The role of values in servant leadership
Robert F. Russell
Emory & Henry College, Emory, Virginia, USA
The topic of values has become an important
item of debate in many arenas, particularly
in the field of leadership. Woodward (1994,
p. 95) postulated that, ``leaders lead from their
Abstract
This paper reviews the existing
values and beliefs'', but we are experiencing
literature regarding values in
a leadership crisis because self-interest
leadership. It identifies issues
motivates many leaders. The primary
relating to both personal values
purpose of this article is to examine the
and organizational values. The
literature indicates that values
existing literature regarding the role of
affect leader behavior, as well as
values in leadership. Secondarily, the paper
organizational performance. The
paper also provides an overview of extracts various portions of the values in
servant leadership theory and
leadership literature and applies it to servant
extrapolates applications of the
leadership. The fundamental proposition of
values in leadership literature to
the article is that the personal values of
three aspects of servant
servant leaders distinguish them from other
leadership: trust; appreciation of
others; and empowerment. Values leader types.
Keywords
Leadership, Values, Trust,
Empowerment
constitute the foundation of
servant leadership.
Fundamentally, leader values may
be the underlying factors that
separate servant leaders from all
other leadership types.
The role of values in leadership
Values are important parts of each
individual's psyche. They are core beliefs ±
the underlying thoughts that stimulate
human behavior. Rokeach (1973) defined
values as prescriptive, enduring standards
that have cognitive, affective, and behavioral
components. Since values are prescriptive,
they play an important role in determining
the choices we make. Values are enduring
standards that collectively form the value
systems of our lives.
Personal values of leaders
Received: April 2000
Revised/Accepted:
December 2000
Leadership & Organization
Development Journal
22/2 [2001] 76±83
# MCB University Press
[ISSN 0143-7739]
[ 76 ]
Kouzes and Posner (1993) postulate that the
process and practices of leadership are
fundamentally amoral, but leaders are
themselves moral or immoral. Consequently,
the personal values of leaders have very
significant effects on leader-follower
relationships (Burns, 1978; Deal and
Kennedy, 1982; Kouzes and Posner, 1993). In
addition, values affect leaders' moral
reasoning and personal behavior.
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Moral reasoning
Values affect moral reasoning by influencing
judgments about ethical and unethical
behavior (Hughes et al., 1993). Individuals
with strong value systems tend to behave
more ethically than those with weak value
combinations (Hughes et al., 1993). However,
males differ from females in their moral
reasoning modes, with females showing
higher relationship and caring
characteristics (Butz and Lewis, 1996).
Behavior
Personal values and value systems result in
characteristics or attitudes that in turn affect
behavior (Malphurs, 1996; Rokeach, 1968).
Rokeach (1973) went so far as to say that
the definition of values includes their
behavioral influence. England and Lee (1974)
identified seven ways in which values affect
leaders:
1 Values affect leaders' perceptions of
situations.
2 Leaders' values affect the solutions they
generate regarding problems.
3 Values play a role in interpersonal
relationships.
4 Values influence perceptions of individual
and organizational successes.
5 Values provide a basis for differentiating
between ethical and unethical behavior.
6 Values affect the extent to which leaders
accept or reject organizational pressures
and goals.
7 Personal values may also affect
managerial performance.
Development of personal values
Personal values develop in a social context;
therefore, they may be influenced by national
or regional culture, social institutions and
family (Finkelstein and Hambrick, 1996).
Kuczmarski and Kuczmarski (1995) specified
four factors that create values:
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Robert F. Russell
The role of values in servant
leadership
Leadership & Organization
Development Journal
22/2 [2001] 76±83
1 family and childhood experiences;
2 conflict events which evoke selfdiscovery;
3 major life changes and experiential
learning; and
4 personal relationships with ``important''
individuals (p. 43).
Similarly, Massey (1979) identified myriad
influences on personal values, including:
.
family;
.
friends;
.
religion;
.
education;
.
the media;
.
geographic roots;
.
technology; and
.
current events.
Leaders' values may also be a function of
education and cognitive style (Bass, 1990). In
addition, Hofstede (1980) documented the
strong effect of national culture on the values
of organizational members.
Lloyd (1998) and Oster (1991) argue there
are two dominant value cultures. One has a
short-term perspective motivated by material
and monetary gain. The other is spiritually
and morally driven, and is more concerned
with long-term issues. Similarly, Covey (1989)
maintained that two basic ethics have
pervasively influenced ideas about important
values and personal success:
1 the historical character ethic; and
2 the modern personality ethic.
The character ethic emphasized personal
integrity, humility, fidelity, courage, and
other traditional values. It defined success by
adherence to internally consistent, morally
upright values. The personality ethic
emphasizes public image, behaviors, skills,
and other aspects of performance. It defines
success along the dimension of external
approval. Covey argues for a re-emphasis on
the character ethic in leadership.
Personal values in leadership
Position power is eroding in many
organizations; therefore, leaders must derive
their influence from values (Huey, 1994).
Leaders must clarify and understand their
own belief systems in order to transmit good
organizational values to others (Anderson,
1997; Bennis, 1989; Kouzes and Posner, 1995;
Malphurs, 1996). Blanchard and Peale (1988)
maintain that proper personal values yield a
powerful form of leadership, which they call
ethical management. Likewise, Covey (1990)
called for principle-centered leadership. He
argued that effective leadership is
``predicated upon certain inviolate principles
± natural laws in the human dimension''
(p. 18). The goal, in his opinion, is to align
internalized values with correct
transcendent principles.
Essential values of good leaders
The personal values of leaders become
integrated into personal value systems
(Rokeach, 1973), which define the character
of individuals. Various researchers argue
that certain values are essential to the value
systems of good leaders. These primarily
include honesty and integrity, but also
encompass other important values such as
concern for others, fairness, and justice.
Honesty and integrity
Honesty is the most admired characteristic of
leaders, followed by their forward-looking
nature, ability to inspire, and competence
(Kouzes and Posner, 1993; Posner and
Schmidt, 1992). In addition, executive
integrity is ``one of the key life-sustaining
properties involved in the relational nature
of organizational existence'' (Srivastva and
Associates, 1988, p. 5). Clawson (1999)
maintains that honesty and integrity form
the moral foundation of effective leadership
through the four key values of:
1 truth telling;
2 promise keeping;
3 fairness; and
4 respect for the individual (pp. 46-9).
Similarly, Snyder et al. (1994) delineated five
essential personal values of leadership:
1 service to others;
2 humility;
3 integrity;
4 honesty; and
5 hard work.
Furthermore, justice, personal restraint,
concern for the common good, and courage
may also be critical leadership values
(De Pree, 1992).
Values and decision making
Essentially, values serve as blueprints or
foundations for making decisions, solving
problems, and resolving conflicts (Kouzes
and Posner, 1993; Malphurs, 1996).
Executives' values:
.
limit their field of vision;
.
affect their selective perception;
.
influence their interpretation of
information; and
.
reflect in their choices (Finkelstein and
Hambrick, 1996).
In addition, values affect decision making at
the personal level, as well as at the
organizational level (Learned et al., 1989;
Malphurs, 1996).
[ 77 ]
Robert F. Russell
The role of values in servant
leadership
Leadership & Organization
Development Journal
22/2 [2001] 76±83
Organizational decision making
The values culture of an organization can
affect the amount of risk that decision
makers are willing to undertake (Deal and
Kennedy, 1982). March (1994) indicated that
decision making which includes several
people involves increased complexity. In
these situations, he stipulated that ``beliefs
are important'' and ``trust and loyalty are
both valued and scarce'' (p. 110).
Organizations that are developing open
leadership styles have core values that guide
decision making (Huey, 1994).
Organizational values
Every enterprise is driven by its leaders'
individual and collective values, whether
those values are consciously understood or
unconsciously influential, spoken or
unspoken, written or unrecorded (Bean, 1993,
p. 95).
Organizational cultures consolidate the
shared beliefs, assumptions, goals, and
values of their members (Deal and Kennedy,
1982; Hinings et al., 1996; Schein, 1992). In
addition, various researchers suggest that
the shared values of organizational members,
which their cultures encapsulate, contribute
to the sustained success of the organizations
(Barney, 1986; Deal and Kennedy, 1982;
Fairholm, 1991; Malphurs, 1996; Peters and
Waterman, 1982).
Establishing organizational values
Most values come from senior leaders and
permeate all levels of organizations
(Hambrick, 1987; Kilcourse, 1994; Schein,
1992). ``The institutional leader is primarily
an expert in the promotion and protection of
values'' (Rowsell and Berry, 1993, p.18).
``Shared values give everyone an internal
compass that enables them to act
independently and interdependently,
responsibly and publicly'' (Kouzes and
Posner, 1993, p. 53). Excellent leaders must
continually regenerate admirable values in
organizations (Gardner, 1990).
Schein (1992) postulates that leaders who
impose their personal values on groups
establish organizational cultures. If the
groups succeed, they adopt and inculcate the
values. Thereafter, the cultural values selfselect leaders who fit the existing culture.
However, as the organizations encounter
new challenges they are again open to change
and leaders have opportunities to establish
new or different values. Thus, the values of
the organizational culture evolve through a
continuous interchange of leader and
corporate values.
[ 78 ]
Modeling
Modeling is an important means for
establishing corporate values (Behr, 1998; De
Pree, 1992; Kouzes and Posner, 1995;
Malphurs, 1996; Manz and Sims, 1989; Schein,
1992). Effective leaders instill values as much
or more through deeds as through words
(Malphurs, 1996; Peters and Waterman, 1982).
De Pree (1992) said the ``sacred relationships''
between leaders and followers critically
depend on the ``clearly expressed and
consistently demonstrated values'' of leaders
(p. 126).
Organizational values, as well as personal
values, may be good or bad (Malphurs, 1996).
Organizations may implicitly or explicitly,
consciously or unconsciously adopt values
that complement one another or that conflict
with one another. Furthermore, good
organizational values can erode over time
(Malphurs, 1996). Conflicts and compromise
may cause organizational values to drift in
bad directions or poor leaders may purposely
redirect the central values of an
organization.
Summary
Clearly, values significantly impact
leadership. Personal values affect moral
reasoning, behavior, and leadership style.
The most critical values of good leaders are
honesty and integrity. Values also
profoundly influence personal and
organizational decision-making. The values
of leaders ultimately permeate the
organizations they lead. Leaders primarily
shape the cultures of their organizations
through modeling important values.
Ultimately, values serve as the foundational
essence of leadership.
Overview of servant leadership
theory
Robert K. Greenleaf (1904-1990) inspired the
servant leadership concept among modern
organizational theorists (Spears, 1996).
Leadership, according to Greenleaf, must
first and foremost meet the needs of others
(Greenleaf, 1977; Lloyd and Spears, 1996). In
addition to Greenleaf, various other writers
espouse servant leadership as a valid,
modern theory for organizational leadership.
For example, Covey (1998) said, ``the servantleadership concept is a principle, a natural
law, and getting our social value systems and
personal habits aligned with this ennobling
principle is one of the great challenges of our
lives'' (p. xiv).
The fundamental motivation for leadership
should be a desire to serve (Baggett, 1997;
Batten, 1997; Block, 1993; Briner and
Robert F. Russell
The role of values in servant
leadership
Leadership & Organization
Development Journal
22/2 [2001] 76±83
Pritchard, 1998; Covey, 1990; De Pree 1997;
Fairholm, 1997; Gaston, 1987; Greenleaf, 1977;
Kouzes and Posner, 1993; Manz, 1998; Oster,
1991; Pollard, 1996; Rinehart, 1998; Snodgrass,
1993; Snyder et al., 1994). According to
Neuschel (1998), ``it is not the lot of the leader
to be served but rather his/her privilege to
serve'' (p. 135). Servant leaders value human
equality and seek to enhance the personal
development and professional contributions
of all organizational members. ``Servant
leaders give up personal rights to find
greatness in service to others'' (Wilkes, 1996,
p. 15).
Values in servant leadership
The values in leadership literature is very
pertinent to servant leadership. Leaders need
to ``develop a value system that serves''
(Kuczmarski and Kuczmarski, 1995, p. 83).
Servant leaders assert the important place of
values, beliefs, and principles in leadership
(Covey, 1990; Ford, 1991). According to many
writers, values are the core elements of
servant leadership; they are the independent
variables that actuate servant leader
behavior (Batten, 1997; Covey, 1990; Farling et
al., 1999; Ford, 1991; Kouzes and Posner, 1993;
Malphurs, 1996; Melrose, 1997; Nair, 1994;
Rinehart, 1998). Consequently, the internal
values of servant leaders yield functional,
distinguishable leadership attributes.
Servant leadership characteristics
The literature regarding servant leadership
reveals many distinguishable attributes of
such leaders. These include:
.
vision;
.
credibility;
.
trust;
.
service;
.
modeling;
.
pioneering;
.
appreciation of others; and
.
empowerment (Russell and Stone, 2000).
While all of the attributes of servant
leadership are important, this study focuses
on the role of values in only three of the
functional attributes:
1 trust;
2 appreciation of others; and
3 empowerment.
The following review expounds on the three
attributes and provides a discussion of the
importance of values in each of the areas.
Trust
According to the values in leadership
literature, the essential values of good
leaders include honesty and integrity. These
values build interpersonal and
organizational trust (Bennis, 1989; Bennis
and Nanus, 1997; De Pree, 1997; Kouzes and
Posner, 1993; Nanus, 1989; Neuschel, 1998;
Yukl, 1998). ``Leaders with integrity inspire
confidence in others because they can be
trusted to do what they say they are going to
do'' (Northouse, 1997, p. 18). ``Without
integrity, trust is never achieved'' (Bardwick,
1996, p. 137).
Trust is an essential ingredient in servant
leadership, as well as in other leadership
styles (Covey, 1990; De Pree, 1989; 1997;
Fairholm, 1997; 1998; Ford, 1991; Greenleaf,
1977; Melrose, 1995; 1997; Neuschel, 1998;
Wilkes, 1998). Trust is ``unquestionably of
greatest importance'' in establishing leader
credibility and ``trust is at the heart of
fostering collaboration'' (Kouzes and Posner,
1993, pp. 24, 163). Trust provides the
foundation for people to follow their leaders
with confidence and enthusiasm. However,
trust must be earned (Fairholm, 1998). ``Trust
grows when people see leaders translate their
personal integrity into organizational
fidelity'' (De Pree, 1997, p. 127).
``Leaders who do not command our respect
reduce the legitimacy of their leadership and
lose our trust'' (Nair, 1994, p. 14). Conditional
trust arises when people interact with
contingencies, but unconditional trust
develops when shared values permeate the
social situation (Jones and George, 1998).
Lack of trust in a work environment can lead
to decreased employee satisfaction
(Kuczmarski and Kuczmarski, 1995; Ryan
and Oestreich, 1998). In addition, the failure
to establish new levels of trust can impede
the success of organizational changes
(Heckscher et al., 1994). In the absence of
trust, fear dominates organizations and
inhibits productivity (Ryan and Oestreich,
1998). The generation of ``trust between
individuals and between groups within an
organization is a highly important ingredient
in the long-term stability of the organization
and the well-being of its members'' (Cook and
Wall, 1980, p. 39).
Appreciation of others
Servant leaders visibly appreciate, value,
encourage, and care for their constituents
(Batten, 1997; Covey, 1990; Crom, 1998;
Greenleaf, 1977; Kouzes and Posner, 1993;
1995; Pollard, 1996; Wenderlich, 1997;
Winston, 1999). They inspire hope and
courage in others by living out their
convictions, facilitating positive images, and
by giving love and encouragement (Kouzes
and Posner, 1993). Such actions reflect
appropriate, unconditional love in the
workplace and they build relationships
(Batten, 1997; Covey, 1990; Kouzes and
Posner, 1993; Manz, 1998).
[ 79 ]
Robert F. Russell
The role of values in servant
leadership
Leadership & Organization
Development Journal
22/2 [2001] 76±83
Appreciation of others by servant leaders
reflects fundamental personal values that
esteem and honor people. Whereas
authoritarian leadership styles may demean
followers, servant leaders respect those they
serve. Winston (1999) maintains that
managers should love their subordinates,
peers, and superiors, as well as their
competitors (pp. 70, 38). Nix (1997) argues for
the application of love in order to transform
the workplace into something that is better
for everyone. He calls for an ``allencompassing love'' that practices patience,
kindness, and forgiveness in work relations
(p.14). Optimally, ``work is love made visible''
(Batten, 1997, p. 50).
Kouzes and Posner (1993) identified a shift
in focus from self to others among important
trends in managerial values (p. 92). Showing
concern for others and putting their needs
and interests as priorities demonstrates
empathy and elicits trust (Bennis, 1997;
Block, 1993; Greenleaf, 1977; Kouzes and
Posner, 1993; Snodgrass, 1993). In addition to
appreciating followers, servant leaders
believe in and encourage the people they lead
(Pollard, 1996). Nix (1997) suggested people
should practice ``intentional encouragement''
in the workplace (p. 28). Commitment to the
growth of people is one of the critical
characteristics of servant leadership (Spears,
1998). Listening is also a key way through
which leaders demonstrate respect and
appreciation of others (Greenleaf, 1977;
Kouzes and Posner, 1993; Miller, 1995; Nix,
1997; Sanders, 1994). Spears (1998) identified
healing, empathy, and listening among the
ten essential ingredients of servant
leadership.
Empowerment
Empowerment is a central element in
excellent leadership; it is especially
important in servant leadership (Block, 1993;
Covey, 1990; De Pree, 1989; Fairholm, 1998;
Ford, 1991; Melrose, 1997; Miller, 1995; Oster,
1991; Pollard, 1996; Rinehart, 1998).
Empowerment involves entrusting workers
with authority and responsibility (Costigan
et al., 1998). It emphasizes teamwork and
reflects the values of love and equality.
``Servant leaders multiply their leadership by
empowering others to lead'' (Wilkes, 1996, p.
25). In some respects, empowerment is a
dependent variable; it is an important
consequence of other leadership behaviors
(Bennis, 1997; Bennis and Nanus, 1997).
Empowerment creates a new type of leader
power ± one based on trust (Covey, 1990).
The goal of empowerment is to create many
leaders at all levels of the organization
(Bennis and Nanus, 1997; Kotter, 1990). ``Wise
leaders lead others to lead themselves''
[ 80 ]
(Manz, 1998, p. 99). In essence, servant
leadership involves turning the traditional
organizational pyramid upside down
(Blanchard, 1997). Miller (1995) suggests that
servant leaders should establish vision and
direction, but delegate decisions about how
to reach the goals. He cautions, however, that
delegation is not abdication; rather, it
involves both trust and accountability (pp.
160-61).
Empowerment is the opposite of the
historical management practices that
emphasized manipulation (Oster, 1991).
Leaders have often derived power through
coercion based on fear or through exploitive
rewards (Covey, 1990). Empowerment is the
relinquishing of traditional means of power
and the delegation of decision-making
responsibilities (Pollard, 1996). Leaders who
genuinely empower operate from a different
values foundation than do those leaders who
desire to retain power and control. Servant
leaders respect the capabilities of their
followers and enable them to exercise their
abilities and share power.
``Servant leaders share their responsibility
and authority with others to meet a greater
need'' (Wilkes, 1996, p. 24). Power sharing is a
process of involving followers in planning
and decision making (Bass, 1990). Leaders
enable others to act not by hoarding the
power they have but by giving it away
(Fairholm, 1998; Kouzes and Posner, 1995;
Melrose, 1997). According to Maxwell (1998),
``only secure leaders give power to others''
(p. 121).
Servant leadership involves ``delegating
responsibility and nurturing participatory
leadership'' (Neuschel, 1998, p. 151). It
involves offering choices and encouraging
followers to take ownership of
responsibilities (Fairholm, 1997; Kouzes and
Posner, 1993). Servant leaders empower their
employees by providing opportunities for
them to do their best (Oster, 1991; Winston,
1999). Leaders can also influence and
empower people by structuring their work
environments in such a way that workers
feel more effective and motivated (Miles,
1997; Pollard, 1996). According to Sanders
(1994), ``the degree to which a leader is able to
delegate work is a measure of his success'' (p.
138). Unfortunately, Argyris (1998) argues
that delegation and empowerment are still
mostly illusions because executives tend to
undermine genuine empowerment.
Summary of the role of values in servant
leadership
Values are core elements of servant
leadership. The very concept of servant
leadership is based on the values of humility
Robert F. Russell
The role of values in servant
leadership
Leadership & Organization
Development Journal
22/2 [2001] 76±83
and respect for others. The primary
functional elements of servant leadership
grow out of proper leadership values. The
values of servant leaders not only yield
observable attributes, but they also affect the
leaders' organizations. The personal values
of leaders, such as honesty and integrity, play
a primary role in establishing interpersonal
and organizational trust. Trust holds
together servant-led organizations. Leaders
who show appreciation for others reflect
appropriate, unconditional love for their
followers. Such leaders incorporate empathy,
patience, and encouragement in their
relational style. Empowerment of
organizational members also grows out of a
trusting environment. It reflects the
leadership values of equality and love.
Overall, servant leadership succeeds or fails
on the personal values of the people who
employ it.
Conclusions
Leader values significantly affect followers
and ultimately influence organizational
performance. In order to establish sound
leadership practices, leaders must first
examine their own belief systems.
Thereafter, leaders should examine the
values of their organizations. ``Not until we
have considered our leadership model at the
level of its values, assumptions, and
principles, can we discern to what extent we
are leading from a power or a servant base''
(Rinehart, 1998, p. 30). Such evaluations could
spur leaders to challenge their personal
beliefs and their organizational cultures. In
so doing, they might initiate a revolution of
servant leadership . . . may it be so.
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