future state which seeks to enmesh all members of an organization in its net.” (Bryman) “It is a complex moral relationship between people, based on trust, obligation, commitment, emotion, and a shared vision of the good.” (Ciulla) These definitions are entirely valid perspectives — they are simply different from a leadership as process perspective. Most definitions of leadership are in regard to leading other individuals. However, a common assertion is that you cannot successfully lead others unless you first can successfully lead yourself. That includes having skills in, for example, career development, personal development, personal productivity and personal wellness. The leadership process is the ongoing relationship between leaders and followers to accomplish company goals. Leadership is basically the influence of a leader in achieving shared goals through followers. The process of leaders and followers working together is different for each business. Thus, perhaps the more accurate and encompassing definition of leadership is "the nature of activities in clarifying direction and influencing progress in that direction". Below is a schematic comparison between the Trait and Process Theory of leadership perspectives. FACTORS OF LEADERSHIP Leader You must have an honest understanding of who you are, what you know, and what you can do. Also, note that it is the followers, not the leader or someone else who determines if the leader is successful. If they do not trust or lack confidence in their leader, then they will be uninspired. To be successful you have to convince your followers, not yourself or your superiors, that you are worthy of being followed. Followers Different people require different styles of leadership. For example, a newly hired employee requires more supervision than an experienced employee does. A person who lacks motivation requires a different approach than one with a high degree of motivation. The fundamental starting point is having a good understanding of human nature, such as needs, emotions, and motivation. Communication You lead through two-way communication. Much of it is nonverbal. For instance, when you “set the example,” that communicates to your people that you would not ask them to perform anything that you would not be willing to do. What and how you communicate either builds or harms the relationship between you and your followers. Situation All situations are different. What you do in one situation will not always work in another. You must use your judgment to decide the best course of action and the leadership style needed for each situation. For example, you may need to confront an employee for inappropriate behavior, but if the confrontation is too late or too early, too harsh or too weak, then the results may prove ineffective. Also note that the situation normally has a greater effect on a leader's action than his or her traits. This is because while traits may have an impressive stability over a period of time, they have little consistency across situations (Mischel, 1968). This is why a number of leadership scholars think the Process Theory of Leadership is a more accurate than the Trait Theory of Leadership. Various forces that influence the Four (4) Factors of Leadership: o o o o your relationship with your seniors the skills of your followers the informal leaders within your organization how your organization is organized Chapter 3 WHAT IS MANAGEMENT? Traditional View of Management Management (or managing) is the administration of an organization, whether it is a business, a not-for-profit organization, or government body. Management includes the activities of setting the strategy of an organization and coordinating the efforts of its employees (or of volunteers) to accomplish its objectives through the application of available resources, such as financial, natural, technological, and human resources. The term "management" may also refer to those people who manage an organization - individually: managers. There are a variety of views about the term "management". Traditionally, the term "management" (sometimes referred to as "organizational management" or "business management") refers to the activities involved in the four general functions listed below. 1) Planning, including identifying goals, objectives, methods, resources needed to carry out methods, responsibilities and dates for completion of tasks. Examples of planning are strategic planning, business planning, project planning, staffing planning, advertising and promotions planning. 2) Organizing resources to achieve the goals in an optimum fashion. Examples are organizing new departments, human resources, office and file systems and reorganizing businesses. 3) Leading, including to set direction for the organization, groups and individuals and also influence people to follow that direction. Examples are establishing strategic direction (vision, values, mission and / or goals) and championing methods of organizational performance management to pursue that direction. 4) Controlling, or coordinating, including the organization's systems, processes and structures to reach effectively and efficiently reach goals and objectives. This includes ongoing collection of feedback, and monitoring and adjustment of systems, processes and structures accordingly. Examples include use of financial controls, policies and procedures, performance management processes and measures to avoid risks. IS LEADING DIFFERENT THAN MANAGING? View That Leading is Different Than Managing Maintaining the Delicate Balance between Leadership and Management By Dr. Greg Waddell. Management and Leadership are two very different systems of human behavior. Both are essential to the success of an organization; yet, like the repulsing polarity of two magnets, they push against one another and, if not kept in balance, can end up ejecting one or the other causing great damage to the organization and its people. It is difficult, yet necessary, to maintain both strong leadership and strong management simultaneously. People are naturally reluctant to step into change and the discomfort we experience when we find ourselves in the midst of ambiguity. Much of what we call “organization” is the struggle to reign in that ambiguity and bring things back to a state of equilibrium. Management is about developing systems and processes that enable us to take dominion over chaos. It is an attempt to create a semblance of order and constancy in an inherently complex situation. It’s about designing plans and systems for monitoring progress and controlling outcomes. It involves solving problems, giving reports, having meetings, and developing policies, all for the purpose of bringing things to a place of efficiency, where the ambiguity is dispelled and people can feel comfortable again. Leadership is about change. It’s about helping the organization define its vision, one that can take advantage of opportunities and avoid oncoming threats. It’s about challenging people to grow and to unleash their yet untapped potential. It’s about inspiring people to step into uncharted territory. Leaders get nervous when things are running too smoothly; often introducing innovative ideas just to stir things up a bit. CEO, Renato Beninatto of Milengo, a translation and localization industry, uses the term “chief instigator” to describe his job. Whereas managers constantly try to adjust to change, leaders are in the business of producing change. View That Separating "Leading" from "Managing" Can Be Destructive by Carter McNamara, Authenticity Consulting Another view is that to be a very effective member of an organization (whether executive, middle manager, or entry-level worker), you need skills in all of the traditional functions of management, including planning, organizing, leading and coordinating activities -- the key is you need to be able to emphasize different skills at different times. Leading is different than planning, organizing and coordinating because leading is focused on influencing people, while the other functions are focused on "resources" in addition to people. But that difference is not enough to claim that "leading is different than managing" any more than one can claim that "planning is different than managing" or "organizing is different than managing". The assertion that "leading is different than managing" -- and the ways that these assertions are made -- can cultivate the view that the activities of planning, organizing and coordinating are somehow less important than leading. The assertion can also convince others that they are grand and gifted leaders who can ignore the mere activities of planning, organizing and coordinating -- they can leave these lesser activities to others with less important things to do in the organization. This view can leave carnage in organizations. Here is an example of a too-common situation that occurs in organizations when certain individuals see themselves as quite apart from the activities of planning, organizing and coordinating resources. Founders Syndrome- this syndrome occurs when, rather than working toward its overall mission, the organization operates primarily according to the personality of a prominent person in the organization, for example, the founder, board chair/president, chief executive, etc. The syndrome is primarily an organizational problem -- not primarily a problem of the person in the prominent position. MANAGEMENT VS. LEADERSHIP Often, management is used interchangeably with “leadership”, although there have been several differentiations made between managers and leaders. Management and leadership are two different things, but they should always go together. One way to make the distinction is to know what makes a leader different from a manager. Basically, a manager manages tasks, while a leader leads people. Leaders have people following their lead, while managers have people working for them. In leadership, one tries to get the people in a group or an organization to understand an overall vision, and inspire them to join forces and work together towards the accomplishment of the vision so as to meet the defined targets and goals. Management, on the other hand, refers to administering tasks and ensuring that dayto-day occurrences are going according to plan. Who is a Leader? A leader is someone who can see how things can be improved and who rallies people to move toward that better vision. Leaders can work toward making their vision a reality while putting people first. Just being able to motivate people isn’t enough — leaders need to be empathetic and connect with people to be successful. Leaders don’t have to come from the same background or follow the same path. Future leaders will actually be more diverse, which brings a variety of perspectives. The most important thing is that organizations are united internally with their definition of leadership. Who is a Manager? The manager is responsible for overseeing and leading the work of a group of people in many instances. The manager is also responsible for planning and maintaining work systems, procedures, and policies that enable and encourage the optimum performance of its people and other resources within an organization or a business unit. According to Henri Fayol, a French management theorist, managers must be able to do: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. planning organizing leading coordinating controlling Author Warren Bennis listed several more differences between a manager and a leader in his book “On Becoming a Leader”. o A manager focuses on systems and structures, while a leader focuses on people. o A manager administers, while a leader innovates. o A manager relies on control, while a leader inspires trust. o A manager administers, while a leader innovates. o A manager generally looks at things in the short term, while a leader thinks long term.
