UNIT 1
Anatomy, Physiology and the Human Body
Learning Outcomes
At the end of this lesson, you will be able to:
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define the terms anatomy and physiology;
name the body systems;
analyze situations regarding homeostasis; and
identify positions of body parts using directional terms.
Pretest
Match the terms in Column B to the appropriate descriptions provided in Column A. Enter the correct letter or its
corresponding term in the answer blanks.
Column A
Physiology 1. The branch of biological science that
studies and describes how body parts
work or function.
Anatomy 2. The study of the shape and structure
of body parts.
Homeostasis 3. The tendency of the body’s systems to
maintain a relatively constant or balanced
internal environment.
Metabolism 4. The term that indicates all chemical
reactions occurring in the body.
Column B
Anatomy
Homeostasis
Metabolism
Physiology
Content
Anatomy (Greek anatomē, 'dissection') is the branch of biology concerned with the study of the structure of
organisms and their parts.
Physiology is the scientific study of functions and mechanisms in a living system.
Human beings are arguably the most complex organisms on this planet. Imagine billions of microscopic parts,
each with its own identity, working together in an organized manner for the benefit of the total being. The human
body is a single structure but it is made up of billions of smaller structures of four major kinds:
Cells
The simplest units of living matter that can maintain life and reproduce themselves. The human body, which
is made up of numerous cells, begins as a single, newly fertilized cell.
Tissues
Are somewhat more complex units than cells. By definition, a tissue is an organization of a great many
similar cells with varying amounts and kinds of nonliving, intercellular substance between them.
Organs
An organ is an organization of several different kinds of tissues so arranged that together they can perform
a special function.
Systems
A system is an organization of varying numbers and kinds of organs so arranged that together they can
perform complex functions for the body. Ten major systems compose the human body:
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Skeletal
Muscular
Nervous
Endocrine
Cardiovascular
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Lymphatic
Respiratory
Digestive
Urinary
Reproductive
Body Functions
Body functions are the physiological or psychological functions of body systems. The body's functions are ultimately
its cells' functions. Survival is the body's most important business. Survival depends on the body's maintaining or
restoring homeostasis, a state of relative constancy, of its internal environment. In homeostasis, body levels of acid,
blood pressure, blood sugar, electrolytes, energy, hormones, oxygen, proteins, and temperature are constantly
adjusted to respond to changes inside and outside the body, to keep them at a normal level.
Task: Research for functions of cell structures above.
Cell Structure
The cell structure comprises individual components with specific functions essential to carry out life’s processes.
These components include- cell wall, cell membrane, cytoplasm, nucleus, and cell organelles. Read on to explore
more insights on cell structure and function.
Cell Membrane
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The cell membrane supports and protects the cell. It controls the movement of substances in and out of the
cells. It separates the cell from the external environment. The cell membrane is present in all the cells.
The cell membrane is the outer covering of a cell within which all other organelles, such as the cytoplasm
and nucleus, are enclosed. It is also referred to as the plasma membrane.
By structure, it is a porous membrane (with pores) which permit the movement of selective substances in
and out of the cell. Besides this, the cell membrane also protects the cellular component from damage and
leakage.
It forms the wall-like structure between two cells as well as between the cell and its surroundings.
Plants are immobile, so their cell structures are well-adapted to protect them from external factors. The cell
wall helps to reinforce this function.
Cell Wall
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The cell wall is the most prominent part of the plant’s cell structure. It is made up of cellulose, hemicellulose
and pectin.
The cell wall is present exclusively in plant cells. It protects the plasma membrane and other cellular
components. The cell wall is also the outermost layer of plant cells.
It is a rigid and stiff structure surrounding the cell membrane.
It provides shape and support to the cells and protects them from mechanical shocks and injuries.
Cytoplasm
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The cytoplasm is a thick, clear, jelly-like substance present inside the cell membrane.
Most of the chemical reactions within a cell take place in this cytoplasm.
The cell organelles such as endoplasmic reticulum, vacuoles, mitochondria, ribosomes, are suspended in
this cytoplasm.
Nucleus
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The nucleus contains the hereditary material of the cell, the DNA.
It sends signals to the cells to grow, mature, divide and die.
The nucleus is surrounded by the nuclear envelope that separates the DNA from the rest of the cell.
The nucleus protects the DNA and is an integral component of a plant’s cell structure.
Cell Organelles
Cells are composed of various cell organelles that perform certain specific functions to carry out life’s processes.
The different cell organelles, along with its principal functions, are as follows:
Cell Organelle and its Functions
Nucleolus
The nucleolus is the site of ribosome synthesis. Also, it is involved in controlling cellular activities and cellular
reproduction
Nuclear membrane
The nuclear membrane protects the nucleus by forming a boundary between the nucleus and other cell organelles.
Chromosomes
Chromosomes play a crucial role in determining the sex of an individual. Each human cells contain 23 pairs of
chromosomes
Endoplasmic reticulum
The endoplasmic reticulum is involved in the transportation of substances throughout the cell. It plays a primary
role in the metabolism of carbohydrates, synthesis of lipids, steroids and proteins.
Golgi Bodies
Golgi bodies are called the cell’s post office as it is involved in the transportation of materials within the cell
Ribosome
Ribosomes are the protein synthesisers of the cell
Mitochondria
The mitochondrion is called “the powerhouse of the cell.” It is called so because it produces ATP – the cell’s
energy currency
Lysosomes
Lysosomes protect the cell by engulfing the foreign bodies entering the cell and helps in cell renewal. Therefore, it
is known as the cell’s suicide bags
Chloroplast
Chloroplasts are the primary organelles for photosynthesis. It contains the pigment chlorophyll
Vacuoles
Vacuoles stores food, water, and other waste materials in the cell
Life Process
All living organisms have certain characteristics that distinguish them from non-living forms. The basic processes of
life include organization, metabolism, responsiveness, movements, and reproduction. In humans, who represent the
most complex form of life, there are additional requirements such as growth, differentiation, respiration, digestion,
and excretion. All of these processes are interrelated. No part of the body, from the smallest cell to a complete body
system, works in isolation. All function together, in fine-tuned balance, for the wellbeing of the individual and to
maintain life. Disease such as cancer and death represent a disruption of the balance in these processes.
The following are a brief description of the life process:
Organization
At all levels of the organizational scheme, there is a division of labor. Each component has its own job to
perform in cooperation with others. Even a single cell, if it loses its integrity or organization, will die.
Metabolism
Metabolism is a broad term that includes all the chemical reactions that occur in the body. One phase of
metabolism is catabolism in which complex substances are broken down into simpler building blocks and
energy is released.
Responsiveness
Responsiveness or irritability is concerned with detecting changes in the internal or external environments and
reacting to that change. It is the act of sensing a stimulus and responding to it.
Movement
There are many types of movement within the body. On the cellular level, molecules move
from one place
to another. Blood moves from one part of the body to another. The diaphragm moves with every breath. The
ability of muscle fibers to shorten and thus to produce movement is called contractility.
Reproduction
For most people, reproduction refers to the formation of a new person, the birth of a baby. In this way, life is
transmitted from one generation to the next through reproduction of the organism. In a broader sense,
reproduction also refers to the formation of new cells for the replacement and repair of old cells as well as for
growth. This is cellular reproduction. Both are essential to the survival of the human race.
Growth
Growth refers to an increase in size either through an increase in the number of cells or through an increase in
the size of each individual cell. In order for growth to occur, anabolic processes must occur at a faster rate than
catabolic processes.
Differentiation
Differentiation is a developmental process by which unspecialized cells change into specialized cells with
distinctive structural and functional characteristics. Through differentiation, cells develop into tissues and
organs.
Respiration
Respiration refers to all the processes involved in the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between the
cells and the external environment. It includes ventilation, the diffusion of oxygen and carbon dioxide, and the
transport of the gases in the blood. Cellular respiration deals with the cell's utilization of oxygen and release of
carbon dioxide in its metabolism.
Digestion
Digestion is the process of breaking down complex ingested foods into simple molecules that can be absorbed
into the blood and utilized by the body.
Excretion
Excretion is the process that removes the waste products of digestion and metabolism from the body. It gets
rid of by-products that the body is unable to use, many of which are toxic and incompatible with life.
The ten life processes described above are not enough to ensure the survival of the individual. In addition to
these processes, life depends on certain physical factors from the environment. These include water,
oxygen, nutrients, heat, and pressure.
Anatomical Terminology
Three groups of terms are introduced here:
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Directional Terms.
Directional terms describe the positions of structures relative to other structures or locations in the body.
Superior or cranial - toward the head end of the body; upper (example, the hand is part of the superior
extremity).
Inferior or caudal - away from the head; lower (example, the foot is part of the inferior extremity).
Anterior or ventral - front (example, the kneecap is located on the anterior side of the leg).
Posterior or dorsal - back (example, the shoulder blades are located on the posterior side of the body).
Medial - toward the midline of the body (example, the middle toe is located at the medial side of the foot).
Lateral - away from the midline of the body (example, the little toe is located at the lateral side of the foot).
Proximal - toward or nearest the trunk or the point of origin of a part (example, the proximal end of the
femur joins with the pelvic bone).
Distal - away from or farthest from the trunk or the point or origin of a part (example, the hand is located at
the distal end of the forearm).
Planes of the Body
 Coronal Plane (Frontal Plane) - A vertical plane running from side to side; divides the body or any of its
parts into anterior and posterior portions.
 Sagittal Plane (Lateral Plane) - A vertical plane running from front to back; divides the body or any of its
parts into right and left sides.
 Axial Plane (Transverse Plane) - A horizontal plane; divides the body or any of its parts into upper and
lower parts.
Body Cavities
The cavities, or spaces, of the body contain the internal organs, or viscera. The two main cavities are called
the ventral and dorsal cavities. The ventral is the larger cavity and is subdivided into two parts (thoracic and
abdominopelvic cavities) by the diaphragm, a dome-shaped respiratory muscle.
 Thoracic cavity
The upper ventral, thoracic, or chest cavity contains the heart, lungs, trachea, esophagus, large blood
vessels, and nerves. The thoracic cavity is bound laterally by the ribs (covered by costal pleura) and the
diaphragm caudally (covered by diaphragmatic pleura).
 Abdominal and pelvic cavity
The lower part of the ventral (abdominopelvic) cavity can be further divided into two portions: abdominal
portion and pelvic portion. The abdominal cavity contains most of the gastrointestinal tract as well as the
kidneys and adrenal glands. The abdominal cavity is bound cranially by the diaphragm, laterally by the
body wall, and caudally by the pelvic cavity. The pelvic cavity contains most of the urogenital system as
well as the rectum. The pelvic cavity is bounded cranially by the abdominal cavity, dorsally by the sacrum,
and laterally by the pelvis.
 Dorsal cavity
The smaller of the two main cavities is called the dorsal cavity. As its name implies, it contains organs lying
more posterior in the body. The dorsal cavity, again, can be divided into two portions. The upper portion, or
the cranial cavity, houses the brain, and the lower portion, or vertebral canal houses the spinal cord.
Learning Activities
I. Body System
Using the key choices, identify the organ systems to which the following organs or functions belong. Insert the
correct letter or term in the answer blanks.
Key Choices
A. Cardiovascular
B. Digestive
C. Endocrine
K. Urinary
C. Endocrine
J. Skeletal
A. Cardiovascular
D. Integumentary
E. Lymphatic/Immune
B. Digestive
I. Respiratory
A. Cardiovascular
F. Muscular
K. Urinary
H. Reproductive
C. Endocrine
D. Integumentary
D. Integumentary
E. Lymphatic/Immune
F. Muscular
G. Nervous
H. Reproductive
I. Respiratory
J. Skeletal
K. Urinary
1. Rids the body of nitrogen-containing wastes
2. Is affected by the removal of the thyroid gland
3. Provides support and levers on which the muscular system can act
4. Includes arteries and veins
5. Protects underlying organs from drying out and mechanical damage
6. Protects the body; destroys bacteria and tumor cells
7. Breaks down foodstuffs into small particles that can be absorbed
8. Removes carbon dioxide from the blood
9. Delivers oxygen and nutrients to the body tissues
10. Moves the limbs; allows facial expression
11. Allows us to regulate body water volumes
12. Provides for conception and childbearing
13. Controls the body with chemicals called hormones
14. Is damaged when you cut your finger or get a severe sunburn
II. Homeostasis
The following statements refer to homeostatic control systems. Complete each statement by inserting your answers
in the answer blanks.
_Receptor __1. There are three essential components of all homeostatic control
mechanisms: control center, receptor, and effector. The
_Control center 2. __1__ senses changes in the environment and responds by
sending information (input) to the __2__ along the __3__
_Afferent ___3. pathway. The __4__analyzes the input, determines the appropriate
response, and activates the __5__ by sending information along the
_Control center_4. __6__ pathway. When the response causes the initial stimulus to
decline, the homeostatic mechanism is referred to as __7__ feedback
_Effector _____5. mechanism. When the response enhances the initial stimulus, the
mechanism is called a __8__ feedback mechanism. __9__ feedback
_Efferent _____6. Mechanisms are much more common in the body.
_Negative ____7.
_Positive
___8.
_Negative _____9.
III. Directional Terms
From the key choices, select the body cavities where the following surgical procedures would
occur.
Insert the correct letter or term in the answer blanks. Be precise. Also select the name
of the cavity subdivision
if appropriate.
Key Choices
A. Abdominal
B. Cranial
_____B.
_____A.
_____F.
_____D.
_____A.
C. Dorsal
D. Pelvic
E. Spinal
F. Thoracic
G. Ventral
Cranial _________ 1. Insertion of a shunt for hydrocephalus (water on the brain)
Abdominal ________2. A gall bladder operation
Thoracic ________ 3. Removal of a lung tumor
Pelvic __________ 4. Investigation of an ovarian cyst
Abdominal ______ 5. Removal of a kidney stone
Mastery Test
__B__1. Which of the following activities would not represent an anatomical study?
A. Making a section through the heart to observe its interior
B. Drawing blood from recently fed laboratory animals at timed intervals to determine their
blood sugar
levels
C. Examining the surface of a bone
D. Viewing muscle tissue through a microscope
__A__2. The process that results in production of small molecules from large ones is:
A. digestion
B. excretion
C. respiration
D. anabolism
A,B,C,D. 3. Which of the following is (are) involved in maintaining homeostasis?
A.
B.
C.
Effector
D.
Control center E.
Receptor
Feedback
Lack of change
__B__4. When a capillary is damaged, a platelet­ plug is formed. The process involves platelets­ sticking to each
other. The more platelets that stick together, the more the plug attracts additional platelets. This is an example
of:
A. negative feedback
B. positive feedback
__B__5. A sagittal section through the body would pass:
A. through the liver, both kidneys, and pancreas
B. down the body’s midline
C. through the heart and the pancreas
D. across the thoracic cavity
__A__6. Which of the following statements is correct?
A. The knee is superior to the ankle.
B. The heart is superficial to the kidneys.
C. The sternum is posterior to the coccyx.
D. The ankles are rostral to the shoulders.
E. The eyes are inferior to the teeth.
____7. Which of the following body regions is/are associated with the limbs?
A. Popliteal
B. Acromial
C. Gluteal
D. Olecranon
E. Inguinal
__C__8. A neurosurgeon orders a spinal tap for a patient. Into what body cavity will the needle be inserted?
A. Ventral
B. Thoracic
D. Cranial
E. Pelvic
C. Dorsal
__C,E__9. An accident victim has a collapsed lung. Which cavity has been entered?
A. Mediastinal D. Vertebral
B. Pericardial E. Ventral
C. Pleural
__C_10. Which organ system is affected by the common cold?
A. Endocrine D. Digestive
B. Reproductive
E. Cardiovascular
C. Respiratory
A,C,E 11. The position of the heart relative to the structures around it would be described accurately
A. deep to the sternum (breast bone)
B. lateral to the lungs
C. superior to the diaphragm
D. inferior to the ribs
E. anterior to the vertebral column
__A__12. What term(s) could be used to describe the position of the nose?
A. Intermediate to the eyes
B. Inferior to the brain
C. Superior to the mouth
D. Medial to the ears
E. Anterior to the ears
__A__13. The radiographic technique used to provide information about blood flow is:
A. DSR D. ultrasonography
B. CT
E. any X-ray technique
C. PET
__A__14. A patient complains of pain in the upper left quadrant. Which system is most likely
to be involved?
A. Lymphatic D. Cardiovascular
B. Reproductive E. Nervous
C. Endocrine
__B__15. Harry was sweating profusely as he ran in the 10-K race. The sweat glands producing
the sweat would be considered which part of a feedback system?
A. Stimulus
B. Effectors
C. Control center
D. Receptors
as:
UNIT 2
Cells, Tissues, and Membranes
Learning Outcomes
At the end of this lesson, you will be able to:
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Identify a cell model;
differentiate active transport from passive transport;
name four major tissue types and their subcategories; and
discuss measures to prevent skin problems.
Pretest
_______ oxygen (O)________ 1. 1–4. Name the four elements that make up the bulk of living Matter.
_______ carbon (C)_________ 2.
_______ hydrogen (H)_______ 3.
_______ nitrogen (N) _______ 4.
________water
________ 5. Name the single most abundant material or substance in living matter.
_______calcium ___________ 6. Name the trace element most important for making bones hard.
________iron _____________ 7. Name the element, found in small amounts in the body, that is needed to make
hemoglobin for oxygen transport.
______ Reproduction _______ 8. 8–12. Although there are many specific “jobs” that certain cells are able to do,
name five functions common to all cells.
_______ Metabolism _______ 9.
_______ Excretion ________10.
________ Growth __________11.
___ Respond to Stimuli ____12.
Content
Cells
The smallest structures capable of maintaining life and reproducing, compose all living things, from single-celled
plants to multibillion-celled animals. The human body, which is made up of numerous cells, begins as a single,
newly fertilized cell.
Almost all human cells are microscopic in size. To give you an idea how small a cell is, one average-sized adult
body, according to one estimate, consists of 100 trillion cells!
Cell Structure & Function
Cell Structure
Ideas about cell structure have changed considerably over the years. Early biologists saw cells as simple
membranous sacs containing fluid and a few floating particles. Today's biologists know that cells are infinitely more
complex than this.
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Task: Research for functions of cell structures above.
Cell Function
The structural and functional characteristics of different types of cells are determined by the nature of the proteins
present. Cells of various types have different functions because cell structure and function are closely related. It is
apparent that a cell that is very thin is not well suited for a protective function. Bone cells do not have an appropriate
structure for nerve impulse conduction. Just as there are many cell types, there are varied cell functions. The
generalized cell functions include movement of substances across the cell membrane, cell division to make new
cells, and protein synthesis.
Movement of substances across the cell membrane.
The survival of the cell depends on maintaining the difference between extracellular and intracellular material.
Mechanisms of movement across the cell membrane include simple diffusion, osmosis, filtration, active transport,
passive transport, endocytosis, and exocytosis.
Simple diffusion is the movement of particles (solutes) from a region of higher solute concentration to a region of
lower solute concentration.
Osmosis is the diffusion of solvent or water molecules through a selectively permeable membrane.
Filtration utilizes pressure to push substances through a membrane.
Active transport moves substances against a concentration gradient from a region of lower concentration to a
region of higher concentration. It requires a carrier molecule and uses energy.
Endocytosis refers to the formation of vesicles to transfer particles and droplets from outside to inside the cell.
Secretory vesicles are moved from the inside to the outside of the cell by exocytosis.
Cell division
Cell division is the process by which new cells are formed for growth, repair, and replacement in the body. This
process includes division of the nuclear material and division of the cytoplasm. All cells in the body (somatic cells),
except those that give rise to the eggs and sperm (gametes), reproduce by mitosis. Egg and sperm cells are
produced by a special type of nuclear division called meiosis in which the number of chromosomes is halved.
Division of the cytoplasm is called cytokinesis.
Somatic cells reproduce by mitosis, which results in two cells
identical to the one parent cell. Interphase is the period between
successive cell divisions. It is the longest part of the cell cycle. The
successive stages of mitosis are prophase, metaphase, anaphase,
and telophase. Cytokinesis, division of the cytoplasm, occurs during
telophase.
Meiosis is a special type of cell division that occurs in the
production of the gametes, or eggs and sperm. These cells have
only 23 chromosomes, one-half the number found in somatic cells,
so that when fertilization takes place the resulting cell will again
have 46 chromosomes, 23 from the egg and 23 from the sperm.
DNA replication and protein synthesis
Proteins that are synthesized in the cytoplasm function as structural
materials, enzymes that regulate chemical reactions, hormones,
and other vital substances. DNA in the nucleus directs protein
synthesis in the cytoplasm. A gene is the portion of a DNA
molecule that controls the synthesis of one specific protein
molecule. Messenger RNA carries the genetic information from the
DNA in the nucleus to the sites of protein synthesis in the cytoplasm.
Body Tissues
Tissue is a group of cells that have similar structure and that function together as a unit. A nonliving material, called
the intercellular matrix, fills the spaces between the cells. This may be abundant in some tissues and minimal in
others. The intercellular matrix may contain special substances such as salts and fibers that are unique to a specific
tissue and gives that tissue distinctive characteristics. There are four main tissue types in the body: epithelial,
connective, muscle, and nervous. Each is designed for specific functions.
Epithelial Tissue
Epithelial tissues are widespread throughout the body. They form the covering of all body surfaces, line body
cavities and hollow organs, and are the major tissue in glands. They perform a variety of functions that include
protection, secretion, absorption, excretion, filtration, diffusion, and sensory reception.
The cells in epithelial tissue are tightly packed together with very little intercellular matrix. Because the tissues form
coverings and linings, the cells have one free surface that is not in contact with other cells. Opposite the free
surface, the cells are attached to underlying connective tissue by a non-cellular basement membrane. This
membrane is a mixture of carbohydrates and proteins secreted by the epithelial and connective tissue cells.
Epithelial cells may be squamous, cuboidal, or columnar in shape and may be arranged in single or multiple
layers.
Simple cuboidal epithelium is found in glandular tissue and in the kidney tubules. Simple columnar epithelium
lines the stomach and intestines. Pseudostratified columnar epithelium lines portions of the respiratory tract and
some of the tubes of the male reproductive tract. Transitional epithelium can be distended or stretched.
Glandular epithelium is specialized to produce and secrete substances.
Connective Tissue
Connective tissues bind structures together, form a framework and support for organs and the body as a whole,
store fat, transport substances, protect against disease, and help repair tissue damage. They occur throughout the
body. Connective tissues are characterized by an abundance of intercellular matrix with relatively few cells.
Connective tissue cells are able to reproduce but not as rapidly as epithelial cells. Most connective tissues have a
good blood supply but some do not.
Numerous cell types are found in connective tissue. Three of the most common are the fibroblast, macrophage,
and mast cell. The types of connective tissue include loose connective tissue, adipose tissue, dense fibrous
connective tissue, elastic connective tissue, cartilage, osseous tissue (bone), and blood.
Muscle Tissue
Muscle tissue is composed of cells that have the special ability to shorten or contract in order to produce movement
of the body parts. The tissue is highly cellular and is well supplied with blood vessels. The cells are long and
slender so they are sometimes called muscle fibers, and these are usually arranged in bundles or layers that are
surrounded by connective tissue. Actin and myosin are contractile proteins in muscle tissue.
Muscle tissue can be categorized into skeletal muscle tissue, smooth muscle tissue, and cardiac muscle tissue.
Skeletal muscle fibers are cylindrical, multinucleated, striated, and under voluntary control. Smooth muscle cells are
spindle shaped, have a single, centrally located nucleus, and lack striations. They are called involuntary muscles.
Cardiac muscle has branching fibers, one nucleus per cell, striations, and intercalated disks. Its contraction is not
under voluntary control.
Nervous Tissue
Nervous tissue is found in the brain, spinal cord, and nerves. It is responsible for coordinating and controlling many
body activities. It stimulates muscle contraction, creates an awareness of the environment, and plays a major role in
emotions, memory, and reasoning. To do all these things, cells in nervous tissue need to be able to communicate
with each other by way of electrical nerve impulses. The cells in nervous tissue that generate and conduct impulses
are called neurons or nerve cells. These cells have three principal parts: the dendrites, the cell body, and one axon.
The main part of the cell, the part that carries on the general functions, is the cell body. Dendrites are extensions, or
processes, of the cytoplasm that carry impulses to the cell body. An extension or process called an axon carries
impulses away from the cell body.
Nervous tissue also includes cells that do not transmit impulses, but instead support the activities of the neurons.
These are the glial cells (neuroglial cells), together termed the neuroglia. Supporting, or glia, cells bind neurons
together and insulate the neurons. Some are phagocytic and protect against bacterial invasion, while others provide
nutrients by binding blood vessels to the neurons.
Membranes
Body membranes are thin sheets of tissue that cover the body, line body cavities, and cover organs within the
cavities in hollow organs. They can be categorized into epithelial and connective tissue membrane.
Epithelial Membranes
Epithelial membranes consist of epithelial tissue and the connective tissue to which it is attached. The two main
types of epithelial membranes are the mucous membranes and serous membranes.
Mucous Membranes
Mucous membranes are epithelial membranes that consist of epithelial tissue that is attached to an underlying
loose connective tissue. These membranes, sometimes called mucosae, line the body cavities that open to the
outside. The entire digestive tract is lined with mucous membranes. Other examples include the respiratory,
excretory, and reproductive tracts.
Serous Membranes
Serous membranes line body cavities that do not open directly to the outside, and they cover the organs located in
those cavities. Serous membranes are covered by a thin layer of serous fluid that is secreted by the epithelium.
Serous fluid lubricates the membrane and reduces friction and abrasion when organs in the thoracic or
abdominopelvic cavity move against each other or the cavity wall. Serous membranes have special names given
according to their location. For example, the serous membrane that lines the thoracic cavity and covers the lungs is
called pleura.
Connective Tissue Membranes
Connective tissue membranes contain only connective tissue. Synovial membranes and meninges belong to this
category.
Synovial Membranes
Synovial membranes are connective tissue membranes that line the cavities of the freely movable joints such as the
shoulder, elbow, and knee. Like serous membranes, they line cavities that do not open to the outside. Unlike serous
membranes, they do not have a layer of epithelium. Synovial membranes secrete synovial fluid into the joint cavity,
and this lubricates the cartilage on the ends of the bones so that they can move freely and without friction.
Meninges
The connective tissue covering on the brain and spinal cord, within the dorsal cavity, are called meninges. They
provide protection for these vital structures.
Learning Activities
I. Select the key choices that characterize each of the following statements.
Insert the appropriate answers in the answer blanks.
Key Choices
A.
Active transport D.
B.
Diffusion, simple
C.
Diffusion, osmosis
Exocytosis
G.
E.
Facilitated diffusion
F.
Filtration
Phagocytosis
H.
Pinocytosis
I.
Receptor-mediated endocytosis
D. Exocytosis G. Phagocytosis H. Pinocytosis 1. Engulfment processes that require ATP.
B. Diffusion, simple C. Diffusion, osmosis 2. Driven by molecular energy.
F. Filtration 3. Driven by hydrostatic (fluid) pressure (typically blood pressure in the body).
B. Diffusion, simple C. Diffusion, osmosis E. Facilitated diffusion 4. Moves down a concentration gradient.
A. Active transport 5. Moves up (against) a concentration gradient; requires a carrier.
B. Diffusion, simple 6. Moves small or lipid-soluble solutes through the membrane.
A. Active transport 7. Transports amino acids and Na+ through the plasma membrane.
D. Exocytosis G. Phagocytosis H. Pinocytosis I. Receptor-mediated endocytosis 8. Examples of vesicular
transport.
G. Phagocytosis 9. A means of bringing fairly large particles into the cell.
D. Exocytosis 10. Used to eject wastes and to secrete cell products.
E. Facilitated diffusion 11. Membrane transport using channels or carrier proteins that does not require ATP.
II. Using the key choices, correctly identify the major tissue types described.
Enter the appropriate letter or tissue type term in the answer blanks.
Key Choices:
A. Connective B. Epithelium C. Muscle
B.
C.
D.
A.
B.
D.
C.
D.
B.
A.
D.
B.
D.
D. Nervous
Epithelium 1. Forms mucous, serous, and epidermal membranes
Muscle
2. Allows for organ movements within the body
Nervous 3. Transmits electrochemical impulses
Connective 4. Supports body organs
Epithelium 5. Cells of this tissue may absorb and/or secrete substances
Nervous 6. Basis of the major controlling system of the body
Muscle
7. The cells of this tissue shorten to exert force
Nervous 8. Forms hormones
Epithelium 9. Packages and protects body organs
Connective 10. Characterized by having large amounts of nonliving matrix
Nervous 11. Allows you to smile, grasp, swim, ski, and shoot an arrow
Epithelium 12. Most widely distributed tissue type in the body
Nervous 13. Forms the brain and spinal cord
Master Test
C1. The hydrophobic part of the plasma mem- brane is associated with which molecules?
A. Integral proteins
C. Phospholipids
B. Glycoproteins
D. Nucleic acids
A2. Which of the following would you expect to find in or on cells whose role is electrical conduction?
A. Gap junctions
C. Desmosomes
B. Cilia
D. Microfilaments
B3. Which cytoskeletal element interacts with myosin to produce contractile force in mus- cle cells?
A. Microtubules
B. Microfilaments
C. Intermediate filaments
D. None of the above
C4. If a 10% sucrose solution within a semiper- meable sac causes the fluid volume in the sac to increase a given
amount when the sac is immersed in water, what would be the effect of replacing the sac solution with a 20%
sucrose solution?
A. The sac would lose fluid.
B. The sac would gain the same amount of fluid.
C. The sac would gain more fluid.
D. There would be no effect.
ABCD5. Which of the following are possible functions of the glycocalyx?
A. Determination of blood groups
B. Binding sites for toxins
C. Aiding the binding of sperm to egg
D. Guiding embryonic development
E. Increasing the efficiency of absorption
A6. The main function of the Golgi apparatus is:
A. packaging newly synthesized proteins.
B. ATP production for protein synthesis.
C. a store for cytotoxic enzymes.
D. production of ribosomes.
E7. A cell’s ability to replenish its ATP stores has been diminished by a metabolic poison. What organelle is most
likely to be affected?
A. Nucleus
D. Microtubule
B. Plasma membrane E. Mitochondrion
C. Centriole
A8. The fundamental structure of the plasma membrane is determined almost exclusively by:
A. phospholipid molecules
B. peripheral proteins
C. cholesterol molecules
D. integral proteins
9.–11. Consider the following information for Questions 9–11:
A DNA segment has this nucleotide sequence:
AAGCTCTTACGAATATTC
D 9. Which mRNA is complementary?
A. A A G C T C T T A C G A A T A T T C
B. T T C G A G A A T G C T T A T A A G
C. A A G C U C U U A C G A A U A U U C
D. U U C G A G A A U G C U U A U A A G
C10. How many amino acids are coded in this segment?
A. 18
C. 6
B. 9
D. 3
D11. What is the tRNA anticodon sequence for the fourth codon from the left?
A. G
C. GCU
B. GC
D. CGA
C12. The organelle that consists of a stack of 3–10 membranous discs associated with vesicles is:
A. mitochondrion
B. smooth ER
C. Golgi apparatus
D. lysosome
E13. An epithelium “built” to stretch is:
A. simple squamous
B. stratified squamous
C. simple cuboidal
D. pseudostratified
E. transitional
C14. Which of the following fibrous elements give a connective tissue high tensile strength?
A. Reticular fibers
B. Elastic fibers
C. Collagen fibers
D. Myofilaments
B15. Viewed through the microscope, most cells in this type of tissue have only a rim of cytoplasm.
A. Reticular connective
B. Adipose connective
C. Areolar connective
D. Osseous tissue
E. Hyaline cartilage
C16. Which type of cartilage is found between the vertebrae?
A. Elastic
B. Hyaline
C. Fibrocartilage
ACD17. Which of the following terms describe skeletal muscle?
A. Striated
B. Intercalated discs
C. Multinucleated
D. Voluntary
E. Branching
ABCDE18. Events of tissue repair include:
A. regeneration
B. organization
C. granulation
D. fibrosis
E. inflammation
B19. Which of the following does not describe nervous tissue?
A. Cells may have long extensions
B. When activated, shortens
C. Found in the brain and spinal cord
D. Involved in fast-acting body control
UNIT 3
The Skeletal System
Learning Outcomes
At the end of this lesson, you will be able to:




discuss the function of the skeletal system;
name the bones of the axial and appendicular skeletons;
demonstrate type of joint movements; and
discuss measures on the care of bones and joints.
Pretest
Using the key choices, identify the body systems that relate to bone tissue viability. Enter the
appropriate key terms or letters in the answer blanks.
Key Choices
A. Endocrine
B. Integumentary
D. Nervous
F. Urinary
A. Endocrine
C. Muscular
E. Reproductive
B. Integumentary
C. Muscular
D. Nervous
E. Reproductive
F. Urinary
1. Conveys the sense of pain in bone and joints
2. Activates vitamin D for proper calcium usage
3. Regulates uptake and release of calcium by bones
4. Increases bone strength and viability by pulling action
5. Influences skeleton proportions and adolescent growth of long bones
6. Provides vitamin D for proper calcium absorption
Content
Bones
Humans are vertebrates, animals having a vertabral column or backbone. They rely on a sturdy internal frame that
is centered on a prominent spine. The human skeletal system consists of bones, cartilage, ligaments and tendons
and accounts for about 20 percent of the body weight.
The living bones in our bodies use oxygen and give off waste products in metabolism. They contain active tissues
that consume nutrients, require a blood supply and change shape or remodel in response to variations in
mechanical stress.
Bones provide a rigid framework, known as the skeleton, that support and protect the soft organs of the body.
The skeleton supports the body against the pull of gravity. The large bones of the lower limbs support the trunk
when standing.
The skeleton also protects the soft body parts. The fused bones of the cranium surround the brain to make it less
vulnerable to injury. Vertebrae surround and protect the spinal cord and bones of the rib cage help protect the heart
and lungs of the thorax.
Bones work together with muscles as simple mechanical lever systems to produce body movement.
Bones contain more calcium than any other organ. The intercellular matrix of bone contains large amounts of
calcium salts, the most important being calcium phosphate.
When blood calcium levels decrease below normal, calcium is released from the bones so that there will be an
adequate supply for metabolic needs. When blood calcium levels are increased, the excess calcium is stored in the
bone matrix. The dynamic process of releasing and storing calcium goes on almost continuously.
Hematopoiesis, the formation of blood cells, mostly takes place in the red marrow of the bones.
In infants, red marrow is found in the bone cavities. With age, it is largely replaced by yellow marrow for fat storage.
In adults, red marrow is limited to the spongy bone in the skull, ribs, sternum, clavicles, vertebrae and pelvis. Red
marrow functions in the formation of red blood cells, white blood cells and blood platelets.
Structure of Bone Tissue
There are two types of bone tissue: compact and spongy. The names imply that the two types differ in density, or
how tightly the tissue is packed together. There are three types of cells that contribute to bone homeostasis.
Osteoblasts are bone-forming cell, osteoclasts resorb or break down bone, and osteocytes are mature bone cells.
An equilibrium between osteoblasts and osteoclasts maintains bone tissue.
Compact Bone
Compact bone consists of closely packed osteons or haversian systems. The osteon consists of a central canal
called the osteonic (haversian) canal, which is surrounded by concentric rings (lamellae) of matrix. Between the
rings of matrix, the bone cells (osteocytes) are located in spaces called lacunae. Small channels (canaliculi) radiate
from the lacunae to the osteonic (haversian) canal to provide passageways through the hard matrix. In compact
bone, the haversian systems are packed tightly together to form what appears to be a solid mass. The osteonic
canals contain blood vessels that are parallel to the long axis of the bone. These blood vessels interconnect, by
way of perforating canals, with vessels on the surface of the bone.
Spongy (Cancellous) Bone
Spongy (cancellous) bone is lighter and less dense than compact bone. Spongy bone consists of plates
(trabeculae) and bars of bone adjacent to small, irregular cavities that contain red bone marrow. The canaliculi
connect to the adjacent cavities, instead of a central haversian canal, to receive their blood supply. It may appear
that the trabeculae are arranged in a haphazard manner, but they are organized to provide maximum strength
similar to braces that are used to support a building. The trabeculae of spongy bone follow the lines of stress and
can realign if the direction of stress changes.
Bone Development & Gowth
The terms osteogenesis and ossification are often used synonymously to indicate the process of bone formation.
Parts of the skeleton form during the first few weeks after conception. By the end of the eighth week after
conception, the skeletal pattern is formed in cartilage and connective tissue membranes and ossification begins.
Bone development continues throughout adulthood. Even after adult stature is attained, bone development
continues for repair of fractures and for remodeling to meet changing lifestyles. Osteoblasts, osteocytes and
osteoclasts are the three cell types involved in the development, growth and remodeling of bones. Osteoblasts are
bone-forming cells, osteocytes are mature bone cells and osteoclasts break down and reabsorb bone.
There are two types of ossification: intramembranous and endochondral.
Intramembranous
Intramembranous ossification involves the replacement of sheet-like connective tissue membranes with bony
tissue. Bones formed in this manner are called intramembranous bones. They include certain flat bones of the skull
and some of the irregular bones. The future bones are first formed as connective tissue membranes. Osteoblasts
migrate to the membranes and deposit bony matrix around themselves. When the osteoblasts are surrounded by
matrix they are called osteocytes.
Endochondral Ossification
Endochondral ossification involves the replacement of hyaline cartilage with bony tissue. Most of the bones of the
skeleton are formed in this manner. These bones are called endochondral bones. In this process, the future bones
are first formed as hyaline cartilage models. During the third month after conception, the perichondrium that
surrounds the hyaline cartilage "models" becomes infiltrated with blood vessels and osteoblasts and changes into a
periosteum. The osteoblasts form a collar of compact bone around the diaphysis. At the same time, the cartilage in
the center of the diaphysis begins to disintegrate. Osteoblasts penetrate the disintegrating cartilage and replace it
with spongy bone. This forms a primary ossification center. Ossification continues from this center toward the ends
of the bones. After spongy bone is formed in the diaphysis, osteoclasts break down the newly formed bone to open
up the medullary cavity.
The cartilage in the epiphyses continues to grow so the developing bone increases in length. Later, usually after
birth, secondary ossification centers form in the epiphyses. Ossification in the epiphyses is similar to that in the
diaphysis except that the spongy bone is retained instead of being broken down to form a medullary cavity. When
secondary ossification is complete, the hyaline cartilage is totally replaced by bone except in two areas. A region of
hyaline cartilage remains over the surface of the epiphysis as the articular cartilage and another area of cartilage
remains between the epiphysis and diaphysis. This is the epiphyseal plate or growth region.
Bone Growth
Bones grow in length at the epiphyseal plate by a process that is similar to endochondral ossification. The cartilage
in the region of the epiphyseal plate next to the epiphysis continues to grow by mitosis. The chondrocytes, in the
region next to the diaphysis, age and degenerate. Osteoblasts move in and ossify the matrix to form bone. This
process continues throughout childhood and the adolescent years until the cartilage growth slows and finally stops.
When cartilage growth ceases, usually in the early twenties, the epiphyseal plate completely ossifies so that only a
thin epiphyseal line remains and the bones can no longer grow in length. Bone growth is under the influence of
growth hormone from the anterior pituitary gland and sex hormones from the ovaries and testes.
Even though bones stop growing in length in early adulthood, they can continue to increase in thickness or diameter
throughout life in response to stress from increased muscle activity or to weight. The increase in diameter is called
appositional growth. Osteoblasts in the periosteum form compact bone around the external bone surface. At the
same time, osteoclasts in the endosteum break down bone on the internal bone surface, around the medullary
cavity. These two processes together increase the diameter of the bone and, at the same time, keep the bone from
becoming excessively heavy and bulky.
Classification of Bones
Long Bones
The bones of the body come in a variety of sizes and shapes. The four principal types of bones are long, short, flat
and irregular. Bones that are longer than they are wide are called long bones. They consist of a long shaft with two
bulky ends or extremities. They are primarily compact bone but may have a large amount of spongy bone at the
ends or extremities. Long bones include bones of the thigh, leg, arm, and forearm.
Short Bones
Short bones are roughly cube shaped with vertical and horizontal dimensions approximately equal. They consist
primarily of spongy bone, which is covered by a thin layer of compact bone. Short bones include the bones of the
wrist and ankle.
Flat Bones
Flat bones are thin, flattened, and usually curved. Most of the bones of the cranium are flat bones.
Irregular Bones
Bones that are not in any of the above three categories are classified as irregular bones. They are primarily spongy
bone that is covered with a thin layer of compact bone. The vertebrae and some of the bones in the skull are
irregular bones.
All bones have surface markings and characteristics that make a specific bone unique. There are holes,
depressions, smooth facets, lines, projections and other markings. These usually represent passageways for
vessels and nerves, points of articulation with other bones or points of attachment for tendons and ligaments.
Divisions of the Skeleton
The adult human skeleton usually consists of 206 named bones. These bones can be grouped in two divisions:
axial skeleton and appendicular skeleton. The 80 bones of the axial skeleton form the vertical axis of the body.
They include the bones of the head, vertebral column, ribs and breastbone or sternum. The appendicular skeleton
consists of 126 bones and includes the free appendages and their attachments to the axial skeleton. The free
appendages are the upper and lower extremities, or limbs, and their attachments which are called girdles. The
named bones of the body are listed below by category.
Axial Skeleton (80 bones)
Skull (28)
Cranial Bones
Parietal (2)
Temporal (2)
Frontal (1)
Occipital (1)
Ethmoid (1)
Sphenoid (1)
_______________________________________________________________________________
Facial Bones
Maxilla (2)
Zygomatic (2)
Mandible (1)
Nasal (2)
Platine (2)
Inferior nasal concha (2)
Lacrimal (2)
Vomer (1)
_______________________________________________________________________________
Auditory Ossicles
Malleus
Incus (2)
Stapes (2)
(2)
Hyoid (1)
_______________________________________________________________________________
Vertebral Column
Cervical vertebrae (7)
Thoracic vertebrae (12)
Lumbar vertebrae (5)
Sacrum (1)
Coccyx (1)
_______________________________________________________________________________
Thoracic Cage
Sternum
Ribs (24)
(1)
Appendicular Skeleton (126 bones)
Pectoral girdles
Clavicle (2)
Scapula (2)
_______________________________________________________________________________
Upper Extremity
Humerus (2)
Radius (2)
Ulna (2)
Carpals (16)
Metacarpals (10)
Phalanges (28
_______________________________________________________________________________
Pelvic Girdle
Coxal, innominate, or hip bones (2)
_______________________________________________________________________________
Lower Extremity
Femur (2)
Tibia (2)
Fibula
Patella (2)
Tarsals (14)
Metatarsals (10)
Phalanges (28)
(2)
Articulations
An articulation, or joint, is where two bones come together. In terms of the amount of movement they allow, there
are three types of joints: immovable, slightly movable and freely movable.
Synarthroses
Synarthroses are immovable joints. The singular form is synarthrosis. In these joints, the bones come in very close
contact and are separated only by a thin layer of fibrous connective tissue. The sutures in the skull are examples of
immovable joints.
Amphiarthroses
Slightly movable joints are called amphiarthroses. The singular form is amphiarthrosis. In this type of joint, the
bones are connected by hyaline cartilage or fibrocartilage. The ribs connected to the sternum by costal cartilages
are slightly movable joints connected by hyaline cartilage. The symphysis pubis is a slightly movable joint in which
there is a fibrocartilage pad between the two bones. The joints between the vertebrae and the intervertebral disks
are also of this type.
Diarthroses
Most joints in the adult body are diarthroses, or freely movable joints. The singular form is diarthrosis. In this type of
joint, the ends of the opposing bones are covered with hyaline cartilage, the articular cartilage, and they are
separated by a space called the joint cavity. The components of the joints are enclosed in a dense fibrous joint
capsule. The outer layer of the capsule consists of the ligaments that hold the bones together. The inner layer is the
synovial membrane that secretes synovial fluid into the joint cavity for lubrication. Because all of these joints have a
synovial membrane, they are sometimes called synovial joints.
Learning Activities
I.
Complete the following statements concerning bone formation and destruction, using the terms provided in the key
choices. Insert the key letter or corresponding term in the answer blanks.
Key Choices:
A. Atrophy
B. Calcitonin
C. Gravity
E. Osteoclasts G. Parathyroid hormone
D. Osteoblasts F. Osteocytes H. Stress and/or tension
G. Parathyroid hormone 1. When blood calcium levels begin to drop below homeostatic levels, (1) is released,
causing calcium to be released from bones.
F. Osteocytes
2. Mature bone cells, called (2), maintain bone in a viable state.
A. Atrophy
3. Disuse such as that caused by paralysis or severe lack of exercise results in muscle
and bone (3).
H. Stress and/or tension 4. Large tubercles and/or increased deposit of bony matrix occur at sites of (4).
D. Osteoblasts
5. Immature, or matrix-depositing, bone cells are referred to as (5).
B. Calcitonin
6. (6) causes blood calcium to be deposited in bones as calcium salts.
E. Osteoclasts
7. Bone cells that liquefy bone matrix and release calcium to the blood are called (7).
C. Gravity
8. Our astronauts must do isometric exercises when in space because bones atrophy
under conditions of weightlessness or lack of (8).
II.
Group each of the following bones into one of the four major bone categories. Use L for long bone, S for short bone,
F for flat bone, and I for irregular bone. Enter the appropriate letter in the space provided.
S 1. Calcaneus L 4. Humerus
L 7. Radius
F 2. Frontal
I 5. Mandible
F 8. Sternum
L 3. Femur
L 6. Metacarpal
I 9. Vertebra
Mastery Test
ABC 1. Important bone functions include:
A. support of the pelvic organs
B. protection of the brain
C. provision of levers for movement of the limbs
D. protection of the skin and limb musculature
E. storage of water
D 2. A passageway connecting neighboring osteo­ cytes in an osteon is a:
A. central canal
D. canaliculus
B. lamella
E. perforating canal
C. lacuna
D 3. What is the earliest event (of those listed) in endochondral ossification?
A. Ossification of proximal epiphysis
B. Appearance of the epiphyseal plate
C. Invasion of the shaft by the periosteal bud
D. Cavitation of the cartilage shaft
E. Formation of secondary ossification centers
BC 4. The growth spurt of puberty is triggered by:
A. high levels of sex hormones
B. the initial, low levels of sex hormones
C. growth hormone
D. parathyroid hormone
E. calcitonin
AE 5. Deficiency of which of the following hormones will cause dwarfism?
A. Growth hormone
B. Sex hormones
C. Thyroid hormones
D. Calcitonin
E. Parathyroid hormone
D 6. A person who is swung around violently by their arm may sustain which kind of
A. Depression
D. Spiral
B. Comminuted
E. Compound
C. Compression
ACD 7. Which of the following bones are part of the axial skeleton?
A. Vomer
D. Parietal
B. Clavicle
E. Coxal bone (hip
bone)
C. Sternum
B 8. A blow to the cheek is most likely to break what superficial bone or bone part?
A. Superciliary arches
B. Zygomatic process
C. Mandibular ramus
D. Styloid process
fracture?
AE 9. Which of the following are part of the sphenoid?
A. Crista galli
D. Pterygoid process
B. Sella turcica
E. Lesser wings
C. Petrous portion
ACD 10. Structural characteristics of all cervical verte­ brae are:
A. small body
B. bifid spinous process
C. transverse foramina
D. small vertebral foramen
E. costal facets
D 11. Which of the following cartilages is involved in endochondral ossification?
A. Fibrocartilage
C. Elastic
B. Synovial
D. Hyaline
D 12. Coxal bone (hip bone) markings include:
A. ala
D. pubic ramus
B. sacral hiatus
E. fovea capitis
C. gluteal surface
BD 13. Cartilaginous joints include:
A. syndesmoses
C. synostoses
B. symphyses
D. synchondroses
B 14. Considered to be part of a synovial joint are:
A. bursae
C. tendon sheath
B. articular cartilage D. capsular
Ligaments
A 15. Abduction is:
A. moving the right arm out to the right
B. spreading out the fingers
C. wiggling the toes
D. moving the sole of the foot laterally
BD 16. In comparing two joints of the same type, what characteristic(s) would you use to
strength and flexibility?
determine
A. Depth of the depression of the concave bone of the joint
B. Snugness of fit of the bones
C. Size of bone projections for muscle attachments
D. Presence of menisci
B 17. Which of the following joints has the great­ est freedom of movement?
A. Interphalangeal
B. Saddle joint of thumb
C. Distal tibiofibular
D. Coxal (hip)
B 18. Which specific joint does the following
description identify? “Articular surfaces are deep and
secure, multiaxial; capsule heavily reinforced by ligaments; labrum helps pre­ vent dislocation; the
first joint to be built
artificially; very stable.”
A. Elbow
C. Knee
B. Hip
D. Shoulder
B 19. An autoimmune disease resulting in inflam­ mation and eventual fusion of diarthrotic
joints is:
A. gout
B. rheumatoid arthritis
C. degenerative joint disease
D. pannus
ABD 20. Plane joints allow:
A. pronation
C. rotation
B. flexion
D. gliding
ABCD 21. Movements made in chewing food are:
A. Flexion
D. Depression
B. Extension
E. Opposition
C. Elevation
BCD 22. What factor(s) can contribute to osteoporosis?
A. Increased estrogen
C. Low calcium diet
B. Inactivity
D. Smoking
UNIT 4
The Muscular System
Learning Outcomes
At the end of this lesson, you will be able to:





discuss the functions of the muscular system;
differentiate the three types of muscle tissue;
explain how muscles are named;
demonstrate types of body movements; and
discuss measures on maintaining muscles tone and integrity.
Pretest
Nine characteristics of muscle tissue are listed below. Identify the muscle tissue type described by choosing the
correct response(s) from the key choices. Enter the appropriate term(s) or letter(s) of the key choice in the answer
blank.
Key Choices:
A. Cardiac
B. Smooth
A. Cardiac B. Smooth 1. Involuntary
A. Cardiac C. Skeletal 2. Banded appearance
C. Skeletal
B. Smooth
C. Skeletal
A. Cardiac
A. Cardiac
C. Skeletal
C. Skeletal
C. Skeletal
3. Longitudinally and circularly arranged layers
4. Dense connective tissue packaging
5. Figure eight packaging of the cells
6. Coordinated activity to act as a pump
7. Moves bones and the facial skin
8. Referred to as the muscular system
9. Voluntary
Content
The muscular system is composed of specialized cells called muscle fibers. Their predominant function is
contractibility. Muscles, attached to bones or internal organs and blood vessels, are responsible for movement.
Nearly all movement in the body is the result of muscle contraction. Exceptions to this are the action of cilia, the
flagellum on sperm cells, and amoeboid movement of some white blood cells.
The integrated action of joints, bones, and skeletal muscles produces obvious movements such as walking and
running. Skeletal muscles also produce more subtle movements that result in various facial expressions, eye
movements, and respiration.
In addition to movement, muscle contraction also fulfills some other important functions in the body, such as
posture, joint stability, and heat production. Posture, such as sitting and standing, is maintained as a result of
muscle contraction. The skeletal muscles are continually making fine adjustments that hold the body in stationary
positions. The tendons of many muscles extend over joints and in this way contribute to joint stability. This is
particularly evident in the knee and shoulder joints, where muscle tendons are a major factor in stabilizing the joint.
Heat production, to maintain body temperature, is an important by-product of muscle metabolism. Nearly 85 percent
of the heat produced in the body is the result of muscle contraction.
Structure of Skeletal Muscle
A whole skeletal muscle is considered an organ of the muscular system. Each organ or muscle consists of skeletal
muscle tissue, connective tissue, nerve tissue, and blood or vascular tissue.
Skeletal muscles vary considerably in size, shape, and arrangement of fibers. They range from extremely tiny
strands such as the stapedium muscle of the middle ear to large masses such as the muscles of the thigh. Some
skeletal muscles are broad in shape and some narrow. In some muscles the fibers are parallel to the long axis of
the muscle; in some they converge to a narrow attachment; and in some they are oblique.
Each skeletal muscle fiber is a single cylindrical muscle cell. An individual skeletal muscle may be made up of
hundreds, or even thousands, of muscle fibers bundled together and wrapped in a connective tissue covering. Each
muscle is surrounded by a connective tissue sheath called the epimysium. Fascia, connective tissue outside the
epimysium, surrounds and separates the muscles. Portions of the epimysium project inward to divide the muscle
into compartments. Each compartment contains a bundle of muscle fibers. Each bundle of muscle fiber is called a
fasciculus and is surrounded by a layer of connective tissue called the perimysium. Within the fasciculus, each
individual muscle cell, called a muscle fiber, is surrounded by connective tissue called the endomysium.
Skeletal muscle cells (fibers), like other body cells, are soft and fragile. The connective tissue covering furnish
support and protection for the delicate cells and allow them to withstand the forces of contraction. The coverings
also provide pathways for the passage of blood vessels and nerves.
Commonly, the epimysium, perimysium, and endomysium extend beyond the fleshy part of the muscle, the belly or
gaster, to form a thick ropelike tendon or a broad, flat sheet-like aponeurosis. The tendon and aponeurosis form
indirect attachments from muscles to the periosteum of bones or to the connective tissue of other muscles.
Typically a muscle spans a joint and is attached to bones by tendons at both ends. One of the bones remains
relatively fixed or stable while the other end moves as a result of muscle contraction.
Skeletal muscles have an abundant supply of blood vessels and nerves. This is directly related to the primary
function of skeletal muscle, contraction. Before a skeletal muscle fiber can contract, it has to receive an impulse
from a nerve cell. Generally, an artery and at least one vein accompany each nerve that penetrates the epimysium
of a skeletal muscle. Branches of the nerve and blood vessels follow the connective tissue components of the
muscle of a nerve cell and with one or more minute blood vessels called capillaries.
Muscle Types
In the body, there are three types of muscle: skeletal (striated), smooth, and cardiac.
Skeletal Muscle
Skeletal muscle, attached to bones, is responsible for skeletal movements. The peripheral portion of the central
nervous system (CNS) controls the skeletal muscles. Thus, these muscles are under conscious, or voluntary,
control. The basic unit is the muscle fiber with many nuclei. These muscle fibers are striated (having transverse
streaks) and each acts independently of neighboring muscle fibers.
Smooth Muscle
Smooth muscle, found in the walls of the hollow internal organs such as blood vessels, the gastrointestinal tract,
bladder, and uterus, is under control of the autonomic nervous system. Smooth muscle cannot be controlled
consciously and thus acts involuntarily. The non-striated (smooth) muscle cell is spindle-shaped and has one
central nucleus. Smooth muscle contracts slowly and rhythmically.
Cardiac Muscle
Cardiac muscle, found in the walls of the heart, is also under control of the autonomic nervous system. The cardiac
muscle cell has one central nucleus, like smooth muscle, but it also is striated, like skeletal muscle. The cardiac
muscle cell is rectangular in shape. The contraction of cardiac muscle is involuntary, strong, and rhythmical.
Smooth and cardiac muscle will be discussed in detail with respect to their appropriate systems. This unit mainly
covers the skeletal muscular system.
Muscle Groups
There are more than 600 muscles in the body, which together account for about 40 percent of a person's weight.
Most skeletal muscles have names that describe some feature of the muscle. Often several criteria are combined
into one name. Associating the muscle's characteristics with its name will help you learn and remember them. The
following are some terms relating to muscle features that are used in naming muscles.
Size: vastus (huge); maximus (large); longus (long); minimus (small); brevis (short).
Shape: deltoid (triangular); rhomboid (like a rhombus with equal and parallel sides); latissimus (wide); teres (round);
trapezius (like a trapezoid, a four-sided figure with two sides parallel).
Direction of fibers: rectus (straight); transverse (across); oblique (diagonally); orbicularis (circular).
Location: pectoralis (chest); gluteus (buttock or rump); brachii (arm); supra- (above); infra- (below); sub- (under or
beneath); lateralis (lateral).
Number of origins: biceps (two heads); triceps (three heads); quadriceps (four heads).
Origin and insertion: sternocleidomastoideus (origin on the sternum and clavicle, insertion on the mastoid
process); brachioradialis (origin on the brachium or arm, insertion on the radius).
Action: abductor (to abduct a structure); adductor (to adduct a structure); flexor (to flex a structure); extensor (to
extend a structure); levator (to lift or elevate a structure); masseter (a chewer).
Muscles of the Head and Neck
Humans have well-developed muscles in the face that permit a large variety of facial expressions. Because the
muscles are used to show surprise, disgust, anger, fear, and other emotions, they are an important means of
nonverbal communication. Muscles of facial expression include frontalis, orbicularis oris, laris oculi, buccinator, and
zygomaticus. These muscles of facial expressions are identified in the illustration below.
There are four pairs of muscles that are responsible for chewing movements or mastication. All of these muscles
connect to the mandible and they are some of the strongest muscles in the body. Two of the muscles, temporalis
and masseter, are identified in the illustration above.
There are numerous muscles associated with the throat, the hyoid bone and the vertebral column; only two of the
more obvious and superficial neck muscles are identified in the illustration: sternocleidomastoid and trapezius.
Muscles of the Trunk
The muscles of the trunk include those that move the vertebral column, the muscles that form the thoracic and
abdominal walls, and those that cover the pelvic outlet.
The erector spinae group of muscles on each side of the vertebral column is a large muscle mass that extends from
the sacrum to the skull. These muscles are primarily responsible for extending the vertebral column to maintain
erect posture. The deep back muscles occupy the space between the spinous and transverse processes of
adjacent vertebrae.
The muscles of the thoracic wall are involved primarily in the process of breathing. The intercostal muscles are
located in spaces between the ribs. They contract during forced expiration. External intercostal muscles contract to
elevate the ribs during the inspiration phase of breathing. The diaphragm is a dome-shaped muscle that forms a
partition between the thorax and the abdomen. It has three openings in it for structures that have to pass from the
thorax to the abdomen.
The abdomen, unlike the thorax and pelvis, has no bony reinforcements or protection. The wall consists entirely of
four muscle pairs, arranged in layers, and the fascia that envelops them. The abdominal wall muscles are identified
in the illustration below.
The pelvic outlet is formed by two muscular sheets and their associated fascia.
Muscles of the Upper Extremity
The muscles of the upper extremity include those that attach the scapula to the thorax and generally move the
scapula, those that attach the humerus to the scapula and generally move the arm, and those that are located in
the arm or forearm that move the forearm, wrist, and hand. The illustration below shows some of the muscles of the
upper extremity.
Muscles that move the shoulder and arm include the trapezius and serratus anterior. The pectoralis major,
latissimus dorsi, deltoid, and rotator cuff muscles connect to the humerus and move the arm.
The muscles that move the forearm are located along the humerus, which include the triceps brachii, biceps brachii,
brachialis, and brachioradialis. The 20 or more muscles that cause most wrist, hand, and finger movements are
located along the forearm.
Muscles of the Lower Extremity
Illustration of the muscles of the lower extremity
The muscles that move the thigh have their origins on some part of the pelvic girdle and their insertions on the
femur. The largest muscle mass belongs to the posterior group, the gluteal muscles, which, as a group, adduct the
thigh. The iliopsoas, an anterior muscle, flexes the thigh. The muscles in the medial compartment adduct the thigh.
The illustration below shows some of the muscles of the lower extremity.
Muscles that move the leg are located in the thigh region. The quadriceps femoris muscle group straightens the leg
at the knee. The hamstrings are antagonists to the quadriceps femoris muscle group, which are used to flex the leg
at the knee.
The muscles located in the leg that move the ankle and foot are divided into anterior, posterior, and lateral
compartments. The tibialis anterior, which dorsiflexes the foot, is antagonistic to the gastrocnemius and soleus
muscles, which plantar flex the foot.
Learning Activities
I.
Identify the structures in Column B by matching them with the descriptions in Column A.
G. Perimysium 1. Connective tissue surrounding a fascicle
A. Endomysium
G. Perimysium 2. Connective tissue unsheathing the entire muscle
B. Epimysium
I. Sarcomere 3. Contractile unit of muscle
C. Fascicle
D. Fiber
4. A muscle cell
D. Fiber
A. Endomysium 5. Thin connective tissue investing each muscle cell
E. Myofilament
H. Sarcolemma 6. Plasma membrane of the muscle cell
F. Myofibril
F. Myofibril 7. A long, filamentous organelle found within muscle
G. Perimysium
cells that has a banded appearance
H. Sarcolemma
E. Myofilament 8. Actin- or myosin-containing structure
I. Sarcomere
K. Tendon
9. Cordlike extension of connective tissue beyond
J. Sarcoplasm
the muscle, serving to attach it to the bone
K. Tendon
C. Fascicle 10. A discrete bundle of muscle cells
II.
Identify the major muscles described in Column A by choosing a response from Column B. Enter the correct letter
in the answer blank.
I. Zygomaticus 1. Used to show you’re happy
A. Buccinator
A. Buccinator 2. Used to suck in your cheeks
B. Frontalis
D. Orbicularis oculi 3. Used in winking
C. Masseter
B. Frontalis 4. Wrinkles the forehead horizontally
D. Orbicularis oculi
E. Orbicularis oris 5. The “kissing” muscle
E. Orbicularis oris
C. Masseter 6. Prime mover of jaw closure
F. Sternocleidomastoid
G. Temporalis 7. Synergist muscle for jaw closure
G. Temporalis
F. Sternocleidomastoid 8. Prime mover of head flexion;
H. Trapezius
a two-headed Muscle
I. Zygomaticus
Mastery Test
C 1. Select the type of muscle tissue that fits the following description: self­excitable, pacemaker cells, gap
junctions, limited sar­ coplasmic reticulum.
A. Skeletal muscle
C. Smooth muscle
B. Cardiac muscle
D. Involuntary muscle
B 2. What is the skeletal muscle useful for?
A. Pump blood to the lungs
C. Widen blood vessels
B. Body movement
D. Narrow airways
D 3. Where would you find perimysium?
A. Around myofibrils
C. Covering the whole muscle
B.Covering myofilaments
D. Covering fas­ cicles
B 4. Where would you find the ATP binding site in a myofibril?
A. In the SR
C. At the Z line
B. On globular
D. In the myosin
actin
heads
ABCD 5. Transmission of the stimulus at the neuromuscular junction involves:
A. synaptic vesicles
C. ACh
B. sarcolemma
D. axon terminal
D 6. A smooth graph showing the degree of muscle contraction is:
A. fused tetanus
B. summation of contraction
AC 7. A product of aerobic metabolism is:
A. carbon dioxide
C. unfused tetanus
D. twitch
B. oxygen
C. lactic acid
D. creatine phosphate
C 8. The first energy source used to regenerate
ATP when muscles are extremely active is:
A. fatty acids
C. creatine phosphate
B. glucose
D. pyruvic acid
ABCD 9. Head muscles that insert on a bone include the:
A. zygomaticus
C. buccinator
B. masseter
D. temporalis
ACD 10. Lateral flexion of the torso involves:
A. erector spinae
D. external oblique
B. rectus abdominis
C. quadratus lumborum
BCD 11. Muscles attached to the vertebral column include:
A. quadratus lumborum
B. external oblique
C. diaphragm
D. latissimus dorsi
C 12. Muscles that help stabilize the scapula and shoulder joint include:
A. triceps brachii
C. trapezius
B. biceps brachii
D. pectoralis major
ABD 13. Which of these thigh muscles causes move­ ment at the hip joint?
A. Rectus femoris
B. Biceps femoris
C. Vastus lateralis
D. Semitendinosus
C 14. Leg muscles that can cause movement at the knee joint include:
A. tibialis anterior
B. fibularis longus
C. gastrocnemius
D. soleus
D 15. The main muscles used when doing chin­ ups are:
A. triceps brachii and pectoralis major
B. infraspinatus and biceps brachii
C. serratus anterior and external oblique
D. latissimus dorsi and brachialis
D 16. The major muscles used in doing push­ups are:
A. biceps brachii and brachialis
B. supraspinatus and subscapularis
C. coracobrachialis and latissimus dorsi
D. triceps brachii and pectoralis major
D 17. Arm and leg muscles are arranged in antag­ onistic pairs. How does this affect their functioning?
A. It provides a backup if one of the mus­ cles is injured.
B. One muscle of the pair pushes while the other pulls.
C. A single neuron controls both of them.
D. It allows the muscles to produce oppos­ ing movements.
A 18. Muscle A and muscle B are the same size, but muscle A is capable of much finer con­ trol than
muscle B. Which of the following is likely to be true of muscle A?
A. It is controlled by more neurons than muscle B.
B. It contains fewer motor units than mus­ cle B.
C. It is controlled by fewer neurons than muscle B.
D. Each of its motor units consists of more cells than the motor units of muscle B.
B 19. Medial and lateral movements of the foot are known as:
A. dorsiflexion and plantarflexion
B. inversion and eversion
C. supination and pronation
D. medial and lateral opposition
UNIT 5
The Nervous System
Learning Outcomes
At the end of this lesson, you will be able to:





name and distinguish the basic divisions and component organs and functions of the nervous
system;
describe transmission of the synapse;
explain the reflex arc and reflex act;
differentiate between general and special sense; and
discuss measures on the care of special senses.
Pretest
List the three major functions of the nervous system.
1. It analyses and interprets the obtained knowledge and integrates it to make choices.
2. By stimulating nerves, glands, and other aspects of the nervous system, it orders responses.
3. It records all details about modifications that occur both inside and outside the body.
Content
The nervous system is the major controlling, regulatory, and communicating system in the body. It is the center of
all mental activity including thought, learning, and memory. Together with the endocrine system, the nervous
system is responsible for regulating and maintaining homeostasis. Through its receptors, the nervous system keeps
us in touch with our environment, both external and internal.
Like other systems in the body, the nervous system is composed of organs, principally the brain, spinal cord,
nerves, and ganglia. These, in turn, consist of various tissues, including nerve, blood, and connective tissue.
Together these carry out the complex activities of the nervous system.
The various activities of the nervous system can be grouped together as three general, overlapping functions:
Sensory
Integrative
Motor
Millions of sensory receptors detect changes, called stimuli, which occur inside and outside the body. They monitor
such things as temperature, light, and sound from the external environment. Inside the body, the internal
environment, receptors detect variations in pressure, pH, carbon dioxide concentration, and the levels of various
electrolytes. All of this gathered information is called sensory input.
Sensory input is converted into electrical signals called nerve impulses that are transmitted to the brain. There the
signals are brought together to create sensations, to produce thoughts, or to add to memory; Decisions are made
each moment based on the sensory input. This is integration.
Based on the sensory input and integration, the nervous system responds by sending signals to muscles, causing
them to contract, or to glands, causing them to produce secretions. Muscles and glands are called effectors
because they cause an effect in response to directions from the nervous system. This is the motor output or motor
function.
Nerve Tissue
Although the nervous system is very complex, there are only two main types of cells in nerve tissue. The actual
nerve cell is the neuron. It is the "conducting" cell that transmits impulses and the structural unit of the nervous
system. The other type of cell is neuroglia, or glial, cell. The word "neuroglia" means "nerve glue." These cells are
nonconductive and provide a support system for the neurons. They are a special type of "connective tissue" for the
nervous system.
Neurons
Neurons, or nerve cells, carry out the functions of the nervous system by conducting nerve impulses. They are
highly specialized and amitotic. This means that if a neuron is destroyed, it cannot be replaced because neurons do
not go through mitosis. The image below illustrates the structure of a typical neuron.
Each neuron has three basic parts: cell body (soma), one or more dendrites, and a single axon.
Cell Body
In many ways, the cell body is similar to other types of cells. It has a nucleus with at least one nucleolus and
contains many of the typical cytoplasmic organelles. It lacks centrioles, however. Because centrioles function in cell
division, the fact that neurons lack these organelles is consistent with the amitotic nature of the cell.
Dendrites
Dendrites and axons are cytoplasmic extensions, or processes, that project from the cell body. They are sometimes
referred to as fibers. Dendrites are usually, but not always, short and branching, which increases their surface area
to receive signals from other neurons. The number of dendrites on a neuron varies. They are called afferent
processes because they transmit impulses to the neuron cell body. There is only one axon that projects from each
cell body. It is usually elongated and because it carries impulses away from the cell body, it is called an efferent
process
Axon
An axon may have infrequent branches called axon collaterals. Axons and axon collaterals terminate in many short
branches or telodendria. The distal ends of the telodendria are slightly enlarged to form synaptic bulbs. Many axons
are surrounded by a segmented, white, fatty substance called myelin or the myelin sheath. Myelinated fibers make
up the white matter in the CNS, while cell bodies and unmyelinated fibers make the gray matter. The unmyelinated
regions between the myelin segments are called the nodes of Ranvier.
In the peripheral nervous system, the myelin is produced by Schwann cells. The cytoplasm, nucleus, and outer cell
membrane of the Schwann cell form a tight covering around the myelin and around the axon itself at the nodes of
Ranvier. This covering is the neurilemma, which plays an important role in the regeneration of nerve fibers. In the
CNS, oligodendrocytes produce myelin, but there is no neurilemma, which is why fibers within the CNS do not
regenerate.
Functionally, neurons are classified as afferent, efferent, or interneurons (association neurons) according to the
direction in which they transmit impulses relative to the central nervous system. Afferent, or sensory, neurons carry
impulses from peripheral sense receptors to the CNS. They usually have long dendrites and relatively short axons.
Efferent, or motor, neurons transmit impulses from the CNS to effector organs such as muscles and glands.
Efferent neurons usually have short dendrites and long axons. Interneurons, or association neurons, are located
entirely within the CNS in which they form the connecting link between the afferent and efferent neurons. They have
short dendrites and may have either a short or long axon.
Neuroglia
Neuroglia cells do not conduct nerve impulses, but instead, they support, nourish, and protect the neurons. They
are far more numerous than neurons and, unlike neurons, are capable of mitosis.
Tumors
Schwannomas are benign tumors of the peripheral nervous system which commonly occur in their sporadic, solitary
form in otherwise normal individuals. Rarely, individuals develop multiple schwannomas arising from one or many
elements of the peripheral nervous system.
Commonly called a Morton's Neuroma, this problem is a fairly common benign nerve growth and begins when the
outer coating of a nerve in your foot thickens. This thickening is caused by irritation of branches of the medial and
lateral plantar nerves that results when two bones repeatedly rub together.
Organization of the Nervous System
Although terminology seems to indicate otherwise, there is really only one nervous system in the body. Although
each subdivision of the system is also called a "nervous system," all of these smaller systems belong to the single,
highly integrated nervous system. Each subdivision has structural and functional characteristics that distinguish it
from the others. The nervous system as a whole is divided into two subdivisions: the central nervous system (CNS)
and the peripheral nervous system (PNS).
The Central Nervous System
The CNS consists of the brain and spinal cord, which are located in the dorsal body cavity. The brain is surrounded
by the cranium, and the spinal cord is protected by the vertebrae. The brain is continuous with the spinal cord at the
foramen magnum. In addition to bone, the CNS is surrounded by connective tissue membranes, called meninges,
and by cerebrospinal fluid.
Meninges
There are three layers of meninges around the brain and spinal cord. The outer layer, the dura mater, is tough white
fibrous connective tissue. The middle layer of meninges is arachnoid, which resembles a cobweb in appearance, is
a thin layer with numerous threadlike strands that attach it to the innermost layer. The space under the arachnoid,
the subarachnoid space, is filled with cerebrospinal fluid and contains blood vessels. The pia mater is the innermost
layer of meninges. This thin, delicate membrane is tightly bound to the surface of the brain and spinal cord and
cannot be dissected away without damaging the surface.
Meningiomas are tumors of the nerve tissue covering the brain and spinal cord. Although meningiomas are usually
not likely to spread, physicians often treat them as though they were malignant to treat symptoms that may develop
when a tumor applies pressure to the brain.
Brain
The brain is divided into the cerebrum, diencephalons, brain stem, and cerebellum.
Cerebrum
The largest and most obvious portion of the brain is the cerebrum, which is divided by a deep longitudinal fissure
into two cerebral hemispheres. The two hemispheres are two separate entities but are connected by an arching
band of white fibers, called the corpus callosum that provides a communication pathway between the two halves.
Each cerebral hemisphere is divided into five lobes, four of which have the same name as the bone over them: the
fontal lobe, the parietal lobe, the occipital lobe, and the temporal lobe. A fifth lobe, the insula or Island of Reil, lies
deep within the lateral sulcus.
Diencephalon
The diencephalons is centrally located and is nearly surrounded by the cerebral hemispheres. It includes the
thalamus, hypothalamus, and epithalamus. The thalamus, about 80 percent of the diencephalons, consists of two
oval masses of gray matter that serve as relay stations for sensory impulses, except for the sense of smell, going to
the cerebral cortex. The hypothalamus is a small region below the thalamus, which plays a key role in maintaining
homeostasis because it regulates many visceral activities. The epithalamus is the most dorsal portion of the
diencephalons. This small gland is involved with the onset of puberty and rhythmic cycles in the body. It is like a
biological clock.
Brain Stem
The brain stem is the region between the diencephalons and the spinal cord. It consists of three parts: midbrain,
pons, and medulla oblongata. The midbrain is the most superior portion of the brain stem. The pons is the bulging
middle portion of the brain stem. This region primarily consists of nerve fibers that form conduction tracts between
the higher brain centers and spinal cord. The medulla oblongata, or simply medulla, extends inferiorly from the
pons. It is continuous with the spinal cord at the foramen magnum. All the ascending (sensory) and descending
(motor) nerve fibers connecting the brain and spinal cord pass through the medulla.
Cerebellum
The cerebellum, the second largest portion of the brain, is located below the occipital lobes of the cerebrum. Three
paired bundles of myelinated nerve fibers, called cerebellar peduncles, form communication pathways between the
cerebellum and other parts of the central nervous system.
Ventricles and Cerebrospinal Fluid
A series of interconnected, fluid-filled cavities are found within the brain. These cavities are the ventricles of the
brain, and the fluid is cerebrospinal fluid (CSF).
Spinal Cord
The spinal cord extends from the foramen magnum at the base of the skull to the level of the first lumbar vertebra.
The cord is continuous with the medulla oblongata at the foramen magnum. Like the brain, the spinal cord is
surrounded by bone, meninges, and cerebrospinal fluid.
The spinal cord is divided into 31 segments with each segment giving rise to a pair of spinal nerves. At the distal
end of the cord, many spinal nerves extend beyond the conus medullaris to form a collection that resembles a
horse's tail. This is the cauda equina. In cross section, the spinal cord appears oval in shape.
The spinal cord has two main functions:
1. Serving as a conduction pathway for impulses going to and from the brain. Sensory impulses travel to the brain
on ascending tracts in the cord. Motor impulses travel on descending tracts.
2. Serving as a reflex center. The reflex arc is the functional unit of the nervous system. Reflexes are responses to
stimuli that do not require conscious thought and consequently, they occur more quickly than reactions that require
thought processes. For example, with the withdrawal reflex, the reflex action withdraws the affected part before you
are aware of the pain. Many reflexes are mediated in the spinal cord without going to the higher brain centers.
Brain Tumor
Glioma refers to tumors that arise from the support cells of the brain. These cells are called glial cells. These tumors
include the astrocytomas, ependymomas and oligodendrogliomas. These tumors are the most common primary
brain tumors.
The Peripheral Nervous System
The peripheral nervous system consists of the nerves that branch out from the brain and spinal cord. These nerves
form the communication network between the CNS and the body parts. The peripheral nervous system is further
subdivided into the somatic nervous system and the autonomic nervous system. The somatic nervous system
consists of nerves that go to the skin and muscles and is involved in conscious activities. The autonomic nervous
system consists of nerves that connect the CNS to the visceral organs such as the heart, stomach, and intestines. It
mediates unconscious activities.
Structure of a Nerve
A nerve contains bundles of nerve fibers, either axons or dendrites, surrounded by connective tissue. Sensory
nerves contain only afferent fibers, long dendrites of sensory neurons. Motor nerves have only efferent fibers, long
axons of motor neurons. Mixed nerves contain both types of fibers.
A connective tissue sheath called the epineurium surrounds each nerve. Each bundle of nerve fibers is called a
fasciculus and is surrounded by a layer of connective tissue called the perineurium. Within the fasciculus, each
individual nerve fiber, with its myelin and neurilemma, is surrounded by connective tissue called the endoneurium. A
nerve may also have blood vessels enclosed in its connective tissue wrappings.
Cranial Nerves
Twelve pairs of cranial nerves emerge from the inferior surface of the brain. All of these nerves, except the vagus
nerve, pass through foramina of the skull to innervate structures in the head, neck, and facial region.
The cranial nerves are designated both by name and by Roman numerals, according to the order in which they
appear on the inferior surface of the brain. Most of the nerves have both sensory and motor components. Three of
the nerves are associated with the special senses of smell, vision, hearing, and equilibrium and have only sensory
fibers. Five other nerves are primarily motor in function but do have some sensory fibers for proprioception. The
remaining four nerves consist of significant amounts of both sensory and motor fibers.
Acoustic neuromas are benign fibrous growths that arise from the balance nerve, also called the eighth cranial
nerve or vestibulocochlear nerve. These tumors are non-malignant, meaning that they do not spread or metastasize
to other parts of the body. The location of these tumors is deep inside the skull, adjacent to vital brain centers in the
brain stem. As the tumors enlarge, they involve surrounding structures which have to do with vital functions. In the
majority of cases, these tumors grow slowly over a period of years. In other cases, the growth rate is more rapid
and patients develop symptoms at a faster pace. Usually, the symptoms are mild and many patients are not
diagnosed until some time after their tumor has developed. Many patients also exhibit no tumor growth over a
number of years when followed by yearly MRI scans.
Spinal Nerves
Thirty-one pairs of spinal nerves emerge laterally from the spinal cord. Each pair of nerves corresponds to a
segment of the cord and they are named accordingly. This means there are 8 cervical nerves, 12 thoracic nerves, 5
lumbar nerves, 5 sacral nerves, and 1 coccygeal nerve.
Each spinal nerve is connected to the spinal cord by a dorsal root and a ventral root. The cell bodies of the sensory
neurons are in the dorsal root ganglion, but the motor neuron cell bodies are in the gray matter. The two roots join
to form the spinal nerve just before the nerve leaves the vertebral column. Because all spinal nerves have both
sensory and motor components, they are all mixed nerves.
Autonomic Nervous System
The autonomic nervous system is a visceral efferent system, which means it sends motor impulses to the visceral
organs. It functions automatically and continuously, without conscious effort, to innervate smooth muscle, cardiac
muscle, and glands. It is concerned with heart rate, breathing rate, blood pressure, body temperature, and other
visceral activities that work together to maintain homeostasis.
The autonomic nervous system has two parts, the sympathetic division and the parasympathetic division. Many
visceral organs are supplied with fibers from both divisions. In this case, one stimulates and the other inhibits. This
antagonistic functional relationship serves as a balance to help maintain homeostasis.
Learning Activities
I.
Choose the key responses that best correspond to the descriptions provided in the following statements. Insert the
appropriate letter or term in the answer blanks.
Key Choices
A. Autonomic nervous system
B. Central nervous system (CNS)
C. Peripheral nervous system (PNS)
D. Somatic nervous system
B. Central nervous system (CNS) 1. Nervous system subdivision that is composed of the brain and spinal cord.
D. Somatic nervous system 2. Subdivision of the PNS that controls voluntary activities such as the activation of
skeletal muscles.
C. Peripheral nervous system (PNS) 3. Nervous system subdivision that is composed of the cranial and spinal
nerves and ganglia.
A. Autonomic nervous system 4. Subdivision of the PNS that regulates the activities of the heart and smooth
muscle, and of glands; it is also called the involuntary nervous system.
B. Central nervous system (CNS) 5. A major subdivision of the nervous system that interprets incoming
information and issues orders.
C. Peripheral nervous system (PNS) 6. A major subdivision of the nervous system that serves as communication
lines, linking all parts of the body to the CNS.
II.
This exercise emphasizes the difference between neurons and neuroglia. Indicate which cell type is identified by
the following descriptions. Insert the appropriate letter or term in the answer blanks.
Key Choices:
A. Neurons
B. Neuroglia
B. Neuroglia 1. Support, insulate, and protect cells.
A. Neurons 2. Demonstrate irritability and conductivity, and thus transmit electrical messages from one area of the
body to another area.
A. Neurons 3. Release neurotransmitters.
A. Neurons 4. Are amitotic.
B. Neuroglia 5. Able to divide; therefore, are responsible for most brain neoplasms.
III.
If a statement is true, write the letter T in the answer blank. If a statement is false, correct the underlined word(s)
and write the correct word(s) in the answer blank.
POSTCENTRAL 1. The primary somatosensory area of the cerebral hemisphere(s) is found in the precentral gyrus.
TEMPORAL
2. Cortical areas involved in audition are found in the occipital lobe.
FRONTAL 3. The primary motor area in the temporal lobe is involved in the
initiation of voluntary
movements.
BROCA’S
4. The specialized motor speech area is located at the base of the precentral gyrus in an area called
Wernicke’s area.
LEFT
5. The right cerebral hemisphere receives sensory input from the right side of the body.
T
6. The pyramidal tract is the major descending voluntary motor tract.
PRECENTRAL 7. The primary motor cortex is located in the postcentral gyrus.
PREMOTOR 8. Centers for control of repetitious or stereotyped motor skills are found in the primary motor
cortex.
FINGERS
9. The largest parts of the motor homunculi are the lips, tongue, and toes.
GENERAL INTERPRETATION AREA10. Sensations such as touch and pain are integrated in the primary sensory
cortex.
OCCIPITAL 11. The primary visual cortex is in the frontal lobe of each cerebral hemisphere.
T
12. In most humans, the area that controls the comprehension of language is located in the left
cerebral hemisphere.
T
13. A flat electroencephalogram (EEG) is evidence of clinical death.
ALERT
14. Beta waves are recorded when an individual is awake
and relaxed.
Mastery Test
B
1. A neuron which has a single process from the cell body is:
A. multipolar
C. bipolar
B. unipolar
D. monopolar
B C 2. Which of the following skin cells would form a junction with a motor neuron?
A. Keratinocyte
B. Sudoriferous glandular epithelial cell
C. Arrector pili muscle cell
D. Fibroblast
A
3. A synapse between an axon terminal and a neuron cell body is called:
A. axodendritic
C. axosomatic
B. axoaxonic
D. axoneuronic
A
4. Which is an incorrect association of brain region and ventricle?
A. Mesencephalon—third ventricle
B. Cerebral hemispheres—lateral ventricles
C. Pons—fourth ventricle
D. Medulla—fourth ventricle
C
5. The pineal gland is located in the:
A. hypophysis cerebri
B. mesencephalon
C. epithalamus
D. corpus callosum
C
6. Which molecule enters the axon to cause depolarization?
A. Acetylcholine
C. Sodium
B. Calcium
D. Potassium
B 7. When neurons in Wernicke’s area send impulses to neurons in Broca’s area, the white matter
tracts utilized are:
A. commissural fibers
B. projection fibers
C. association fibers
D. anterior funiculus
D
8. Reflexes that regulate smooth muscle and glands are:
A. monosynaptic
B. somatic
C. voluntary
D. autonomic
A B C 9. Which structures are directly involved with formation, circulation, and drainage of CSF?
A. Ependymal cilia
B. Ventricular choroid plexuses
C. Arachnoid villi
D. Serous layers of the dura mater
C
10. Golgi tendon organs can be classified as:
A. visceroreceptors
C. proprioreceptors
B. exteroreceptors
D. mechanoreceptors
A C 11. Cranial nerves that have some function in vision include the:
A. trochlear
C. abducens
B. trigeminal
D. facial
A C D 12. Eating difficulties would result from damage to the:
A. mandibular division of trigeminal nerve
B. facial nerve
C. glossopharyngeal nerve
D. vagus nerve
B D 13. If the right trapezius and sternocleidomas- toid muscles were atrophied, you would suspect
damage to the:
A. vagus nerve
B. motor branches of the cervical plexus
C. facial nerve
D. accessory nerve
B
14. Which nerve stimulates muscles that flex the forearm?
A. Ulnar
B. Musculocutaneous
A
D
C. Radial
D. Median
15. Motor functions of arm, forearm, and fingers would be affected by damage to which one of
these nerves?
A. Radial
C. Ulnar
B. Axillary
D. Median
16. An inability to extend the leg would result from a loss of function of the:
A. lateral femoral cutaneous nerve
B. ilioinguinal nerve
C. saphenous branch of femoral nerve
D. femoral nerve
Use the following choices to respond to questions 17–28:
A. sympathetic division
B. parasympathetic division
C. both sympathetic and parasympathetic
D. neither sympathetic nor parasympathetic
B
17. Typically has long preganglionic and short postganglionic fibers
A
18. Some fibers utilize gray rami communicantes
A
19. Courses through spinal nerves
C
20. Has splanchnic nerves
C
21. Courses through cranial nerves
B
22. Originates in cranial nerves
A
23. Effects enhanced by direct stim-ulation of a hormonal mechanism
B
24. Includes otic ganglion
A
25. Includes celiac ganglion
A
26. Hypoactivity of this divisionwould lead to decrease in meta- bolic rate
A
27. Has widespread, long-lasting effects
B
28. Sets the tone for the heart
C
29. Which contains only motor fibers?
A. Dorsal root
C. Ventral root
B. Dorsal ramus
D. Ventral ramus
UNIT 6
The Cardiovascular System
Learning Outcomes
At the end of this lesson, you will be able to:





describe the heart as to location, position;
trace the flow of blood in the pulmonary and systemic circulations;
differentiate arteries, veins, and capillaries in terms of structure and function;
discuss the control of blood pressure and pulse rate; and
discuss measures on the care of heart and blood vessels.
Pretest
Complete the following statements by inserting your answers in the answer blanks.
The heart is a cone-shaped muscular organ located within the thorax. Its apex rests on the diaphragm, and its
base is at the level of the second rib. The coronary arteries that nourish the myocardium arise from the aorta. The
coronary sinus empties into the right atrium. Relative to the roles of the heart chambers, the atria are receiving
chambers, whereas the ventricles are discharging chambers. The membrane that lines the heart and also forms
the valve flaps is called the endocardium. The outermost layer of the heart is called the epicardium. The fluid that
fills the pericardial sac acts to decrease friction during heart activity. The heart muscle, or myocardium, is
composed of a specialized type of muscle tissue called cardiac.
Content
The cardiovascular system is sometimes called the blood-vascular, or simply the circulatory, system. It consists of
the heart, which is a muscular pumping device, and a closed system of vessels called arteries, veins, and
capillaries. As the name implies, blood contained in the circulatory system is pumped by the heart around a closed
circle or circuit of vessels as it passes again and again through the various "circulations" of the body.
As in the adult, survival of the developing embryo depends on the circulation of blood to maintain homeostasis and
a favorable cellular environment. In response to this need, the cardiovascular system makes its appearance early in
development and reaches a functional state long before any other major organ system. Incredible as it seems, the
primitive heart begins to beat regularly early in the fourth week following fertilization.
The vital role of the cardiovascular system in maintaining homeostasis depends on the continuous and controlled
movement of blood through the thousands of miles of capillaries that permeate every tissue and reach every cell in
the body. It is in the microscopic capillaries that blood performs its ultimate transport function. Nutrients and other
essential materials pass from capillary blood into fluids surrounding the cells as waste products are removed.
Numerous control mechanisms help to regulate and integrate the diverse functions and component parts of the
cardiovascular system in order to supply blood to specific body areas according to need. These mechanisms
ensure a constant internal environment surrounding each body cell regardless of differing demands for nutrients or
production of waste products.
Heart
The heart is a muscular pump that provides the force necessary to circulate the blood to all the tissues in the body.
Its function is vital because, to survive, the tissues need a continuous supply of oxygen and nutrients, and metabolic
waste products have to be removed. Deprived of these necessities, cells soon undergo irreversible changes that
lead to death. While blood is the transport medium, the heart is the organ that keeps the blood moving through the
vessels. The normal adult heart pumps about 5 liters of blood every minute throughout life. If it loses its pumping
effectiveness for even a few minutes, the individual's life is jeopardized.
Structure of the Heart
The human heart is a four-chambered muscular organ, shaped and sized roughly like a man's closed fist with twothirds of the mass to the left of midline.
The heart is enclosed in a pericardial sac that is lined with the parietal layers of a serous membrane. The visceral
layer of the serous membrane forms the epicardium.
Layers of the Heart Wall
Three layers of tissue form the heart wall. The outer layer of the heart wall is the epicardium, the middle layer is the
myocardium, and the inner layer is the endocardium.
Chambers of the Heart
The internal cavity of the heart is divided into four chambers:
Right atrium
Right ventricle
Left atrium
Left ventricle
The two atria are thin-walled chambers that receive blood from the veins. The two ventricles are thick-walled
chambers that forcefully pump blood out of the heart.
Differences in thickness of the heart chamber walls are due to variations in the amount of myocardium present,
which reflects the amount of force each chamber is required to generate.
The right atrium receives deoxygenated blood from systemic veins; the left atrium receives oxygenated blood from
the pulmonary veins.
Valves of the Heart
Pumps need a set of valves to keep the fluid flowing in one direction and the heart is no exception. The heart has
two types of valves that keep the blood flowing in the correct direction. The valves between the atria and ventricles
are called atrioventricular valves (also called cuspid valves), while those at the bases of the large vessels leaving
the ventricles are called semilunar valves.
The right atrioventricular valve is the tricuspid valve. The left atrioventricular valve is the bicuspid, or mitral, valve.
The valve between the right ventricle and pulmonary trunk is the pulmonary semilunar valve. The valve between the
left ventricle and the aorta is the aortic semilunar valve.
When the ventricles contract, atrioventricular valves close to prevent blood from flowing back into the atria. When
the ventricles relax, semilunar valves close to prevent blood from flowing back into the ventricles.
Pathway of Blood through the Heart
While it is convenient to describe the flow of blood through the right side of the heart and then through the left side,
it is important to realize that both atria and ventricles contract at the same time. The heart works as two pumps, one
on the right and one on the left, working simultaneously. Blood flows from the right atrium to the right ventricle, and
then is pumped to the lungs to receive oxygen. From the lungs, the blood flows to the left atrium, then to the left
ventricle. From there it is pumped to the systemic circulation.
Blood Supply to the Myocardium
The myocardium of the heart wall is a working muscle that needs a continuous supply of oxygen and nutrients to
function efficiently. For this reason, cardiac muscle has an extensive network of blood vessels to bring oxygen to
the contracting cells and to remove waste products.
The right and left coronary arteries, branches of the ascending aorta, supply blood to the walls of the myocardium.
After blood passes through the capillaries in the myocardium, it enters a system of cardiac (coronary) veins. Most of
the cardiac veins drain into the coronary sinus, which opens into the right atrium.
Physiology of the Heart
The conduction system includes several components. The first part of the conduction system is the sinoatrial node .
Without any neural stimulation, the sinoatrial node rhythmically initiates impulses 70 to 80 times per minute.
Because it establishes the basic rhythm of the heartbeat, it is called the pacemaker of the heart. Other parts of the
conduction system include the atrioventricular node, atrioventricular bundle, bundle branches, and conduction
myofibers. All of these components coordinate the contraction and relaxation of the heart chambers.
Cardiac Cycle
The cardiac cycle refers to the alternating contraction and relaxation of the myocardium in the walls of the heart
chambers, coordinated by the conduction system, during one
heartbeat. Systole is the contraction phase of the cardiac cycle, and diastole is the relaxation phase. At a normal
heart rate, one cardiac cycle lasts for 0.8 second.
Heart Sounds
The sounds associated with the heartbeat are due to vibrations in the tissues and blood caused by closure of the
valves. Abnormal heart sounds are called murmurs.
Heart Rate
The sinoatrial node, acting alone, produces a constant rhythmic heart rate. Regulating factors are reliant on the
atrioventricular node to increase or decrease the heart rate to adjust cardiac output to meet the changing needs of
the body. Most changes in the heart rate are mediated through the cardiac center in the medulla oblongata of the
brain. The center has both sympathetic and parasympathetic components that adjust the heart rate to meet the
changing needs of the body.
Peripheral factors such as emotions, ion concentrations, and body temperature may affect heart rate. These are
usually mediated through the cardiac center.
Blood
Blood is the fluid of life, transporting oxygen from the lungs to body tissue and carbon dioxide from body tissue to
the lungs. Blood is the fluid of growth, transporting nourishment from digestion and hormones from glands
throughout the body. Blood is the fluid of health, transporting disease-fighting substances to the tissue and waste to
the kidneys. Because it contains living cells, blood is alive. Red blood cells and white blood cells are responsible for
nourishing and cleansing the body.
Without blood, the human body would stop working.
Classification & Structure of Blood Vessels
Blood vessels are the channels or conduits through which blood is distributed to body tissues. The vessels make up
two closed systems of tubes that begin and end at the heart. One system, the pulmonary vessels, transports blood
from the right ventricle to the lungs and back to the left atrium. The other system, the systemic vessels, carries
blood from the left ventricle to the tissues in all parts of the body and then returns the blood to the right atrium.
Based on their structure and function, blood vessels are classified as either arteries, capillaries, or veins.
Arteries
Arteries carry blood away from the heart. Pulmonary arteries transport blood that has a low oxygen content from the
right ventricle to the lungs. Systemic arteries transport oxygenated blood from the left ventricle to the body tissues.
Blood is pumped from the ventricles into large elastic arteries that branch repeatedly into smaller and smaller
arteries until the branching results in microscopic arteries called arterioles. The arterioles play a key role in
regulating blood flow into the tissue capillaries. About 10 percent of the total blood volume is in the systemic arterial
system at any given time.
The wall of an artery consists of three layers. The innermost layer, the tunica intima (also called tunica interna), is
simple squamous epithelium surrounded by a connective tissue basement membrane with elastic fibers. The middle
layer, the tunica media, is primarily smooth muscle and is usually the thickest layer. It not only provides support for
the vessel but also changes vessel diameter to regulate blood flow and blood pressure. The outermost layer, which
attaches the vessel to the surrounding tissue, is the tunica externa or tunica adventitia. This layer is connective
tissue with varying amounts of elastic and collagenous fibers. The connective tissue in this layer is quite dense
where it is adjacent to the tunic media, but it changes to loose connective tissue near the periphery of the vessel.
Capillaries
Capillaries, the smallest and most numerous of the blood vessels, form the connection between the vessels that
carry blood away from the heart (arteries) and the vessels that return blood to the heart (veins). The primary
function of capillaries is the exchange of materials between the blood and tissue cells.
Capillary distribution varies with the metabolic activity of body tissues. Tissues such as skeletal muscle, liver, and
kidney have extensive capillary networks because they are metabolically active and require an abundant supply of
oxygen and nutrients. Other tissues, such as connective tissue, have a less abundant supply of capillaries. The
epidermis of the skin and the lens and cornea of the eye completely lack a capillary network. About 5 percent of the
total blood volume is in the systemic capillaries at any given time. Another 10 percent is in the lungs.
Smooth muscle cells in the arterioles where they branch to form capillaries regulate blood flow from the arterioles
into the capillaries.
Veins
Veins carry blood toward the heart. After blood passes through the capillaries, it enters the smallest veins, called
venules. From the venules, it flows into progressively larger and larger veins until it reaches the heart. In the
pulmonary circuit, the pulmonary veins transport blood from the lungs to the left atrium of the heart. This blood has
a high oxygen content because it has just been oxygenated in the lungs. Systemic veins transport blood from the
body tissue to the right atrium of the heart. This blood has a reduced oxygen content because the oxygen has been
used for metabolic activities in the tissue cells.
The walls of veins have the same three layers as the arteries. Although all the layers are present, there is less
smooth muscle and connective tissue. This makes the walls of veins thinner than those of arteries, which is related
to the fact that blood in the veins has less pressure than in the arteries. Because the walls of the veins are thinner
and less rigid than arteries, veins can hold more blood. Almost 70 percent of the total blood volume is in the veins at
any given time. Medium and large veins have venous valves, similar to the semilunar valves associated with the
heart, that help keep the blood flowing toward the heart. Venous valves are especially important in the arms and
legs, where they prevent the backflow of blood in response to the pull of gravity.
Physiology of Circulation
Roles of Capillaries
Illustration of capillary microcirculation
In addition to forming the connection between the arteries and veins, capillaries have a vital role in the exchange of
gases, nutrients, and metabolic waste products between the blood and the tissue cells. Substances pass through
the capillary wall by diffusion, filtration, and osmosis. Oxygen and carbon dioxide move across the capillary wall by
diffusion. Fluid movement across a capillary wall is determined by a combination of hydrostatic and osmotic
pressure. The net result of the capillary microcirculation created by hydrostatic and osmotic pressure is that
substances leave the blood at one end of the capillary and return at the other end.
Blood Flow
Blood flow refers to the movement of blood through the vessels from arteries to the capillaries and then into the
veins. Pressure is a measure of the force that the blood exerts against the vessel walls as it moves the blood
through the vessels. Like all fluids, blood flows from a high pressure area to a region with lower pressure. Blood
flows in the same direction as the decreasing pressure gradient: arteries to capillaries to veins.
The rate, or velocity, of blood flow varies inversely with the total cross-sectional area of the blood vessels. As the
total cross-sectional area of the vessels increases, the velocity of flow decreases. Blood flow is slowest in the
capillaries, which allows time for exchange of gases and nutrients.
Resistance is a force that opposes the flow of a fluid. In blood vessels, most of the resistance is due to vessel
diameter. As vessel diameter decreases, the resistance increases and blood flow decreases.
Very little pressure remains by the time blood leaves the capillaries and enters the venules. Blood flow through the
veins is not the direct result of ventricular contraction. Instead, venous return depends on skeletal muscle action,
respiratory movements, and constriction of smooth muscle in venous walls.
Pulse and Blood Pressure
Pulse refers to the rhythmic expansion of an artery that is caused by ejection of blood from the ventricle. It can be
felt where an artery is close to the surface and rests on something firm.
In common usage, the term blood pressure refers to arterial blood pressure, the pressure in the aorta and its
branches. Systolic pressure is due to ventricular contraction. Diastolic pressure occurs during cardiac relaxation.
Pulse pressure is the difference between
systolic pressure and diastolic pressure. Blood pressure is measured with a sphygmomanometer and is recorded
as the systolic pressure over the diastolic pressure. Four major factors interact to affect blood pressure: cardiac
output, blood volume, peripheral resistance, and viscosity. When these factors increase, blood pressure also
increases.
Arterial blood pressure is maintained within normal ranges by changes in cardiac output and peripheral resistance.
Pressure receptors (barareceptors), located in the walls of the large arteries in the thorax and neck, are important
for short-term blood pressure regulation.

Task: Watch this video of Heart Blood Circulation.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CWFyxn0qDEU
Circulatory Pathways
The blood vessels of the body are functionally divided into two distinctive circuits: pulmonary circuit and systemic
circuit. The pump for the pulmonary circuit, which circulates blood through the lungs, is the right ventricle. The left
ventricle is the pump for the systemic circuit, which provides the blood supply for the tissue cells of the body.
Pulmonary Circuit
Pulmonary circulation transports oxygen-poor blood from the right ventricle to the lungs, where blood picks up a
new blood supply. Then it returns the oxygen-rich blood to the left atrium.
Systemic Circuit
The systemic circulation provides the functional blood supply to all body tissue. It carries oxygen and nutrients to
the cells and picks up carbon dioxide and waste products. Systemic circulation carries oxygenated blood from the
left ventricle, through the arteries, to the capillaries in the tissues of the body. From the tissue capillaries, the
deoxygenated blood returns through a system of veins to the right atrium of the heart.
The coronary arteries are the only vessels that branch from the ascending aorta. The brachiocephalic, left common
carotid, and left subclavian arteries branch from the aortic arch. Blood supply for the brain is provided by the
internal carotid and vertebral arteries. The subclavian arteries provide the blood supply for the upper extremity. The
celiac, superior mesenteric, suprarenal, renal, gonadal, and inferior mesenteric arteries branch from the abdominal
aorta to supply the abdominal viscera. Lumbar arteries provide blood for the muscles and spinal cord. Branches of
the external iliac artery provide the blood supply for the lower extremity. The internal iliac artery supplies the pelvic
viscera.
Major Systemic Arteries
All systemic arteries are branches, either directly or indirectly, from the aorta. The aorta ascends from the left
ventricle, curves posteriorly and to the left, then descends through the thorax and abdomen. This geography divides
the aorta into three portions: ascending aorta, arotic arch, and descending aorta. The descending aorta is further
subdivided into the thoracic arota and abdominal aorta.
Major Systemic Veins
After blood delivers oxygen to the tissues and picks up carbon dioxide, it returns to the heart through a system of
veins. The capillaries, where the gaseous exchange occurs, merge into venules and these converge to form larger
and larger veins until the blood reaches either the superior vena cava or inferior vena cava, which drain into the
right atrium.
Fetal Circulation
Most circulatory pathways in a fetus are like those in the adult but there are some notable differences because the
lungs, the gastrointestinal tract, and the kidneys are not functioning before birth. The fetus obtains its oxygen and
nutrients from the mother and also depends on maternal circulation to carry away the carbon dioxide and waste
products.
The umbilical cord contains two umbilical arteries to carry fetal blood to the placenta and one umbilical vein to carry
oxygen-and-nutrient-rich blood from the placenta to the fetus. The ductus venosus allows blood to bypass the
immature liver in fetal circulation. The foramen ovale and ductus arteriosus are modifications that permit blood to
bypass the lungs in fetal circulation.
Learning Activities
I.
The heart is called a double pump because it serves two circulations. Trace the flow of blood through the pulmonary
and systemic circulations by writing the missing terms in the answer blanks.
From the right atrium through the tricuspid valve to the right ventricle, through the pulmonary semilunar valve to
the pulmonary trunk to the right and left pulmonary arteries, to the capillary beds of the lungs to the pulmonary
veins to the left atrium of the heart through the mitral (bicuspid) valve, to the left ventricle through the aortic
semilunar valve, to the aorta to the systemic arteries, to the capillary beds of the body tissues, to the systemic
veins, to the superior vena cava and inferior vena cava which enter the right atrium of the heart.
II.
Circle the term that does not belong in each of the following groupings.
1. Low pressure
Artery
Capillary
2. Carotid artery Cardiac vein
3. Sphincters
Vein
Coronary sinus Coronary artery
Vascular shunt Valves Microcirculation
4. High blood pressure Hemorrhage
Weak pulse
5. Resistance
Vasoconstriction
Friction Vasodilation
Low cardiac output
III.
Indicate what effect the following factors have on blood pressure. Indicate an increase in pressure by I and a
decrease in pressure by D. Place the correct letter response in the answer blanks.
D 1. Increased diameter of the arterioles I 8. Physical exercise
I 2. Increased blood viscosity
D 9. Physical training
I 3. Increased cardiac output
D 10. Alcohol
I 4. Increased pulse rate
D 11. Hemorrhage
I 5. Anxiety, fear
I 12. Nicotine
D 6. Increased urine output
I 13. Arteriosclerosis
D 7. Sudden change in position from
reclining to standing
Mastery Test
A D 1. The innermost layer of the pericardial sac is the:
A. epicardium
B. fibrous pericardium
C. parietal layer of the serous pericardium
D. visceral layer of the serous pericardium
B 2. The thickest layer of the heart wall is:
A. endocardium
B. myocardium
C. epicardium
D. fibrous
A D 3. Atrioventricular valves are held closed by:
A. papillary muscles
B. trabeculae carneae
C. pectinate muscles
D. chordae tendineae
ABCD4. The fibrous skeleton of the heart:
A. supports valves
pericardium
B. anchors vessels
C. provides electrical insulation to separate the atrial mass from the ventricular mass
D. anchors cardiac muscle fibers
D 5. Freshly oxygenated blood is first received by the:
A. right ventricle
C. right atrium
B. left ventricle
D. left atrium
C 6. Atrial repolarization coincides in time with the:
A. P wave
C. QRS wave
B. T wave
D. P­Q interval
C 7. Soon after the onset of ventricular systole the:
A. AV valves close
B. semilunar valves open
C. first heart sound is heard
D. aortic pressure increases
C 8. Where in the heart is the Bundle of His found?
A. Chordae tendinae
B. Interventricular septum
C. Atria
D. Ventricles
ABCD 9. Which of the regulatory chemicals listed involve or target the kidneys?
A. Angiotensin
C. ADH
B. Aldosterone
D. ANP
ABC 10. Cardiovascular conditioning results in:
A. ventricular hypertrophy
B. bradycardia
C. increase in SV
D. increase in CO
ABC 11. Which of the following is (are) part of the tunica intima?
A. Simple squamous epithelium
B. Basement membrane
C. Loose connective tissue
D. Smooth muscle
AC 12. In comparing a parallel artery and vein, you would find that:
A. the artery wall is thicker
B. the artery diameter is greater
C. the artery lumen is smaller
D. the artery endothelium is thicker
BD13. Fenestrated capillaries occur in the:
A. liver
B. kidney
C. cerebrum
D. intestinal mucosa
ABC14. Which of the following is (are) part of a capillary bed?
A. Precapillary sphincter
B. Vascular shunt
C. True capillaries
D. Terminal arteriole
CD15. Which of the following can function as a blood reservoir?
A. Brachiocephalic artery
B. Cerebral capillaries
C. Dural sinuses
D. Inferior vena cava
A 16. An increase in which of the following results in increased filtration from capillaries to the interstitial
space?
A. Capillary hydrostatic pressure
B. Interstitial fluid hydrostatic pressure
C. Capillary osmotic pressure
D. Duration of precapillary sphincter contraction
ABCD17. Vessels involved in the circulatory pathway to and from the brain are the:
A. brachiocephalic artery
B. subclavian artery
C. internal jugular vein
D. internal carotid artery
B 18. When does the isovolumetric contraction phase occur?
A. Atrial systole
B. Ventricular diastole
C. Ventricular systole
D. Atrial diastole
B 19. Which layer of the artery wall thickens most in atherosclerosis?
A. Tunica media
B. Tunica intima
C. Tunica adventitia
D. Tunica externa
D 20. Heart rate can be increased by which of the following?
A. Parasympathetic activity
B. Calcium ions
C. Low potassium levels
D. Epinephrine
D 21. Peripheral resistance is mainly increased by:
A. low blood viscosity
B. elevated heart rate
C. reduced blood volume
D. vasoconstriction
B 22. A stroke that occludes a posterior cerebral artery will most likely affect:
A. hearing
B. vision
C. smell
D. higher thought processes
D 23. Tracing the drainage of the superficial venous blood from the leg, we find that blood enters the
great saphenous vein,
femoral vein, inferior vena cava, and right atrium. Which veins are
missing from that sequence?
A. Coronary sinus and superior vena cava
B. Posterior tibial and popliteal
C. Fibular (peroneal) and popliteal
D. External and common iliacs
D 24. Tracing the drainage of venous blood from the small intestine, we find that blood enters the superior
mesenteric vein, hepatic vein, inferior vena cava, and right atrium. Which vessels are missing from
that sequence?
A. Coronary sinus and left atrium
B. Celiac and common hepatic veins
C. Internal and common iliac veins
D. Hepatic portal vein and liver sinusoids
UNIT 7
The Respiratory System
Learning Outcomes
At the end of this lesson, you will be able to:





Pretest
name the organs forming the respiratory passageway;
describe the functions of the respiratory organs;
describe the process of gas exchange in the lungs and tissues;
describe how oxygen and carbon dioxide are transported in the blood; and
discuss measures on the care of respiratory organs.
Circle the term that does not belong in each of the following groupings.
1. Sphenoidal Maxillary
Mandibular
Ethmoidal
Frontal
2. Nasal cavity Trachea
Alveolus
Larynx Bronchus
3. Apex
Hilum
Larynx Pleura
Base
4. Sinusitis
5. Laryngopharynx
6. Alveoli
Peritonitis
Oropharynx
Respiratory zone
Pleurisy
Tonsillitis
Laryngitis
Transports air and food
Nasopharynx
Alveolar sac
Main bronchus
Content
When the respiratory system is mentioned, people generally think of breathing, but breathing is only one of the
activities of the respiratory system. The body cells need a continuous supply of oxygen for the metabolic processes
that are necessary to maintain life. The respiratory system works with the circulatory system to provide this oxygen
and to remove the waste products of metabolism. It also helps to regulate pH of the blood.
Respiration is the sequence of events that results in the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between the
atmosphere and the body cells. Every 3 to 5 seconds, nerve impulses stimulate the breathing process, or
ventilation, which moves air through a series of passages into and out of the lungs. After this, there is an exchange
of gases between the lungs and the blood. This is called external respiration. The blood transports the gases to and
from the tissue cells. The exchange of gases between the blood and tissue cells is internal respiration. Finally, the
cells utilize the oxygen for their specific activities: this is called cellular metabolism, or cellular respiration. Together,
these activities constitute respiration.
Mechanics of Ventilation
Ventilation, or breathing, is the movement of air through the conducting passages between the atmosphere and the
lungs. The air moves through the passages because of pressure gradients that are produced by contraction of the
diaphragm and thoracic muscles.
Pulmonary ventilation
Pulmonary ventilation is commonly referred to as breathing. It is the process of air flowing into the lungs during
inspiration (inhalation) and out of the lungs during expiration (exhalation). Air flows because of pressure differences
between the atmosphere and the gases inside the lungs.
Air, like other gases, flows from a region with higher pressure to a region with lower pressure. Muscular breathing
movements and recoil of elastic tissues create the changes in pressure that result in ventilation. Pulmonary
ventilation involves three different pressures:
Atmospheric pressure
Intraalveolar (intrapulmonary) pressure
Intrapleural pressure
Atmospheric pressure is the pressure of the air outside the body. Intraalveolar pressure is the pressure inside the
alveoli of the lungs. Intrapleural pressure is the pressure within the pleural cavity. These three pressures are
responsible for pulmonary ventilation.
Inspiration
Inspiration (inhalation) is the process of taking air into the lungs. It is the active phase of ventilation because it is the
result of muscle contraction. During inspiration, the diaphragm contracts and the thoracic cavity increases in
volume. This decreases the intraalveolar pressure so that air flows into the lungs. Inspiration draws air into the
lungs.
Expiration
Expiration (exhalation) is the process of letting air out of the lungs during the breathing cycle. During expiration, the
relaxation of the diaphragm and elastic recoil of tissue decreases the thoracic volume and increases the
intraalveolar pressure. Expiration pushes air out of the lungs.
Respiratory Volumes and Capacities
Under normal conditions, the average adult takes 12 to 15 breaths a minute. A breath is one complete respiratory
cycle that consists of one inspiration and one expiration.
An instrument called a spirometer is used to measure the volume of air that moves into and out of the lungs, and
the process of taking the measurements is called spirometry. Respiratory (pulmonary) volumes are an important
aspect of pulmonary function testing because they can provide information about the physical condition of the
lungs.
Respiratory capacity (pulmonary capacity) is the sum of two or more volumes.
Factors such as age, sex, body build, and physical conditioning have an influence on lung volumes and capacities.
Lungs usually reach their maximumin capacity in early adulthood and decline with age after that.
Conducting Passages
Illustration of the conducting passages of the upper and lower respiratory tracts
The respiratory conducting passages are divided into the upper respiratory tract and the lower respiratory tract. The
upper respiratory tract includes the nose, pharynx, and larynx. The lower respiratory tract consists of the trachea,
bronchial tree, and lungs. These tracts open to the outside and are lined with mucous membranes. In some regions,
the membrane has hairs that help filter the air. Other regions may have cilia to propel mucus.
Nose, Nasal Cavities, & Paranasal Sinuses
Nose & Nasal Cavities
The framework of the nose consists of bone and cartilage. Two small nasal bones and extensions of the maxillae
form the bridge of the nose, which is the bony portion. The remainder of the framework is cartilage and is the
flexible portion. Connective tissue and skin cover the framework.
Air enters the nasal cavity from the outside through two openings: the nostrils or external nares. The openings from
the nasal cavity into the pharynx are the internal nares. Nose hairs at the entrance to the nose trap large inhaled
particles.
Paranasal Sinuses
Paranasal sinuses are air-filled cavities in the frontal, maxilae, ethmoid, and sphenoid bones. These sinuses, which
have the same names as the bones in which they are located, surround the nasal cavity and open into it. They
function to reduce the weight of the skull, to produce mucus, and to influence voice quality by acting as resonating
chambers.
Pharynx
The pharynx, commonly called the throat, is a passageway that extends from the base of the skull to the level of the
sixth cervical vertebra. It serves both the respiratory and digestive systems by receiving air from the nasal cavity
and air, food, and water from the oral cavity. Inferiorly, it opens into the larynx and esophagus. The pharynx is
divided into three regions according to location: the nasopharynx, the oropharynx, and the laryngopharynx
(hypopharynx).
The nasopharynx is the portion of the pharynx that is posterior to the nasal cavity and extends inferiorly to the
uvula. The oropharynx is the portion of the pharynx that is posterior to the oral cavity. The most inferior portion of
the pharynx is the laryngopharynx that extends from the hyoid bone down to the lower margin of the larynx.
The upper part of the pharynx (throat) lets only air pass through. Lower parts permit air, foods, and fluids to pass.
The pharyngeal, palatine, and lingual tonsils are located in the pharynx. They are also called Waldereyer's Ring.
The retromolar trigone is the small area behind the wisdom teeth.
Larynx & Trachea
Larynx
The larynx, commonly called the voice box or glottis, is the passageway for air between the pharynx above and the
trachea below. It extends from the fourth to the sixth vertebral levels. The larynx is often divided into three sections:
sublarynx, larynx, and supralarynx. It is formed by nine cartilages that are connected to each other by muscles and
ligaments.
The larynx plays an essential role in human speech. During sound production, the vocal cords close together and
vibrate as air expelled from the lungs passes between them. The false vocal cords have no role in sound
production, but help close off the larynx when food is swallowed.
The thyroid cartilage is the Adam's apple. The epiglottis acts like a trap door to keep food and other particles from
entering the larynx.
Trachea
The trachea, commonly called the windpipe, is the main airway to the lungs. It divides into the right and left bronchi
at the level of the fifth thoracic vertebra, channeling air to the right or left lung.
The hyaline cartilage in the tracheal wall provides support and keeps the trachea from collapsing. The posterior soft
tissue allows for expansion of the esophagus, which is immediately posterior to the trachea.
The mucous membrane that lines the trachea is ciliated pseudostratified columnar epithelium similar to that in the
nasal cavity and nasopharynx. Goblet cells produce mucus that traps airborne particles and microorganisms, and
the cilia propel the mucus upward, where it is either swallowed or expelled.
Bronchi, Bronchial Tree, & Lungs
Bronchi and Bronchial Tree
In the mediastinum, at the level of the fifth thoracic vertebra, the trachea divides into the right and left primary
bronchi. The bronchi branch into smaller and smaller passageways until they terminate in tiny air sacs called
alveoli.
The cartilage and mucous membrane of the primary bronchi are similar to that in the trachea. As the branching
continues through the bronchial tree, the amount of hyaline cartilage in the walls decreases until it is absent in the
smallest bronchioles. As the cartilage decreases, the amount of smooth muscle increases. The mucous membrane
also undergoes a transition from ciliated pseudostratified columnar epithelium to simple cuboidal epithelium to
simple squamous epithelium.
The alveolar ducts and alveoli consist primarily of simple squamous epithelium, which permits rapid diffusion of
oxygen and carbon dioxide. Exchange of gases between the air in the lungs and the blood in the capillaries occurs
across the walls of the alveolar ducts and alveoli.
Lungs
The two lungs, which contain all the components of the bronchial tree beyond the primary bronchi, occupy most of
the space in the thoracic cavity. The lungs are soft and spongy because they are mostly air spaces surrounded by
the alveolar cells and elastic connective tissue. They are separated from each other by the mediastinum, which
contains the heart. The only point of attachment for each lung is at the hilum, or root, on the medial side. This is
where the bronchi, blood vessels, lymphatics, and nerves enter the lungs.
The right lung is shorter, broader, and has a greater volume than the left lung. It is divided into three lobes and each
lobe is supplied by one of the secondary bronchi. The left lung is longer and narrower than the right lung. It has an
indentation, called the cardiac notch, on its medial surface for the apex of the heart. The left lung has two lobes.
Each lung is enclosed by a double-layered serous membrane, called the pleura. The visceral pleura is firmly
attached to the surface of the lung. At the hilum, the visceral pleura is continuous with the parietal pleura that lines
the wall of the thorax. The small space between the visceral and parietal pleurae is the pleural cavity. It contains a
thin film of serous fluid that is produced by the pleura. The fluid acts as a lubricant to reduce friction as the two
layers slide against each other, and it helps to hold the two layers together as the lungs inflate and deflate.
Learning Activities
I.
Using the key choices, select the terms identified in the following descriptions by inserting the appropriate term or
letter in the answer blanks.
Key Choices:
A. Alveoli
D. Epiglottis
G. Palate
B. Bronchioles E. Esophagus H. Parietal pleura
K. Trachea
C. Conchae
F. Glottis
I. Phrenic
B or bronchioles.
G or palate.
I or phrenic.
E or esophagus.
D or epiglottis.
K or trachea.
A or alveoli.
H or parietal pleura.
L or visceral pleura.
F or glottis.
C or conchae.
J. Main bronchi M. Vocal cords
L. Visceral pleura
1. Smallest conducting respiratory passageways
2. Separates the oral and nasal cavities
3. Major nerve, stimulating the diaphragm
4. Food passageway posterior to the trachea
5. Closes off the larynx during swallowing
6. Windpipe
7. Actual site of gas exchanges
8. Pleural layer covering the thorax walls
9. Pleural layer covering the lungs
10. Opening between vocal folds
11. Fleshy lobes in the nasal cavity which increase its surface area
M or vocal cords.
12. Vibrate with expired air
II.
Using the key choices, select the terms identified in the following descriptions by inserting the appropriate term or
letter in the answer blanks.
Key Choices:
A. Atmospheric pressure
B. Intrapulmonary pressure
C. Intrapleural pressure
C or intrapleural pressure. 1. In healthy lungs, it is always lower than atmospheric pressure
(that is, it is negative pressure)
A or atmospheric pressure. 2. Pressure of air outside the body
B or intrapulmonary pressure. 3. As it decreases, air flows into the passageways of the lungs
B or intrapulmonary pressure. 4. As it increases over atmospheric pressure, air flows out
of the lungs
C or intrapleural pressure. 5. If this pressure becomes equal to the atmospheric pressure,
the lungs collapse
B or intrapulmonary pressure. 6. Rises well over atmospheric pressure during a forceful cough
B or intrapulmonary pressure. 7. Also known as intra-alveolar pressure
III.
Use the key choices to respond to the following descriptions. Insert the correct term or letter in the answer blanks.
Key Choices:
A. External respiration
B. Expiration
C. Inspiration
E. Ventilation (breathing)
D. Internal respiration
C or inspiration.
1. Period of breathing when air enters the lungs
D or internal respiration. 2. Exchange of gases between the systemic capillary blood
and body cells
E or ventilation.
3. Alternate flushing of air into and out of the lungs
A or external respiration. 4. Exchange of gases between alveolar air and pulmonary
capillary blood
B or expiration.
5. Period of breathing when air leaves the lungs
s
Mastery Test
B, D. 1. Structures that are part of the respiratory zone include:
A. terminal bronchioles
B. respiratory bronchioles
C. tertiary bronchi
D. alveolar ducts
B, C, D. 2. Which structures are associated with the production of speech?
A. Cricoid cartilage
C. Arytenoid cartilage
B. Glottis
D. Pharynx
A. 3. The skeleton of the external nose consists of:
A. cartilage and bone
B. bone only
C. hyaline cartilage only
D. elastic cartilage only
C. 4. The respiratory zone function is:
A. conduction
B. moistening of airC. gaseous exchange
D. warming of air
C. 5. Where does the pharyngotympanic tube drain into?
A. Oropharynx
C. Nasopharynx
B. Larynx
D. Laryngopharynx
A. 6. The function of the cuboid cells of the alveolar walls is:
A. to produce surfactant
B. to propel mucous sheets
C. phagocytosis of dust particles
D. to allow rapid diffusion of respiratory gases
D. 7. An examination of a lobe of the lung reveals many branches off the main
passageway.
These branches are:
A. main bronchi
C. tertiary bronchi
B. lobar bronchi
D. segmental bronchi
C. 8. What feature can be used to allow
alternate routes for air if bronchioles become
blocked?
A. Alveolar ducts
B. Alveolar sacs
C. Alveolar pores
D. Terminal bronchioles
A. 9. The respiratory membrane (air-blood barrier) consists of:
A. squamous cells, basal membranes, endothelial cells
B. air, connective tissue, lung
C. squamous and cuboidal epithelial cells and macrophages
D. pseudostratified epithelium, lamina pro- pria, capillaries
A. 10. Carbon dioxide is largely transported in the blood as:
A. bicarbonate ions
B. carbon monoxide
C. carbonic acid
D. free gas
A,C. 11. The basic rate of breathing is set by the:
A. ventral respiratory group
B. cerebellum
C. dorsal respiratory group
D. diaphragm
B. 12. Emphysema is characterized by:
A. excess mucus
B. destruction of alveolar walls
C. increased elasticity
D. chronic cough
D. 13. When the inspiratory muscles contract,
A. the size of the thoracic cavity increases in diameter
B. the size of the thoracic cavity increases in length
C. the volume of the thoracic cavity decreases
D. the size of the thoracic cavity increases in both length and diameter
B. 14. Lung collapse is prevented by:
A. high surface tension of alveolar fluidB. high surface tension of pleural fluid
C. high pressure in the pleural cavities
D. high elasticity of lung tissue
B, C, D. 15. Resistance is increased by:
A. epinephrine
B. parasympathetic stimulation
C. inflammatory chemicals
D. contraction of the trachealis muscle
C. 16. Which of the following changes accompanies the loss of elasticity associated with
aging?
A. Increase in tidal volume
B. Increase in inspiratory reserve volume
C. Increase in residual volume
D. Increase in vital capacity
UNIT 8
The Digestive System
Learning Outcomes
At the end of this lesson, you will be able to:



describe the structure and function of the organs of the digestive system;
define the different process in the digestive system; and
explain the roles of enzymes and gastric secretions in digestion.
Pretest
Complete the following statements by inserting your answers in the answer blanks.
The digestive system is responsible for many body processes. Its functions begin when food is taken into the
mouth, or Oral cavity. The process called Digestion occurs as food is broken down both chemically and
mechanically. For the broken-down foods to be made available to the body cells, they must be absorbed through
the digestive system walls into the Blood. Undigestible food remains are removed, or Eliminated or excreted,
from the body in Feces. The organs forming a continuous tube from the mouth to the anus are collectively called
the Alimentary canal or GI tract. Organs located outside the digestive tract proper, which secrete their products
into the digestive tract, are referred to as Accessory digestive system organs.
Content
The digestive system includes the digestive tract and its accessory organs, which process food into molecules that
can be absorbed and utilized by the cells of the body. Food is broken down, bit by bit, until the molecules are small
enough to be absorbed and the waste products are eliminated. The digestive tract, also called the alimentary canal
or gastrointestinal (GI) tract, consists of a long continuous tube that extends from the mouth to the anus. It includes
the mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, and large intestine. The tongue and teeth are accessory
structures located in the mouth. The salivary glands, liver, gallbladder, and pancreas are major accessory organs
that have a role in digestion. These organs secrete fluids into the digestive tract.
Food undergoes three types of processes in the body:
Digestion
Absorption
Elimination
Digestion and absorption occur in the digestive tract. After the nutrients are absorbed, they are available to all cells
in the body and are utilized by the body cells in metabolism.
The digestive system prepares nutrients for utilization by body cells through six activities, or functions.
Ingestion
The first activity of the digestive system is to take in food through the mouth. This process, called ingestion, has to
take place before anything else can happen.
Mechanical Digestion
The large pieces of food that are ingested have to be broken into smaller particles that can be acted upon by
various enzymes. This is mechanical digestion, which begins in the mouth with chewing or mastication and
continues with churning and mixing actions in the stomach.
Chemical Digestion
The complex molecules of carbohydrates, proteins, and fats are transformed by chemical digestion into smaller
molecules that can be absorbed and utilized by the cells. Chemical digestion, through a process called hydrolysis,
uses water and digestive enzymes to break down the complex molecules. Digestive enzymes speed up the
hydrolysis process, which is otherwise very slow.
Movements
After ingestion and mastication, the food particles move from the mouth into the pharynx, then into the esophagus.
This movement is deglutition, or swallowing. Mixing movements occur in the stomach as a result of smooth muscle
contraction. These repetitive contractions usually occur in small segments of the digestive tract and mix the food
particles with enzymes and other fluids. The movements that propel the food particles through the digestive tract
are called peristalsis. These are rhythmic waves of contractions that move the food particles through the various
regions in which mechanical and chemical digestion takes place.
Absorption
The simple molecules that result from chemical digestion pass through cell membranes of the lining in the small
intestine into the blood or lymph capillaries. This process is called absorption.
Elimination
The food molecules that cannot be digested or absorbed need to be eliminated from the body. The removal of
indigestible wastes through the anus, in the form of feces, is defecation or elimination.
General Structure of the Digestive System
The long continuous tube that is the digestive tract is about 9 meters in length. It opens to the outside at both ends,
through the mouth at one end and through the anus at the other. Although there are variations in each region, the
basic structure of the wall is the same throughout the entire length of the tube.
The wall of the digestive tract has four layers or tunics:
Mucosa
Submucosa
Muscular layer
Serous layer or serosa
The mucosa, or mucous membrane layer, is the innermost tunic of the wall. It lines the lumen of the digestive tract.
The mucosa consists of epithelium, an underlying loose connective tissue layer called lamina propria, and a thin
layer of smooth muscle called the muscularis mucosa. In certain regions, the mucosa develops folds that increase
the surface area. Certain cells in the mucosa secrete mucus, digestive enzymes, and hormones. Ducts from other
glands pass through the mucosa to the lumen. In the mouth and anus, where thickness for protection against
abrasion is needed, the epithelium is stratified squamous tissue. The stomach and intestines have a thin simple
columnar epithelial layer for secretion and absorption.
The submucosa is a thick layer of loose connective tissue that surrounds the mucosa. This layer also contains
blood vessels, lymphatic vessels, and nerves. Glands may be embedded in this layer.
The smooth muscle responsible for movements of the digestive tract is arranged in two layers, an inner circular
layer and an outer longitudinal layer. The myenteric plexus is between the two muscle layers.
Above the diaphragm, the outermost layer of the digestive tract is a connective tissue called adventitia. Below the
diaphragm, it is called serosa.
Regions of the Digestive System
At its simplest, the digestive system is a tube running from mouth to anus. Its chief goal is to break down huge
macromolecules (proteins, fats and starch), which cannot be absorbed intact, into smaller molecules (amino acids,
fatty acids and glucose) that can be absorbed across the wall of the tube, and into the circulatory system for
dissemination throughout the body.
Regions of the digestive system can be divided into two main parts: the alimentary tract and accessory organs. The
alimentary tract of the digestive system is composed of the mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small and large
intestines, rectum and anus. Associated with the alimentary tract are the following accessory organs: salivary
glands, liver, gallbladder, and pancreas.
Alimentary Tract of the Digestive System
Mouth
The mouth, or oral cavity, is the first part of the digestive tract. It is adapted to receive food by ingestion, break it
into small particles by mastication, and mix it with saliva. The lips, cheeks, and palate form the boundaries. The oral
cavity contains the teeth and tongue and receives the secretions from the salivary glands.
Lips and Cheeks
The lips and cheeks help hold food in the mouth and keep it in place for chewing. They are also used in the
formation of words for speech. The lips contain numerous sensory receptors that are useful for judging the
temperature and texture of foods.
Palate
The palate is the roof of the oral cavity. It separates the oral cavity from the nasal cavity. The anterior portion, the
hard palate, is supported by bone. The posterior portion, the soft palate, is skeletal muscle and connective tissue.
Posteriorly, the soft palate ends in a projection called the uvula. During swallowing, the soft palate and uvula move
upward to direct food away from the nasal cavity and into the oropharynx.
Tongue
The tongue manipulates food in the mouth and is used in speech. The surface is covered with papillae that provide
friction and contain the taste buds.
Teeth
A complete set of deciduous (primary) teeth contains 20 teeth. There are 32 teeth in a complete permanent
(secondary) set. The shape of each tooth type corresponds to the way it handles food.
Pharynx
Food is forced into the pharynx by the tongue. When food reaches the opening, sensory receptors around the
fauces respond and initiate an involuntary swallowing reflex. This reflex action has several parts. The uvula is
elevated to prevent food from entering the nasopharynx. The epiglottis drops downward to prevent food from
entering the larynx and trachea in order to direct the food into the esophagus. Peristaltic movements propel the food
from the pharynx into the esophagus.
Esophagus
The esophagus is a collapsible muscular tube that serves as a passageway between the pharynx and stomach. As
it descends, it is posterior to the trachea and anterior to the vertebral column. It passes through an opening in the
diaphragm, called the esophageal hiatus, and then empties into the stomach. The mucosa has glands that secrete
mucus to keep the lining moist and well lubricated to ease the passage of food. Upper and lower esophageal
sphincters control the movement of food into and out of the esophagus. The lower esophageal sphincter is
sometimes called the cardiac sphincter and resides at the esophagogastric junction.
Stomach
The stomach, which receives food from the esophagus, is located in the upper left quadrant of the abdomen. The
stomach is divided into the fundic, cardiac, body, and pyloric regions. The lesser and greater curvatures are on the
right and left sides, respectively, of the stomach.
Gastric Secretions
The mucosal lining of the stomach is simple columnar epithelium with numerous tubular gastric glands. The gastric
glands open to the surface of the mucosa through tiny holes called gastric pits. Four different types of cells make up
the gastric glands:
Mucous cells
Parietal cells
Chief cells
Endocrine cells
The secretions of the exocrine gastric glands - composed of the mucous, parietal, and chief cells - make up the
gastric juice. The products of the endocrine cells are secreted directly into the bloodstream and are not a part of the
gastric juice. The endocrine cells secrete the hormone gastrin, which functions in the regulation of gastric activity.
Regulation of Gastric Secretions
The regulation of gastric secretion is accomplished through neural and hormonal mechanisms. Gastric juice is
produced all the time but the amount varies subject to the regulatory factors. Regulation of gastric secretions may
be divided into cephalic, gastric, and intestinal phases. Thoughts and smells of food start the cephalic phase of
gastric secretion; the presence of food in the stomach initiates the gastric phase; and the presence of acid chyme in
the small intestine begins the intestinal phase.
Stomach Emptying
Relaxation of the pyloric sphincter allows chyme to pass from the stomach into the small intestine. The rate of which
this occurs depends on the nature of the chyme and the receptivity of the small intestine.
Small & Large Intestine
The small intestine extends from the pyloric sphincter to the ileocecal valve, where it empties into the large
intestine. The small intestine finishes the process of digestion, absorbs the nutrients, and passes the residue on to
the large intestine. The liver, gallbladder, and pancreas are accessory organs of the digestive system that are
closely associated with the small intestine.
The small intestine is divided into the duodenum, jejunum, and ileum. The small intestine follows the general
structure of the digestive tract in that the wall has a mucosa with simple columnar epithelium, submucosa, smooth
muscle with inner circular and outer longitudinal layers, and serosa. The absorptive surface area of the small
intestine is increased by plicae circulares, villi, and microvilli.
Exocrine cells in the mucosa of the small intestine secrete mucus, peptidase, sucrase, maltase, lactase, lipase, and
enterokinase. Endocrine cells secrete cholecystokinin and secretin.
The most important factor for regulating secretions in the small intestine is the presence of chyme. This is largely a
local reflex action in response to chemical and mechanical irritation from the chyme and in response to distention of
the intestinal wall. This is a direct reflex action, thus the greater the amount of chyme, the greater the secretion.
The large intestine is larger in diameter than the small intestine. It begins at the ileocecal junction, where the ileum
enters the large intestine, and ends at the anus. The large intestine consists of the colon, rectum, and anal canal.
The wall of the large intestine has the same types of tissue that are found in other parts of the digestive tract but
there are some distinguishing characteristics. The mucosa has a large number of goblet cells but does not have any
villi. The longitudinal muscle layer, although present, is incomplete. The longitudinal muscle is limited to three
distinct bands, called teniae coli, that run the entire length of the colon. Contraction of the teniae coli exerts
pressure on the wall and creates a series of pouches, called haustra, along the colon. Epiploic appendages, pieces
of fat-filled connective tissue, are attached to the outer surface of the colon.
Unlike the small intestine, the large intestine produces no digestive enzymes. Chemical digestion is completed in
the small intestine before the chyme reaches the large intestine. Functions of the large intestine include the
absorption of water and electrolytes and the elimination of feces.
Rectum and Anus
The rectum continues from the sigmoid colon to the anal canal and has a thick muscular layer. It follows the
curvature of the sacrum and is firmly attached to it by connective tissue. The rectum ends about 5 cm below the tip
of the coccyx, at the beginning of the anal canal.
The last 2 to 3 cm of the digestive tract is the anal canal, which continues from the rectum and opens to the outside
at the anus. The mucosa of the rectum is folded to form longitudinal anal columns. The smooth muscle layer is thick
and forms the internal anal sphincter at the superior end of the anal canal. This sphincter is under involuntary
control. There is an external anal sphincter at the inferior end of the anal canal. This sphincter is composed of
skeletal muscle and is under voluntary control.
Accessory Organs of the Digestive System
The salivary glands, liver, gallbladder, and pancreas are not part of the digestive tract, but they have a role in
digestive activities and are considered accessory organs.
Salivary Glands
Three pairs of major salivary glands (parotid, submandibular, and sublingual glands) and numerous smaller ones
secrete saliva into the oral cavity, where it is mixed with food during mastication. Saliva contains water, mucus, and
enzyme amylase. Functions of saliva include the following:
It has a cleansing action on the teeth.
It moistens and lubricates food during mastication and swallowing.
It dissolves certain molecules so that food can be tasted.
It begins the chemical digestion of starches through the action of amylase, which breaks down polysaccharides into
disaccharides.
Liver
The liver is located primarily in the right hypochondriac and epigastric regions of the abdomen, just beneath the
diaphragm. It is the largest gland in the body. On the surface, the liver is divided into two major lobes and two
smaller lobes. The functional units of the liver are lobules with sinusoids that carry blood from the periphery to the
central vein of the lobule.
The liver receives blood from two sources. Freshly oxygenated blood is brought to the liver by the common hepatic
artery, a branch of the celiac trunk from the abdominal aorta. Blood that is rich in nutrients from the digestive tract is
carried to the liver by the hepatic portal vein.
The liver has a wide variety of functions and many of these are vital to life. Hepatocytes perform most of the
functions attributed to the liver, but the phagocytic Kupffer cells that line the sinusoids are responsible for cleansing
the blood.
Liver functions include the following:
secretion
synthesis of bile salts
synthesis of plasma protein
storage
detoxification
excretion
carbohyrate metabolism
lipid metabolism
protein metabolism
filtering
Gallbladder
The gallbladder is a pear-shaped sac that is attached to the visceral surface of the liver by the cystic duct. The
principal function of the gallbladder is to serve as a storage reservoir for bile. Bile is a yellowish-green fluid
produced by liver cells. The main components of bile are water, bile salts, bile pigments, and cholesterol.
Bile salts act as emulsifying agents in the digestion and absorption of fats. Cholesterol and bile pigments from the
breakdown of hemoglobin are excreted from the body in the bile.
Pancreas
The pancreas has both endocrine and exocrine functions. The endocrine portion consists of the scattered islets of
Langerhans, which secrete the hormones insulin and glucagon into the blood. The exocrine portion is the major part
of the gland. It consists of pancreatic acinar cells that secrete digestive enzymes into tiny ducts interwoven between
the cells. Pancreatic enzymes include anylase, trypsin, peptidase, and lipase. Pancreatic secretions are controlled
by the hormones secretin and cholecystokinin.
Learning Activities
I.
Various types of glands secrete substances into the alimentary tube. Match the glands listed in Column B to the
functions/locations described in Column A. Place the correct term or letter response in the answer blanks.
Column A
Column B
B or intestinal glands.
E or salivary glands.
D or pancreas.
C or liver.
A or gastric glands.
1. Produce an enzyme-poor “juice”
containing mucus; found in the
submucosa of the small intestine
2. Secretion includes amylase, which
begins starch digestion in the mouth
3. Ducts a variety of enzymes in an
alkaline fluid into the duodenum
4. Produces bile, which is transported
to the duodenum via the bile duct
5. Produce hydrochloric acid and
pepsinogen
A. Gastric glands
B. Intestinal glands
C. Liver
D. Pancreas
E. Salivary glands
II.
Using the key choices, select the terms identified in the following descriptions by inserting the appropriate term or
letter in the answer blanks.
Key Choices:
A. Anal canal
B. Appendix
C. Colon
D. Esophagus
E. Greater omentum
F. Hard palate
G. Haustra
H. Ileocecal valve
I. Lesser omentum
J. Mesentery
X. Villi
N. Peyer’s patches
J. Mesentery
R. Rugae
K. Microvilli
S. Small intestine
L. Oral cavity
T. Soft palate
M. Parietal peritoneum
U. Stomach
N. Peyer’s patches
V. Tongue
O. Pharynx
W. Vestibule
P. Plicae circulares
X. Villi
Q. Pyloric sphincter (valve)
Y. Visceral peritoneum
1. Structure that suspends the small intestine from the posterior body wall
2. Finger-like extensions of the intestinal mucosa that increase the surface area
3. Collections of lymphatic tissue found in the submucosa of the
small intestine
P. Plicae circulares
4. Folds of the small intestine wall
L. Oral cavity; U. Stomach
5. Two anatomical regions involved in the mechanical breakdown of food
V. Tongue
6. Organ that mixes food in the mouth
O. Pharynx
7. Common passage for food and air
I. Lesser omentum
8. Three extensions/modifications of the peritoneum
E. Greater omentum
and
J. Mesentery
,
D. Esophagus
9. Literally a food chute; has no digestive or absorptive role
R. Rugae
10. Folds of the stomach mucosa
G. Haustra
11. Saclike outpocketings of the large intestine wall
K. Microvilli
12. Projections of the plasma membrane of a cell that increase the cell’s
surface area
H. Ileocecal valve
13. Prevents food from moving back into the small intestine once it has entered the
large intestine
S. Small intestine
14. Organ responsible for most food and water absorption
C. Colon
15. Organ primarily involved in water absorption and feces formation
W. Vestibule
16. Area between the teeth and lips/cheeks
B. Appendix
17. Blind sac hanging from the initial part of the colon
U. Stomach
18. Organ in which protein digestion begins
I. Lesser omentum
19. Membrane attached to the lesser curvature of the stomach
S. Small intestine
20. Organ into which the stomach empties
Q. Pyloric sphincter (valve) 21. Sphincter controlling the movement of food from the stomach into the duodenum
T. Soft palate
22. Uvula hangs from its posterior edge
S. Small intestine
23. Organ that receives pancreatic juice and bile
M. Parietal peritoneum
24. Serosa of the abdominal cavity wall
A. Anal canal
25. Region, containing two sphincters, through which feces are
F. Hard palate
Y. Visceral peritoneum
expelled from the body
26. Anterosuperior boundary of the oral cavity; supported by bone
27. Serous membrane forming part of the wall of the small intestine
Mastery Test
A,C,D. 1. Which of the following terms are synonyms?
A. Gastrointestinal tract
B. Digestive system
C. Digestive tract
D. Alimentary canal
B. 2. A digestive organ that is not part of the ali­ mentary canal is the:
A. stomach
D. large intestine
B. liver
E. pharynx
C. small intestine
C. 3. The GI tube layer responsible for the
actions of segmentation and peristalsis is:
A. serosa
C. muscularis externa
B. mucosa
D. submucosa
D. 4. Which alimentary canal tunic has the great­ est abundance of lymph nodules?
A. Mucosa
C. Serosa
B. Muscularis
D. Submucosa
A,B,C,D. 5. Proteins secreted in saliva include:
A. mucin
C. lysozyme
B. amylase
D. IgA
C. 6. The closure of which valve is assisted by the diaphragm?
A. Ileocecal
B. Pyloric
C. Gastroesophageal
D. Upper esophageal
C. 7. Smooth muscle is found in the:
A. tongue
B. pharynx
C. esophagus
D. external anal sphincter
D. 8. Which of these organs lies in the right hypochondriac region of the abdomen?
A. Stomach
C. Cecum
B. Spleen
D. Liver
A,B. 9. Which phases of gastric secretion depend (at least in part) on the vagus nerve?
A. Cephalic
B. Gastric
C. Intestinal (stimulatory)
D. Intestinal (inhibitory)
A,C,D. 10. Which of the following are tied to sodium transport?
A. Glucose
B. Fructose
C. Galactose
D. Amino acids
C. 11. Excess iron is stored primarily in the:
A. liver
B. bone marrow
C. duodenal epithelium
D. blood
D. 12. A 3­year­old girl was rewarded with a hug because she was now completely toilet
Which muscle had she learned to control?
trained.
A. Levator ani
B. Internal anal sphincter
C. Internal and external obliques
D. External anal sphincter
B. 13. Which cell type fits this description? It
occurs in the stomach mucosa, contains
mitochondria and many microvilli, and pumps hydrogen ions.
A. Absorptive cell
C. Goblet cell
B. Parietal cell
D. Mucous neck cell
B,D. 14. Which of the following are “essential” nutrients?
A. Glucose
C. Cholesterol
B. Linoleic acid
D. Leucine
D. 15. Deficiency of which of these vitamins results in anemia?
A. Thiamin
C. Biotin
B. Riboflavin
D. Folic acid
A,B,C,D. 16. Vitamins that act as coenzymes in the Krebs cycle include:
A. riboflavin
C. biotin
B. niacin
D. pantothenic acid
A,C. 17. Substrate­level phosphorylation occurs during:
A. glycolysis
C. Krebs cycle
B. beta­oxidation
D. electron transport
A,B. 18. Chemicals that can be used for gluconeo­ genesis include:
A. amino acids
B. glycerol
C. fatty acids
D. alpha­ketoglutaric acid
A,B,C,D. 19. The chemiosmotic process involves:
A. buildup of hydrogen ion concentration
B. electron transport
C. oxidation and reduction
D. ATP synthase
B,D. 20. Only the liver functions to:
A. store iron
B. form urea
abundant
C. produce plasma proteins
D. form ketone bodies
B,D. 21. Which events occur during the absorptive state?
A. Use of amino acids as a major source of energy
B. Lipogenesis
C. Beta­oxidation
D. Increased uptake of glucose by skeletal muscles
A. 22. Hormones that act to decrease blood glucose level include:
A. insulin
C. epinephrine
B. glucagon
D. growth hormone
B,C,D. 23. During the postabsorptive state:
A. glycogenesis occurs in the liver
B. fatty acids are used for fuel
C. amino acids are converted to glucose
D. lipolysis occurs in adipose tissue
A. 24. Which transport particles carry cholesterol destined for excretion from the body?
A. HDL
C. LDL
B. Chylomicron
D. VLDL (very low­
density lipoprotein)
A,B,C. 25. Glucose (or its metabolites) can be converted to:
A. glycogen
B. triglycerides
C. nonessential amino acids
D. starch
C. 26. Basal metabolic rate:
A. is the lowest metabolic rate of the body
B. is the metabolic rate during sleep
C. is measured as kcal per square meter of skin per hour
D. increases with age
D. 27. Which of the following types of heat trans­
A. Conduction
B. Convection
fer involves heat loss in the form of infrared waves?
C. Evaporation
D. Radiation
D. 28. PKU is the result of inability to metabolize:
A. tyrosine
C. ketone bodies
B. melanin
D. phenylalanine
UNIT 9
The Urinary System
Learning Outcomes
At the end of this lesson, you will be able to:



describe the parts of the urinary system and give the functions of each;
name the processes involved in urine formation; and
explain the significance of maintaining fluid and electrolyte balances.
Pretest
The kidney is referred to as an excretory organ because it excretes nitrogenous wastes. It is also a major
homeostatic organ because it maintains the electrolyte, water and acid-base balance of the blood. Urine is
continuously formed by the kidneys and is routed down the ureters by the mechanism of peristalsis to a storage
organ called the urinary bladder. Eventually the urine is conducted to the body exterior by the exterior. In males,
this tubelike structure is about 7.1 to 7.9 inches long; in females, it is approximately 1.5 inches long.
Content
The principal function of the urinary system is to maintain the volume and composition of body fluids within normal
limits. One aspect of this function is to rid the body of waste products that accumulate as a result of cellular
metabolism, and, because of this, it is sometimes referred to as the excretory system.
Although the urinary system has a major role in excretion, other organs contribute to the excretory function. The
lungs in the respiratory system excrete some waste products, such as carbon dioxide and water. The skin is
another excretory organ that rids the body of wastes through the sweat glands. The liver and intestines excrete bile
pigments that result from the destruction of hemoglobin. The major task of excretion still belongs to the urinary
system. If it fails the other organs cannot take over and compensate adequately.
The urinary system maintains an appropriate fluid volume by regulating the amount of water that is excreted in the
urine. Other aspects of its function include regulating the concentrations of various electrolytes in the body fluids
and maintaining normal pH of the blood.
In addition to maintaining fluid homeostasis in the body, the urinary system controls red blood cell production by
secreting the hormone erythropoietin. The urinary system also plays a role in maintaining normal blood pressure by
secreting the enzyme renin.
Components of the Urinary System
The urinary system consists of the kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, and urethra. The kidneys form the urine and
account for the other functions attributed to the urinary system. The ureters carry the urine away from kidneys to the
urinary bladder, which is a temporary reservoir for the urine. The urethra is a tubular structure that carries the urine
from the urinary bladder to the outside.
Kidneys
Ureters
Urinary Bladder
Urethra
Kidneys
The kidneys are the primary organs of the urinary system. The kidneys are the organs that filter the blood, remove
the wastes, and excrete the wastes in the urine. They are the organs that perform the functions of the urinary
system. The other components are accessory structures to eliminate the urine from the body.
The paired kidneys are located between the twelfth thoracic and third lumbar vertebrae, one on each side of the
vertebral column. The right kidney usually is slightly lower than the left because the liver displaces it downward. The
kidneys, protected by the lower ribs, lie in shallow depressions against the posterior abdominal wall and behind the
parietal peritoneum. This means they are retroperitoneal. Each kidney is held in place by connective tissue, called
renal fascia, and is surrounded by a thick layer of adipose tissue, called perirenal fat, which helps to protect it. A
tough, fibrous, connective tissue renal capsule closely envelopes each kidney and provides support for the soft
tissue that is inside.
In the adult, each kidney is approximately 3 cm thick, 6 cm wide, and 12 cm long. It is roughly bean-shaped with an
indentation, called the hilum, on the medial side. The hilum leads to a large cavity, called the renal sinus, within the
kidney. The ureter and renal vein leave the kidney, and the renal artery enters the kidney at the hilum.
The outer, reddish region, next to the capsule, is the renal cortex. This surrounds a darker reddish-brown region
called the renal medulla. The renal medulla consists of a series of renal pyramids, which appear striated because
they contain straight tubular structures and blood vessels. The wide bases of the pyramids are adjacent to the
cortex and the pointed ends, called renal papillae, are directed toward the center of the kidney. Portions of the renal
cortex extend into the spaces between adjacent pyramids to form renal columns. The cortex and medulla make up
the parenchyma, or functional tissue, of the kidney.
The central region of the kidney contains the renal pelvis, which is located in the renal sinus, and is continuous with
the ureter. The renal pelvis is a large cavity that collects the urine as it is produced. The periphery of the renal pelvis
is interrupted by cuplike projections called calyces. A minor calyx surrounds the renal papillae of each pyramid and
collects urine from that pyramid. Several minor calyces converge to form a major calyx. From the major calyces, the
urine flows into the renal pelvis; and from there, it flows into the ureter.
Each kidney contains over a million functional units, called nephrons, in the parenchyma (cortex and medulla). A
nephron has two parts: a renal corpuscle and a renal tubule.The renal corpuscle consists of a cluster of capillaries,
called the glomerulus, surrounded by a double-layered epithelial cup, called the glomerular capsule. An afferent
arteriole leads into the renal corpuscle and an efferent arteriole leaves the renal corpuscle. Urine passes from the
nephrons into collecting ducts then into the minor calyces.
The juxtaglomerular apparatus, which monitors blood pressure and secretes renin, is formed from modified cells in
the afferent arteriole and the ascending limb of the nephron loop.
Ureters
Each ureter is a small tube, about 25 cm long, that carries urine from the renal pelvis to the urinary bladder. It
descends from the renal pelvis, along the posterior abdominal wall, which is behind the parietal peritoneum, and
enters the urinary bladder on the posterior inferior surface.
The wall of the ureter consists of three layers. The outer layer, the fibrous coat, is a supporting layer of fibrous
connective tissue. The middle layer, the muscular coat, consists of the inner circular and outer longitudinal smooth
muscle. The main function of this layer is peristalsis: to propel the urine. The inner layer, the mucosa, is transitional
epithelium that is continuous with the lining of the renal pelvis and the urinary bladder. This layer secretes mucus,
which coats and protects the surface of the cells.
Urinary Bladder
The urinary bladder is a temporary storage reservoir for urine. It is located in the pelvic cavity, posterior to the
symphysis pubis, and below the parietal peritoneum. The size and shape of the urinary bladder varies with the
amount of urine it contains and with the pressure it receives from surrounding organs.
The inner lining of the urinary bladder is a mucous membrane of transitional epithelium that is continuous with that
in the ureters. When the bladder is empty, the mucosa has numerous folds called rugae. The rugae and transitional
epithelium allow the bladder to expand as it fills.
The second layer in the walls is the submucosa, which supports the mucous membrane. It is composed of
connective tissue with elastic fibers.
The next layer is the muscularis, which is composed of smooth muscle. The smooth muscle fibers are interwoven in
all directions and, collectively, these are called the detrusor muscle. Contraction of this muscle expels urine from
the bladder. On the superior surface, the outer layer of the bladder wall is parietal peritoneum. In all other regions,
the outer layer is fibrous connective tissue.
There is a triangular area, called the trigone, formed by three openings in the floor of the urinary bladder. Two of the
openings are from the ureters and form the base of the trigone. Small flaps of mucosa cover these openings and
act as valves that allow urine to enter the bladder but prevent it from backing up from the bladder into the ureters.
The third opening, at the apex of the trigone, is the opening into the urethra. A band of the detrusor muscle
encircles this opening to form the internal urethral sphincter.
Urethra
The final passageway for the flow of urine is the urethra, a thin-walled tube that conveys urine from the floor of the
urinary bladder to the outside. The opening to the outside is the external urethral orifice. The mucosal lining of the
urethra is transitional epithelium. The wall also contains smooth muscle fibers and is supported by connective
tissue.
The internal urethral sphincter surrounds the beginning of the urethra, where it leaves the urinary bladder. This
sphincter is smooth (involuntary) muscle. Another sphincter, the external urethral sphincter, is skeletal (voluntary)
muscle and encircles the urethra where it goes through the pelvic floor. These two sphincters control the flow of
urine through the urethra.
In females, the urethra is short, only 3 to 4 cm (about 1.5 inches) long. The external urethral orifice opens to the
outside just anterior to the opening for the vagina.
In males, the urethra is much longer, about 20 cm (7 to 8 inches) in length, and transports both urine and semen.
The first part, next to the urinary bladder, passes through the prostate gland and is called the prostatic urethra. The
second part, a short region that penetrates the pelvic floor and enters the penis, is called the membranous urethra.
The third part, the spongy urethra, is the longest region. This portion of the urethra extends the entire length of the
penis, and the external urethral orifice opens to the outside at the tip of the penis.
Learning Activities
I.
Circle the term that does not belong in each of the following groupings.
1. Intraperitoneal
Kidney Retroperitoneal Superior lumbar region
2. Drains kidney
Ureter Urethra
3. Peritubular capillaries Reabsorption
4. Juxtaglomerular apparatus
7. Nephron
Glomerulus
Distal tubule
5. Glomerulus Peritubular capillaries
6. Cortical nephrons
Renal pelvis
Glomerulus
Proximal convoluted tubule
9. Glomerular capsule Podocytes
Afferent arteriole
Blood vessels Collecting duct
Juxtamedullary nephrons
8. Medullary pyramids Glomeruli
Low-pressure vessels
Cortex/medulla junction Long nephron loops
Distal convoluted tubule Collecting duct
Renal pyramids Collecting ducts
Nephron loop
Glomerulus
II.
Circle the term that does not belong in each of the following groupings.
1. Bladder
2. Trigone
Kidney Transitional epithelium Detrusor muscle
Ureter openings
3. Surrounded by prostate gland
Urethral opening
Male
Forms urine
Contains internal and external sphincters
Continuous with renal pelvis
4. Prostatic
Bladder
Urethra
Female Membranous
Spongy
III.
Using the key choices, identify the structures that best fit the following descriptions. Insert the correct term(s) or
corresponding letter(s) in the answer blanks.
Key Choices:
A. Bladder
B. Urethra
C. Ureter
B or urethra.
1. Drains the bladder
A or bladder.
2. Storage area for urine
A or bladder.
3. Contains the trigone
B or urethra.
4. In males has prostatic, membranous, and spongy parts
B or urethra.; C or ureter. 5. Conducts urine by peristalsis
B or urethra.
6. Substantially longer in males than in females
C or ureter.
7. A common site of “trapped” renal calculi
A or bladder; C or ureter. 8. Contains transitional epithelium
B or urethra. 9. Also transports sperm in males
Mastery Test
A, D. 1. A radiologist is examining an X-ray of the lumbar region of a patient. Which of the
(are) indicative of normal posi- tioning of the right kidney?
following is
A. Slightly lower than the left kidney
B. More medial than the left kidney
C. Closer to the inferior vena cava than the left kidney
D. Anterior to the 12th rib
_A. 2. Which of the following encloses both kidney and adrenal gland?
A. Renal fascia
B. Perirenal fat capsule
C. Fibrous capsule
D. Visceral peritoneum
D. 3. Microscopic examination of a section of the kidney shows a thick-walled vessel with
renal
corpuscles scattered in the tissue on one side of the vessel but not on the other side. What vessel is
this?
A. Interlobar artery
B. Cortical radiate artery
C. Cortical radiate vein
D. Arcuate artery
B, C, D. 4. Structures that are at least partly composed of simple squamous epithelium include:
A. collecting ducts
B. glomerulus
C. glomerular capsule
D. nephron loop
C. 5. Where are glucose and amino acids reab-sorbed?
A. Descending limb of nephron loop
B. Glomerulus
C. Proximal convoluted tubule
D. Distal convoluted tubule
C. 6. Which process is used to excrete sodium ions?
A. Osmosis
B. Facilitated diffusion
C. Active transport
D. Passive diffusion
C. 7. What is the function of the juxtaglomerular apparatus?
A. Detects fall in blood pressure
B. Releases angiotensin
C. Releases renin
D. Releases aldosterone
B, 8. Urine passes through the ureters by which mechanism?
A. Ciliary action
B. Peristalsis
C. Gravity alone
D. Suction
A, D. 9. Sodium deficiency hampers reabsorption of:
A. glucose
B. albumin
C. creatinine
D. water
D. 10. The main function of transitional epithelium in the ureter is:
A. protection against kidney stones
B. secretion of mucus
C. reabsorption
D. stretching
A.11. Jim was standing at a urinal in a crowded
public restroom and a long line was forming behind
him. He became anxious (sympathetic response) and found he could not micturate no matter
how hard he tried. Use logic to deduce Jim’s problem.
A. His internal urethral sphincter was con- stricted and would not relax.
B. His external urethral sphincter was con- stricted and would not relax.
C. His detrusor muscle was contracting too hard.
D. He almost certainly had a burst bladder.
C. 12. What is the typical urine output per day?
A. 150 mL
B. 500 mL
C. 1500 mL
D. 3000 mL
1.001-1.030 13. What is the normal range for urine specific gravity?
A. 500–1000 mL
B. pH 6.0–7.2
C. 60–80
D. 1.001–1.035
A. 14. The urinary bladder:
A. is lined with transitional epithelium
B. has a thick, muscular wall
C. receives the ureteral orifices at its superior aspect
D. is innervated by the renal plexus
C, D. 15. Which of the following are controlled voluntarily?
A. Detrusor muscle
B. Internal urethral sphincter
C. External urethral sphincter
D. Levator ani muscle
A, B, C. 16. In movement between IF and ICF:
A. water flow is bidirectional
B. nutrient flow is unidirectional
C. ion flow is selectively permitted
D. ion fluxes are not permitted
A,B,D. 17. Loss of water from the body via the lungs is termed as:
A. respiratory water loss
B. insensible water loss
C. micturition
D. respiratory diuresis
C,D. 18. The smallest fluid compartment is the:
A. ICF
C. plasma
B. ECF
D. IF
B, D. 19. Which of the following are electrolytes?
A. Glucose
B. Lactic acid
C. Urea
D. Bicarbonate
B. 20. Chloride ion reabsorption:
A. exactly parallels sodium ion reabsorption
B. fluctuates according to blood pH
C. increases during acidosis
D. is controlled directly by aldosterone
A, B, C, D. 21. Respiratory acidosis occurs in:
A. asthma
B. emphysema
C. barbiturate overdose
D. cystic fibrosis
A, B, C, D. 22. Hyperkalemia:
A. triggers secretion of aldosterone
B. may result from severe alcoholism
C. disturbs acid-base balance
D. results from widespread tissue injury
A, B, D. 23. Renal tubular secretion of potassium is:
A. obligatory
B. increased by aldosterone
C. balanced by tubular reabsorption
D. increased in alkalosis
C, D. 24. Which buffer system(s) is (are) not important urine buffers?
A. Phosphate
B. Ammonium
C. Protein
D. Bicarbonate
UNIT 10
The Endocrine System
Learning Outcomes
At the end of this lesson, you will be able to:



Pretest
identify the glands of the endocrine system;
list the hormones produced by each gland and describe the effects of each to the body; and
explain how hormones are regulated.
Complete the following statements by choosing answers from the key choices. Record the answers in the answer
blanks.
Key Choices:
A. Cardiovascular system
B. Hormones
C. More rapid
D. Nerve impulses
E. Nervous system
F. Slower and more prolonged
The endocrine system is a major controlling system in the body. Its means of control, however, is much (1) F.
Slower and more prolonged than that of the (2) E. Nervous system, the other major body system that acts to
maintain homeostasis. Perhaps the reason for this is that the endocrine system uses chemical messengers, called
(3) B. Hormones, instead of (4) D. Nerve impulses. These chemical messengers enter the blood and are carried
throughout the body by the activity of the (5) A. Cardiovascular system.
Content
The endocrine system, along with the nervous system, functions in the regulation of body activities. The nervous
system acts through electrical impulses and neurotransmitters to cause muscle contraction and glandular secretion.
The effect is of short duration, measured in seconds, and localized. The endocrine system acts through chemical
messengers called hormones that influence growth, development, and metabolic activities. The action of the
endocrine system is measured in minutes, hours, or weeks and is more generalized than the action of the nervous
system.
There are two major categories of glands in the body - exocrine and endocrine.
Exocrine Glands
Exocrine glands have ducts that carry their secretory product to a surface. These glands include the sweat,
sebaceous, and mammary glands and, the glands that secrete digestive enzymes.
Endocrine Glands
The endocrine glands do not have ducts to carry their product to a surface. They are called ductless glands. The
word endocrine is derived from the Greek terms "endo," meaning within, and "krine," meaning to separate or
secrete. The secretory products of endocrine glands are called hormones and are secreted directly into the blood
and then carried throughout the body where they influence only those cells that have receptor sites for that
hormone.
Characteristics of Hormones
Chemical Nature of Hormones
Chemically, hormones may be classified as either proteins or steroids. All of the hormones in the human body,
except the sex hormones and those from the adrenal cortex, are proteins or protein derivatives.
Mechanism of Hormone
Action Hormones are carried by the blood throughout the entire body, yet they affect only certain cells. The specific
cells that respond to a given hormone have receptor sites for that hormone. This is sort of a lock-and-key
mechanism. If the key fits the lock, then the door will open. If a hormone fits the receptor site, then there will be an
effect. If a hormone and a receptor site do not match, then there is no reaction. All the cells that have receptor sites
for a given hormone make up the target tissue for that hormone. In some cases, the target tissue is localized in a
single gland or organ. In other cases, the target tissue is diffuse and scattered throughout the body so that many
areas are affected. Hormones bring about their characteristic effects on target cells by modifying cellular activity.
Protein hormones react with receptors on the surface of the cell, and the sequence of events that results in
hormone action is relatively rapid. Steroid hormones typically react with receptor sites inside a cell. Because this
method of action actually involves synthesis of proteins, it is relatively slow.
Control of Hormone Action
Hormones are very potent substances, which means that very small amounts of a hormone may have profound
effects on metabolic processes. Because of their potency, hormone secretion must be regulated within very narrow
limits in order to maintain homeostasis in the body.
Many hormones are controlled by some form of a negative feedback mechanism. In this type of system, a gland is
sensitive to the concentration of a substance that it regulates. A negative feedback system causes a reversal of
increases and decreases in body conditions in order to maintain a state of stability or homeostasis. Some endocrine
glands secrete hormones in response to other hormones. The hormones that cause secretion of other hormones
are called tropic hormones. A hormone from gland A causes gland B to secrete its hormone. A third method of
regulating hormone secretion is by direct nervous stimulation. A nerve stimulus causes gland A to secrete its
hormone.
Endocrine Glands & Their Hormones
The endocrine system is made up of the endocrine glands that secrete hormones. Although there are eight major
endocrine glands scattered throughout the body, they are still considered to be one system because they have
similar functions, similar mechanisms of influence, and many important interrelationships.
Some glands also have non-endocrine regions that have functions other than hormone secretion. For example, the
pancreas has a major exocrine portion that secretes digestive enzymes and an endocrine portion that secretes
hormones. The ovaries and testes secrete hormones and also produce the ova and sperm. Some organs, such as
the stomach, intestines, and heart, produce hormones, but their primary function is not hormone secretion.
Pituitary & Pineal Glands
Pituitary Gland
The pituitary gland or hypophysis is a small gland about 1 centimeter in diameter or the size of a pea. It is nearly
surrounded by bone as it rests in the sella turcica, a depression in the sphenoid bone. The gland is connected to
the hypothalamus of the brain by a slender stalk called the infundibulum.
There are two distinct regions in the gland: the anterior lobe (adenohypophysis) and the posterior lobe
(neurohypophysis). The activity of the adenohypophysis is controlled by releasing hormones from the
hypothalamus. The neurohypophysis is controlled by nerve stimulation.
Hormones of the Anterior Lobe (Adenohypophysis)
Growth hormone is a protein that stimulates the growth of bones, muscles, and other organs by promoting protein
synthesis. This hormone drastically affects the appearance of an individual because it influences height. If there is
too little growth hormone in a child, that person may become a pituitary dwarf of normal proportions but small
stature. An excess of the hormone in a child results in an exaggerated bone growth, and the individual becomes
exceptionally tall or a giant.
Thyroid-stimulating hormone, or thyrotropin, causes the glandular cells of the thyroid to secrete thyroid
hormone. When there is a hypersecretion of thyroid-stimulating hormone, the thyroid gland enlarges and secretes
too much thyroid hormone.
Adrenocorticotropic hormone reacts with receptor sites in the cortex of the adrenal gland to stimulate the
secretion of cortical hormones, particularly cortisol.
Gonadotropic hormones react with receptor sites in the gonads, or ovaries and testes, to regulate the
development, growth, and function of these organs.
Prolactin hormone promotes the development of glandular tissue in the female breast during pregnancy and
stimulates milk production after the birth of the infant.
Hormones of the Posterior Lobe (Neurohypophysis)
Antidiuretic hormone promotes the reabsorption of water by the kidney tubules, with the result that less water is
lost as urine. This mechanism conserves water for the body. Insufficient amounts of antidiuretic hormone cause
excessive water loss in the urine.
Oxytocin causes contraction of the smooth muscle in the wall of the uterus. It also stimulates the ejection of milk
from the lactating breast.
Pineal Gland
The pineal gland, also called pineal body or epiphysis cerebri, is a small cone-shaped structure that extends
posteriorly from the third ventricle of the brain. The pineal gland consists of portions of neurons, neuroglial cells,
and specialized secretory cells called pinealocytes. The pinealocytes synthesize the hormone melatonin and
secrete it directly into the cerebrospinal fluid, which takes it into the blood. Melatonin affects reproductive
development and daily physiologic cycles.
Thyroid & Parathyroid Glands
Thyroid Gland
The thyroid gland is a very vascular organ that is located in the neck. It consists of two lobes, one on each side of
the trachea, just below the larynx or voice box. The two lobes are connected by a narrow band of tissue called the
isthmus. Internally, the gland consists of follicles, which produce thyroxine and triiodothyronine hormones. These
hormones contain iodine.
About 95 percent of the active thyroid hormone is thyroxine, and most of the remaining 5 percent is triiodothyronine.
Both of these require iodine for their synthesis. Thyroid hormone secretion is regulated by a negative feedback
mechanism that involves the amount of circulating hormone, hypothalamus, and adenohypophysis.
If there is an iodine deficiency, the thyroid cannot make sufficient hormone. This stimulates the anterior pituitary to
secrete thyroid-stimulating hormone, which causes the thyroid gland to increase in size in a vain attempt to produce
more hormones. But it cannot produce more hormones because it does not have the necessary raw material,
iodine. This type of thyroid enlargement is called simple goiter or iodine deficiency goiter.
Calcitonin is secreted by the parafollicular cells of the thyroid gland. This hormone opposes the action of the
parathyroid glands by reducing the calcium level in the blood. If blood calcium becomes too high, calcitonin is
secreted until calcium ion levels decrease to normal.
Parathyroid Gland
Four small masses of epithelial tissue are embedded in the connective tissue capsule on the posterior surface of
the thyroid glands. These are parathyroid glands, and they secrete parathyroid hormone or parathormone.
Parathyroid hormone is the most important regulator of blood calcium levels. The hormone is secreted in response
to low blood calcium levels, and its effect is to increase those levels.
Hypoparathyroidism, or insufficient secretion of parathyroid hormone, leads to increased nerve excitability. The low
blood calcium levels trigger spontaneous and continuous nerve impulses, which then stimulate muscle contraction.
Adrenal Gland
The adrenal, or suprarenal, gland is paired with one gland located near the upper portion of each kidney. Each
gland is divided into an outer cortex and an inner medulla. The cortex and medulla of the adrenal gland, like the
anterior and posterior lobes of the pituitary, develop from different embryonic tissues and secrete different
hormones. The adrenal cortex is essential to life, but the medulla may be removed with no life-threatening effects.
The hypothalamus of the brain influences both portions of the adrenal gland but by different mechanisms. The
adrenal cortex is regulated by negative feedback involving the hypothalamus and adrenocorticotropic hormone; the
medulla is regulated by nerve impulses from the hypothalamus.
Hormones of the Adrenal Cortex
The adrenal cortex consists of three different regions, with each region producing a different group or type of
hormones. Chemically, all the cortical hormones are steroid.
Mineralocorticoids are secreted by the outermost region of the adrenal cortex. The principal mineralocorticoid is
aldosterone, which acts to conserve sodium ions and water in the body.
Glucocorticoids are secreted by the middle region of the adrenal cortex. The principal glucocorticoid is cortisol,
which increases blood glucose levels.
The third group of steroids secreted by the adrenal cortex is the gonadocorticoids, or sex hormones. These are
secreted by the innermost region. Male hormones, androgens, and female hormones, estrogens, are secreted in
minimal amounts in both sexes by the adrenal cortex, but their effect is usually masked by the hormones from the
testes and ovaries. In females, the masculinization effect of androgen secretion may become evident after
menopause, when estrogen levels from the ovaries decrease.
Hormones of the Adrenal Medulla
The adrenal medulla develops from neural tissue and secretes two hormones, epinephrine and norepinephrine.
These two hormones are secreted in response to stimulation by sympathetic nerve, particularly during stressful
situations. A lack of hormones from the adrenal medulla produces no significant effects. Hypersecretion, usually
from a tumor, causes prolonged or continual sympathetic responses.
Pancreas—Islets of Langerhans
The pancreas is a long, soft organ that lies transversely along the posterior abdominal wall, posterior to the
stomach, and extends from the region of the duodenum to the spleen. This gland has an exocrine portion that
secretes digestive enzymes that are carried through a duct to the duodenum. The endocrine portion consists of the
pancreatic islets, which secrete glucagons and insulin.
Alpha cells in the pancreatic islets secrete the hormone glucagons in response to a low concentration of glucose in
the blood. Beta cells in the pancreatic islets secrete the hormone insulin in response to a high concentration of
glucose in the blood.
Gonads
The gonads, the primary reproductive organs, are the testes in the male and the ovaries in the female. These
organs are responsible for producing the sperm and ova, but they also secrete hormones and are considered to be
endocrine glands.
Testes
Male sex hormones, as a group, are called androgens. The principal androgen is testosterone, which is secreted by
the testes. A small amount is also produced by the adrenal cortex. Production of testosterone begins during fetal
development, continues for a short time after birth, nearly ceases during childhood, and then resumes at puberty.
This steroid hormone is responsible for:
The growth and development of the male reproductive structures.
Increased skeletal and muscular growth.
Enlargement of the larynx accompanied by voice changes.
Growth and distribution of body hair.
Increased male sexual drive.
Testosterone secretion is regulated by a negative feedback system that involves releasing hormones from the
hypothalamus and gonadotropins from the anterior pituitary.
Ovaries
Two groups of female sex hormones are produced in the ovaries, the estrogens and progesterone. These steroid
hormones contribute to the development and function of the female reproductive organs and sex characteristics. At
the onset of puberty, estrogens promotes:
The development of the breasts
Distribution of fat evidenced in the hips, legs, and breast
Maturation of reproductive organs such as the uterus and vagina
Progesterone causes the uterine lining to thicken in preparation for pregnancy. Together, progesterone and
estrogens are responsible for the changes that occur in the uterus during the female menstrual cycle.
Other Endocrine Glands
In addition to the major endocrine glands, other organs have some hormonal activity as part of their function. These
include the thymus, stomach, small intestines, heart, and placenta.
Thymosin, produced by the thymus gland, plays an important role in the development of the body's immune system.
The lining of the stomach, the gastric mucosa, produces a hormone, called gastrin, in response to the presence of
food in the stomach. This hormone stimulates the production of hydrochloric acid and the enzyme pepsin, which are
used in the digestion of food.
The mucosa of the small intestine secretes the hormones secretin and cholecystokinin. Secreting stimulates the
pancreas to produce a bicarbonate-rich fluid that neutralizes the stomach acid. Cholecystokinin stimulates
contraction of the gallbladder, which releases bile. It also stimulates the pancreas to secrete digestive enzyme.
The heart also acts as an endocrine organ in addition to its major role of pumping blood. Special cells in the wall of
the upper chambers of the heart, called atria, produce a hormone called atrial natriiuretic hormone, or atriopeptin.
The placenta develops in the pregnant female as a source of nourishment and gas exchange for the developing
fetus. It also serves as a temporary endocrine gland. One of the hormones it secretes is human chorionic
gonadotropin, which signals the mother's ovaries to secrete hormones to maintain the uterine lining so that it does
not degenerate and slough off in menstruation.
Learning Activities
I.
Name the hormone that best fits each of the following descriptions. Insert your responses in the answer blanks.
Parathyroid Hormones
1. Reduces blood calcium levels
Thymosin
2. Program T lymphocytes
PTH
3. Most important hormone regulating the amount of calcium circulating in the
blood; released when blood calcium levels drop.
Cortisol
4. Helps to protect the body during long-term stressful situations such as extended
illness and surgery.
Epinephrine
5. Short-term stress hormone; aids in the fight-or-flight response; increases blood
pressure and heart rate, for example.
Cortisol
6. Necessary if glucose is to be taken up by body cells
ACTH
7.
FSH
8.
LH
9.
TSH
10. Four tropic hormones
Melatonin
11. Regulates intrinsic body clock
Glucagon
12. Promotes release of glucose from liver stores
FSH
13.
Estrogen
15.
Thyroid Hormone
Prolactin
LH
ovarian cycle.
14. Anterior pituitary hormones that regulate the
Progesterone
16. Directly regulate the menstrual uterine cycle
17. Contains iodine, and controls basal metabolism
18.
Oxytocin
19. Necessary for milk production and ejection
II.
Name the hormone that would be produced in inadequate amounts in the following conditions. Place your
responses in the answer blanks.
Estrogen/testosterone. 1. Sexual immaturity
PTH
2. Tetany
ADH
3. Excessive urination without high blood glucose levels; causes dehydration and
tremendous thirst
Thyroxine
4. Goiter
Thyroxine
5. Bronze tint to the skin, and electrolyte imbalances
Insulin
6. Excessive thirst, high blood glucose levels, acidosis
Growth hormone
7. Abnormally small stature, normal proportions
Estrogen/progesterone 8. Miscarriage
Thyroxine
9. Lethargy, hair loss, low basal metabolic rate, obesity
(myxedema in the adult)
III.
Circle the term that does not belong in each of the following groupings.
1. Prolactin
Growth hormone
Oxytocin
ACTH
2. Gene activation
Steroid
Second messenger
MRNA
3. Hormonal
Neural Humoral
Cyclical
4. Calcitonin
Increases blood Ca2+
Thyroid gland
Enhances Ca2+ deposit
5. Glucocorticoids
Steroids
Aldosterone
Growth hormone
6. Thyroid follicles
T3 and T4
Glucose metabolism
Parafollicular cells
Mastery Test
B 1. The release of epinephrine is under what kind of control?
A. Hormonal
B. Neural
C. Humoral
D. Central
A 2. An example of a local hormone is:
A. prostaglandin
C. ACTH
B. insulin
D. ADH
C 3. The pituitary gland is largely controlled by:
A. adrenal glands
C. hypothalamus
B. thyroid
D. medulla
A 4. Parathyroid hormone is important for the maintenance of:
A. calcium levels
C. metabolism
B. sodium excretion D. blood pressure
D. 5. Smooth muscle contractions are stimulated by:
A. testosterone
C. prolactin
B. FSH
D. oxytocin
D 6. Protein hormones generally act by:
A. indirectly stimulating DNA transcription
B. stimulation of second messengers
C. inhibition of mRNA synthesis
D. diffusion through target organ membranes
A, B, C. 7. Nerve input regulates the release of:
A. oxytocin
C. melatonin
B. epinephrine
D. cortisol
C. 8. ANP, the hormone secreted by the heart, has exactly the opposite function to this hormone
secreted by the adrenal cortex:
A. epinephrine
C. aldosterone
B. cortisol
D. testosterone
A, B, D. 9. Hormones that act directly or indirectly to elevate blood glucose include:
A. GH
C. insulin
B. cortisol
D. ACTH
A, B, C, D. 10. Hormones secreted by females include:
A. estrogens
C. prolactin
B. progesterone
D. testosterone
A, B, C, D. 11. Which of the following are direct or indirect effects of growth hormone?
A. Stimulates cells to take in amino acids and form proteins
B. Important in determining final body size
C. Increases blood levels of fatty acids
D. Decreases utilization of glucose by most body cells
A, C. 12. Hypothyroidism can cause:
A. myxedema
B. Cushing’s syndrome
C. cretinism
D. exophthalmos
B. 13. Which of the following is given as a drug to reduce inflammation?
A. Epinephrine
C. Aldosterone
B. Cortisol
D. ADH
A, C. 14. Which of the following hormones is (are) released by neurons?
A. Oxytocin
C. ADH
B. Insulin
D. Cortisol
A. 15. The major stimulus for release of thyroid hormone is:
A. hormonal
B. humoral
C. neural
C 16. The main function of aldosterone is:
A. retention of calcium ions
B. excretion of sodium ions
C. excretion of water
D. maintenance of blood pressure
D. 17. Parathyroid hormone:
A. increases bone formation and lowers blood calcium levels
B. increases calcium excretion from the body
C. decreases calcium absorption from the gut
D. demineralizes bone and raises blood calcium levels
A 18. Thymosin is required for:
A. immune function
B. metabolic function
C. reproductive function
D. sleep cycle function
B. 19. Most hormones are made and released as
is:
A. catecholamines
C. insulin
B. thyroxine
D. aldosterone
needed. The exception to this generalization
UNIT 11
The Reproductive System
Learning Outcomes
At the end of this lesson, you will be able to:




Pretest
name the male and female gonads;
describe the functions of each;
List the accessory organs of each gonad and describe the functions of each; and
differentiate the concept of sex and gender.
Using the following terms, trace the pathway of sperm from the testis to the urethra: rete testis, epididymis,
seminiferous tubule, ductus deferens.
List the terms in the proper order in the spaces provided.
Seminiferous tubule
Rete testis
Epididymis
Ductus deferens.
Content
The major function of the reproductive system is to ensure survival of the species. Other systems in the body, such
as the endocrine and urinary systems, work continuously to maintain homeostasis for survival of the individual. An
individual may live a long, healthy, and happy life without producing offspring, but if the species is to continue, at
least some individuals must produce offspring.
Within the context of producing offspring, the reproductive system has four functions:
To produce egg and sperm cells
To transport and sustain these cells
To nurture the developing offspring
To produce hormones
These functions are divided between the primary and secondary, or accessory, reproductive organs. The primary
reproductive organs, or gonads, consist of the ovaries and testes. These organs are responsible for producing the
egg and sperm cells gametes), and hormones. These hormones function in the maturation of the reproductive
system, the development of sexual characteristics, and regulation of the normal physiology of the reproductive
system. All other organs, ducts, and glands in the reproductive system are considered secondary, or accessory,
reproductive organs. These structures transport and sustain the gametes and nurture the developing offspring.
Male Reproductive System
The male reproductive system, like that of the female, consists of those organs whose function is to produce a new
individual, i.e., to accomplish reproduction. This system consists of a pair of testes and a network of excretory ducts
(epididymis, ductus deferens (vas deferens), and ejaculatory ducts), seminal vesicles, the prostate, the
bulbourethral glands, and the penis.
Testes
The male gonads, testes or testicles, begin their development high in the abdominal cavity, near the kidneys.
During the last two months before birth, or shortly after birth, they descend through the inguinal canal into the
scrotum, a pouch that extends below the abdomen, posterior to the penis. Although this location of the testes,
outside the abdominal cavity, may seem to make them vulnerable to injury, it provides a temperature about 3° C
below normal body temperature. This lower temperature is necessary for the production of viable sperm.
The scrotum consists of skin and subcutaneous tissue. A vertical septum, or partition, of subcutaneous tissue in the
center divides it into two parts, each containing one testis. Smooth muscle fibers, called the dartos muscle, in the
subcutaneous tissue contract to give the scrotum its wrinkled appearance. When these fibers are relaxed, the
scrotum is smooth. Another muscle, the cremaster muscle, consists of skeletal muscle fibers and controls the
position of the scrotum and testes. When it is cold or a man is sexually aroused, this muscle contracts to pull the
testes closer to the body for warmth.
Structure
Each testis is an oval structure about 5 cm long and 3 cm in diameter. A tough, white fibrous connective tissue
capsule, the tunica albuginea, surrounds each testis and extends inward to form septa that partition the organ into
lobules. There are about 250 lobules in each testis. Each lobule contains 1 to 4 highly coiled seminiferous tubules
that converge to form a single straight tubule, which leads into the rete testis. Short efferent ducts exit the testes.
Interstitial cells (cells of Leydig), which produce male sex hormones, are located between the seminiferous tubules
within a lobule.
Spermatogenesis
Sperm are produced by spermatogenesis within the seminiferous tubules. A transverse section of a seminiferous
tubule shows that it is packed with cells in various stages of development. Interspersed with these cells, there are
large cells that extend from the periphery of the tubule to the lumen. These large cells are the supporting, or
sustentacular cells (Sertoli's cells), which support and nourish the other cells.
Early in embryonic development, primordial germ cells enter the testes and differentiate into spermatogonia,
immature cells that remain dormant until puberty. Spermatogonia are diploid cells, each with 46 chromosomes (23
pairs) located around the periphery of the seminiferous tubules. At puberty, hormones stimulate these cells to begin
dividing by mitosis. Some of the daughter cells produced by mitosis remain at the periphery as spermatogonia.
Others are pushed toward the lumen, undergo some changes, and become primary spermatocytes. Because they
are produced by mitosis, primary spermatocytes, like spermatogonia, are diploid and have 46 chromosomes.
Each primary spermatocytes goes through the first meiotic division, meiosis I, to produce two secondary
spermatocytes, each with 23 chromosomes (haploid). Just prior to this division, the genetic material is replicated so
that each chromosome consists of two strands, called chromatids, that are joined by a centromere. During meiosis
I, one chromosome, consisting of two chromatids, goes to each secondary spermatocyte. In the second meiotic
division, meiosis II, each secondary spermatocyte divides to produce two spermatids. There is no replication of
genetic material in this division, but the centromere divides so that a single-stranded chromatid goes to each cell.
As a result of the two meiotic divisions, each primary spermatocyte produces four spermatids. During
spermatogenesis there are two cellular divisions, but only one replication of DNA so that each spermatid has 23
chromosomes (haploid), one from each pair in the original primary spermatocyte. Each successive stage in
spermatogenesis is pushed toward the center of the tubule so that the more immature cells are at the periphery and
the more differentiated cells are nearer the center.
Spermatogenesis (and oogenesis in the female) differs from mitosis because the resulting cells have only half the
number of chromosomes as the original cell. When the sperm cell nucleus unites with an egg cell nucleus, the full
number of chromosomes is restored. If sperm and egg cells were produced by mitosis, then each successive
generation would have twice the number of chromosomes as the preceding one.
The final step in the development of sperm is called spermiogenesis. In this process, the spermatids formed from
spermatogenesis become mature spermatozoa, or sperm. The mature sperm cell has a head, midpiece, and tail.
The head, also called the nuclear region, contains the 23 chromosomes surrounded by a nuclear membrane. The
tip of the head is covered by an acrosome, which contains enzymes that help the sperm penetrate the female
gamete. The midpiece, metabolic region, contains mitochondria that provide adenosine triphosphate (ATP). The tail
or locomotor region, uses a typical flagellum for locomotion. The sperm are released into the lumen of the
seminiferous tubule and leave the testes. They then enter the epididymis where they undergo their final maturation
and become capable of fertilizing a female gamete.
Sperm production begins at puberty and continues throughout the life of a male. The entire process, beginning with
a primary spermatocyte, takes about 74 days. After ejaculation, the sperm can live for about 48 hours in the female
reproductive tract.
Duct System
Sperm cells pass through a series of ducts to reach the outside of the body. After they leave the testes, the sperm
passes through the epididymis, ductus deferens, ejaculatory duct, and urethra.
Epididymis
Sperm leave the testes through a series of efferent ducts that enter the epididymis. Each epididymis is a long
(about 6 meters) tube that is tightly coiled to form a comma-shaped organ located along the superior and posterior
margins of the testes. When the sperm leave the testes, they are immature and incapable of fertilizing ova. They
complete their maturation process and become fertile as they move through the epididymis. Mature sperm are
stored in the lower portion, or tail, of the epididymis.
Ductus Deferens
The ductus deferens, also called vas deferens, is a fibromuscular tube that is continuous ( or contiguous) with the
epididymis. It begins at the bottom (tail) of the epididymis then turns sharply upward along the posterior margin of
the testes. The ductus deferens enters the abdominopelvic cavity through the inguinal canal and passes along the
lateral pelvic wall. It crosses over the ureter and posterior portion of the urinary bladder, and then descends along
the posterior wall of the bladder toward the prostate gland. Just before it reaches the prostate gland, each ductus
deferens enlarges to form an ampulla. Sperm are stored in the proximal portion of the ductus deferens, near the
epididymis, and peristaltic movements propel the sperm through the tube.
The proximal portion of the ductus deferens is a component of the spermatic cord, which contains vascular and
neural structures that supply the testes. The spermatic cord contains the ductus deferens, testicular artery and
veins, lymph vessels, testicular nerve, cremaster muscle that elevates the testes for warmth and at times of sexual
stimulation, and a connective tissue covering.
Ejaculatory Duct
Each ductus deferens, at the ampulla, joins the duct from the adjacent seminal vesicle (one of the accessory
glands) to form a short ejaculatory duct. Each ejaculatory duct passes through the prostate gland and empties into
the urethra.
Urethra
The urethra extends from the urinary bladder to the external urethral orifice at the tip of the penis. It is a
passageway for sperm and fluids from the reproductive system and urine from the urinary system. While
reproductive fluids are passing through the urethra, sphincters contract tightly to keep urine from entering the
urethra.
The male urethra is divided into three regions. The prostatic urethra is the proximal portion that passes through the
prostate gland. It receives the ejaculatory duct, which contains sperm and secretions from the seminal vesicles, and
numerous ducts from the prostate glands. The next portion, the membranous urethra, is a short region that passes
through the pelvic floor. The longest portion is the penile urethra (also called spongy urethra or cavernous urethra),
which extends the length of the penis and opens to the outside at the external urethral orifice. The ducts from the
bulbourethral glands open into the penile urethra.
Accessory Glands
The accessory glands of the male reproductive system are the seminal vesicles, prostate gland, and the
bulbourethral glands. These glands secrete fluids that enter the urethra.
Seminal Vesicles
The paired seminal vesicles are saccular glands posterior to the urinary bladder. Each gland has a short duct that
joins with the ductus deferens at the ampulla to form an ejaculatory duct, which then empties into the urethra. The
fluid from the seminal vesicles is viscous and contains fructose, which provides an energy source for the sperm;
prostaglandins, which contribute to the mobility and viability of the sperm; and proteins that cause slight coagulation
reactions in the semen after ejaculation.
Prostate
The prostate gland is a firm, dense structure that is located just inferior to the urinary bladder. It is about the size of
a walnut and encircles the urethra as it leaves the urinary bladder. Numerous short ducts from the substance of the
prostate gland empty into the prostatic urethra. The secretions of the prostate are thin, milky colored, and alkaline.
They function to enhance the motility of the sperm.
Bulbourethral Glands
The paired bulbourethral (Cowper's) glands are small, about the size of a pea, and located near the base of the
penis. A short duct from each gland enters the proximal end of the penile urethra. In response to sexual stimulation,
the bulbourethral glands secrete an alkaline mucus-like fluid. This fluid neutralizes the acidity of the urine residue in
the urethra, helps to neutralize the acidity of the vagina, and provides some lubrication for the tip of the penis during
intercourse.
Seminal Fluid
Seminal fluid, or semen, is a slightly alkaline mixture of sperm cells and secretions from the accessory glands.
Secretions from the seminal vesicles make up about 60 percent of the volume of the semen, with most of the
remainder coming from the prostate gland. The sperm and secretions from the bulbourethral gland contribute only a
small volume.
The volume of semen in a single ejaculation may vary from 1.5 to 6.0 ml. There are usually between 50 to 150
million sperm per milliliter of semen. Sperm counts below 10 to 20 million per milliliter usually present fertility
problems. Although only one sperm actually penetrates and fertilizes the ovum, it takes several million sperm in an
ejaculation to ensure that fertilization will take place.
Penis
The penis, the male copulatory organ, is a cylindrical pendant organ located anterior to the scrotum and functions to
transfer sperm to the vagina. The penis consists of three columns of erectile tissue that are wrapped in connective
tissue and covered with skin. The two dorsal columns are the corpora cavernosa. The single, midline ventral
column surrounds the urethra and is called the corpus spongiosum.
The penis has a root, body (shaft), and glans penis. The root of the penis attaches it to the pubic arch, and the body
is the visible, pendant portion. The corpus spongiosum expands at the distal end to form the glans penis. The
urethra, which extends throughout the length of the corpus spongiosum, opens through the external urethral orifice
at the tip of the glans penis. A loose fold of skin, called the prepuce, or foreskin, covers the glans penis.
Male Sexual Response and Hormonal Control
The male sexual response includes erection and orgasm accompanied by ejaculation of semen. Orgasm is followed
by a variable time period during which it is not possible to achieve another erection.
Three hormones are the principle regulators of the male reproductive system: follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)
stimulates spermatogenesis; luteinizing hormone (LH) stimulates the production of testosterone; and testosterone
stimulates the development of male secondary sex characteristics and spermatogenesis.
Female Reproductive System
The organs of the female reproductive system produce and sustain the female sex cells (egg cells or ova), transport
these cells to a site where they may be fertilized by sperm, provide a favorable environment for the developing
fetus, move the fetus to the outside at the end of the development period, and produce the female sex hormones.
The female reproductive system includes the ovaries, Fallopian tubes, uterus, vagina, accessory glands, and
external genital organs.
Ovaries
Genital Tract
External Genitalia
Female Sexual Response and Hormonal Control
Mammary Glands
Ovaries
The primary female reproductive organs, or gonads, are the two ovaries. Each ovary is a solid, ovoid structure
about the size and shape of an almond, about 3.5 cm in length, 2 cm wide, and 1 cm thick. The ovaries are located
in shallow depressions, called ovarian fossae, one on each side of the uterus, in the lateral walls of the pelvic
cavity. They are held loosely in place by peritoneal ligaments.
Structure
The ovaries are covered on the outside by a layer of simple cuboidal epithelium called germinal (ovarian)
epithelium. This is actually the visceral peritoneum that envelops the ovaries. Underneath this layer is a dense
connective tissue capsule, the tunica albuginea. The substance of the ovaries is distinctly divided into an outer
cortex and an inner medulla. The cortex appears more dense and granular due to the presence of numerous
ovarian follicles in various stages of development. Each of the follicles contains an oocyte, a female germ cell. The
medulla is a loose connective tissue with abundant blood vessels, lymphatic vessels, and nerve fibers.
Oogenesis
Female sex cells, or gametes, develop in the ovaries by a form of meiosis called oogenesis. The sequence of
events in oogenesis is similar to the sequence in spermatogenesis, but the timing and final result are different. Early
in fetal development, primitive germ cells in the ovaries differentiate into oogonia. These divide rapidly to form
thousands of cells, still called oogonia, which have a full complement of 46 (23 pairs) chromosomes. Oogonia then
enter a growth phase, enlarge, and become primary oocytes. The diploid (46 chromosomes) primary oocytes
replicate their DNA and begin the first meiotic division, but the process stops in prophase and the cells remain in
this suspended state until puberty. Many of the primary oocytes degenerate before birth, but even with this decline,
the two ovaries together contain approximately 700,000 oocytes at birth. This is the lifetime supply, and no more will
develop. This is quite different than the male in which spermatogonia and primary spermatocytes continue to be
produced throughout the reproductive lifetime. By puberty the number of primary oocytes has further declined to
about 400,000.
Beginning at puberty, under the influence of follicle-stimulating hormone, several primary oocytes start to grow
again each month. One of the primary oocytes seems to outgrow the others and it resumes meiosis I. The other
cells degenerate. The large cell undergoes an unequal division so that nearly all the cytoplasm, organelles, and half
the chromosomes go to one cell, which becomes a secondary oocyte. The remaining half of the chromosomes go
to a smaller cell called the first polar body. The secondary oocyte begins the second meiotic division, but the
process stops in metaphase. At this point ovulation occurs. If fertilization occurs, meiosis II continues. Again this is
an unequal division with all of the cytoplasm going to the ovum, which has 23 single-stranded chromosome. The
smaller cell from this division is a second polar body. The first polar body also usually divides in meiosis I to
produce two even smaller polar bodies. If fertilization does not occur, the second meiotic division is never
completed and the secondary oocyte degenerates. Here again there are obvious differences between the male and
female. In spermatogenesis, four functional sperm develop from each primary spermatocyte. In oogenesis, only one
functional fertilizable cell develops from a primary oocyte. The other three cells are polar bodies and they
degenerate.
Ovarian Follicle Development
An ovarian follicle consists of a developing oocyte surrounded by one or more layers of cells called follicular cells.
At the same time that the oocyte is progressing through meiosis, corresponding changes are taking place in the
follicular cells. Primordial follicles, which consist of a primary oocyte surrounded by a single layer of flattened cells,
develop in the fetus and are the stage that is present in the ovaries at birth and throughout childhood.
Beginning at puberty, follicle-stimulating hormone stimulates changes in the primordial follicles. The follicular cells
become cuboidal, the primary oocyte enlarges, and it is now a primary follicle. The follicles continue to grow under
the influence of follicle-stimulating hormone, and the follicular cells proliferate to form several layers of granulose
cells around the primary oocyte. Most of these primary follicles degenerate along with the primary oocytes within
them, but usually one continues to develop each month. The granulosa cells start secreting estrogen and a cavity,
or antrum, forms within the follicle. When the antrum starts to develop, the follicle becomes a secondary follicle. The
granulose cells also secrete a glycoprotein substance that forms a clear membrane, the zona pellucida, around the
oocyte. After about 10 days of growth the follicle is a mature vesicular (graafian) follicle, which forms a "blister" on
the surface of the ovary and contains a secondary oocyte ready for ovulation.
Ovulation
Ovulation, prompted by luteinizing hormone from the anterior pituitary, occurs when the mature follicle at the
surface of the ovary ruptures and releases the secondary oocyte into the peritoneal cavity. The ovulated secondary
oocyte, ready for fertilization is still surrounded by the zona pellucida and a few layers of cells called the corona
radiata. If it is not fertilized, the secondary oocyte degenerates in a couple of days. If a sperm passes through the
corona radiata and zona pellucida and enters the cytoplasm of the secondary oocyte, the second meiotic division
resumes to form a polar body and a mature ovum
After ovulation and in response to luteinizing hormone, the portion of the follicle that remains in the ovary enlarges
and is transformed into a corpus luteum. The corpus luteum is a glandular structure that secretes progesterone and
some estrogen. Its fate depends on whether fertilization occurs. If fertilization does not take place, the corpus
luteum remains functional for about 10 days; then it begins to degenerate into a corpus albicans, which is primarily
scar tissue, and its hormone output ceases. If fertilization occurs, the corpus luteum persists and continues its
hormone functions until the placenta develops sufficiently to secrete the necessary hormones. Again, the corpus
luteum ultimately degenerates into corpus albicans, but it remains functional for a longer period of time.
Genital Tract
Fallopian Tubes
There are two uterine tubes, also called Fallopian tubes or oviducts. There is one tube associated with each ovary.
The end of the tube near the ovary expands to form a funnel-shaped infundibulum, which is surrounded by
fingerlike extensions called fimbriae. Because there is no direct connection between the infundibulum and the
ovary, the oocyte enters the peritoneal cavity before it enters the Fallopian tube. At the time of ovulation, the
fimbriae increase their activity and create currents in the peritoneal fluid that help propel the oocyte into the
Fallopian tube. Once inside the Fallopian tube, the oocyte is moved along by the rhythmic beating of cilia on the
epithelial lining and by peristaltic action of the smooth muscle in the wall of the tube. The journey through the
Fallopian tube takes about 7 days. Because the oocyte is fertile for only 24 to 48 hours, fertilization usually occurs
in the Fallopian tube.
Uterus
The uterus is a muscular organ that receives the fertilized oocyte and provides an appropriate environment for the
developing fetus. Before the first pregnancy, the uterus is about the size and shape of a pear, with the narrow
portion directed inferiorly. After childbirth, the uterus is usually larger, then regresses after menopause.
The uterus is lined with the endometrium. The stratum functionale of the endometrium sloughs off during
menstruation. The deeper stratum basale provides the foundation for rebuilding the stratum functionale.
Vagina
The vagina is a fibromuscular tube, about 10 cm long, that extends from the cervix of the uterus to the outside. It is
located between the rectum and the urinary bladder. Because the vagina is tilted posteriorly as it ascends and the
cervix is tilted anteriorly, the cervix projects into the vagina at nearly a right angle. The vagina serves as a
passageway for menstrual flow, receives the erect penis during intercourse, and is the birth canal during childbirth.
External Genitalia
The external genitalia are the accessory structures of the female reproductive system that are external to the
vagina. They are also referred to as the vulva or pudendum. The external genitalia include the labia majora, mons
pubis, labia minora, clitoris, and glands within the vestibule.
The clitoris is an erectile organ, similar to the male penis, that responds to sexual stimulation. Posterior to the
clitoris, the urethra, vagina, paraurethral glands and greater vestibular glands open into the vestibule.
Female Sexual Response & Hormone Control
The female sexual response includes arousal and orgasm, but there is no ejaculation. A woman may become
pregnant without having an orgasm.
Follicle-stimulating hormone, luteinizing hormone, estrogen, and progesterone have major roles in regulating the
functions of the female reproductive system.
At puberty, when the ovaries and uterus are mature enough to respond to hormonal stimulation, certain stimuli
cause the hypothalamus to start secreting gonadotropin-releasing hormone. This hormone enters the blood and
goes to the anterior pituitary gland where it stimulates the secretion of follicle-stimulating hormone and luteinizing
hormone. These hormones, in turn, affect the ovaries and uterus and the monthly cycles begin. A woman's
reproductive cycles last from menarche to menopause.
The monthly ovarian cycle begins with the follicle development during the follicular phase, continues with ovulation
during the ovulatory phase, and concludes with the development and regression of the corpus luteum during the
luteal phase.
The uterine cycle takes place simultaneously with the ovarian cycle. The uterine cycle begins with menstruation
during the menstrual phase, continues with repair of the endometrium during the proliferative phase, and ends with
the growth of glands and blood vessels during the secretory phase.
Menopause occurs when a woman's reproductive cycles stop. This period is marked by decreased levels of ovarian
hormones and increased levels of pituitary follicle-stimulating hormone and luteinizing hormone. The changing
hormone levels are responsible for the symptoms associated with menopause.
Mammary Glands
Functionally, the mammary glands produce milk; structurally, they are modified sweat glands. Mammary glands,
which are located in the breast overlying the pectoralis major muscles, are present in both sexes, but usually are
functional only in the female.
Externally, each breast has a raised nipple, which is surrounded by a circular pigmented area called the areola. The
nipples are sensitive to touch, due to the fact that they contain smooth muscle that contracts and causes them to
become erect in response to stimulation.
Internally, the adult female breast contains 15 to 20 lobes of glandular tissue that radiate around the nipple. The
lobes are separated by connective tissue and adipose. The connective tissue helps support the breast. Some
bands of connective tissue, called suspensory (Cooper's) ligaments, extend through the breast from the skin to the
underlying muscles. The amount and distribution of the adipose tissue determines the size and shape of the breast.
Each lobe consists of lobules that contain the glandular units. A lactiferous duct collects the milk from the lobules
within each lobe and carries it to the nipple. Just before the nipple, the lactiferous duct enlarges to form a lactiferous
sinus (ampulla), which serves as a reservoir for milk. After the sinus, the duct again narrows and each duct opens
independently on the surface of the nipple.
Mammary gland function is regulated by hormones. At puberty, increasing levels of estrogen stimulate the
development of glandular tissue in the female breast. Estrogen also causes the breast to increase in size through
the accumulation of adipose tissue. Progesterone stimulates the development of the duct system. During
pregnancy, these hormones enhance further development of the mammary glands. Prolactin from the anterior
pituitary stimulates the production of milk within the glandular tissue, and oxytocin causes the ejection of milk from
the glands.
Learning Activities
I.
How do the scrotal muscles help maintain temperature homeostasis of the testes?
When body temperature (or external temperature) is high, the scrotal muscles relax, allowing the testes to
hang lower and farther away from the warmth of the body wall. This causes testicular temperature to drop.
When the external temperature is cold, the scrotal muscles contract to draw the testes closer to the warmth
of the body wall.
II.
Using the key choices, select the terms identified in the following descriptions. Insert the appropriate term(s) or
corresponding letter(s) in the answer blanks.
Key Choices:
A. Bulbo-urethral glands
B. Epididymis
E. Penis
F. Prepuce
I. Scrotum
J. Spermatic cord
C. Ductus deferens
D. Glans penis
G. Prostate
H. Seminal vesicles
K. Testes
L. Urethra
E. Penis
K. Testes
C. Ductus deferens
L. Urethra
L. Urethra
I. Scrotum
B. Epididymis
1. Organ that delivers semen to the female reproductive tract
2. Site of testosterone production
3. Passageway from the epididymis to the ejaculatory duct
4. Conveys both sperm and urine down the length of the penis
5. Organs that contribute to the formation of semen
6. External skin sac that houses the testes
7. Tubular storage site for sperm; hugs the lateral aspect of
the testes
F. Prepuce
8. Cuff of skin encircling the glans penis
G. Prostate
9. Surrounds the urethra at the base of the bladder; produces a milky fluid
G. Prostate
10. Produces more than half of the seminal fluid
A. Bulbo-urethral glands 11. Produces a lubricating mucus that cleanses the urethra
J. Spermatic cord
12. Connective tissue sheath enclosing the ductus deferens, blood vessels, and
nerves.
III.
Identify the female structures described by inserting your responses in the answer blanks.
Uterus.
1. Chamber that houses the developing fetus
Vagina
2. Canal that receives the penis during sexual intercourse
Uterine, or fallopian, tube 3. Usual site of fertilization
Clitoris.
4. Erects during sexual stimulation
Uterine tube.
5. Duct through which the ovum travels to reach the uterus
Hymen.
6. Membrane that partially closes the vaginal canal
Ovary.
7. Primary female reproductive organ
Fimbriae.
8. Move to create fluid currents to draw the ovulated egg into
the uterine (fallopian) tube
Mastery Test
A 1. The ductus deferens functions to:
A. mature sperm
B. produce seminal fluid
C. propel sperm forwards
D. produce live sperm
_ A, B. 2. Seminal vesicle secretions have:
A. a low pH
B. fructose
C. a high pH
D. sperm-activating enzymes
D 3. Semen contains:
A. relaxin
C. prostaglandins
B. oxytocin
D. fructose
B 4. Spermatogenesis from type B daughter cells produces:
A. one sperm
B. two sperms
C. three sperms
D. four sperms
B 5. Mitochondria in mature sperm are found:
A. in the acrosome
B. wrapped around the midpiece
C. in the nucleus
D. wrapped around the tail
B. 6. The approximate area between the anus and clitoris in the female is the:
A. peritoneum
C. vulva
B. perineum
D. labia
B. 7. A test to detect cancerous changes in cells of the uterus and cervix is:
A. pyelogram
C. D&C
B. Pap smear
D. laparoscopy
B. 8. In humans, separation of the cells at the
production of twins, which in
this case, would be:
A. of different sexes
C. fraternal
B. identical
D. dizygotic
two-cell stage following fertilization may lead to the
_ D. 9. Human ova and sperm are similar in that:
A. about the same number of each is produced per month
B. they have the same degree of motility
C. they are about the same size
D. they have the same number of chromosomes
C, D._10. Which of the following attach to the ovary?
A. Fimbriae
B. Mesosalpinx
C. Suspensory ligaments
D. Broad ligament
A, D. 11. As a result of crossover:
A. maternal genes can end up on a paternal chromosome
B. synapsis occurs
C. a tetrad is formed
D. no two spermatids have exactly the same genetic makeup
B 12. The first mitotic division in the zygote occurs as soon as:
A. male and female pronuclei fuse
B. male and female chromosomes are replicated
C. meiosis II in the oocyte nucleus is completed
D. the second polar body is ejected
A, B. 13. The acrosomal reaction:
A. allows degradation of the corona radiata
B. involves release of hyaluronidase
C. occurs in the male urogenital tract
D. involves only one sperm, which penetrates the oocyte membrane
A, D._14. Which contain cells that ultimately become part of the embryo?
A. Blastocyst
B. Trophoblast
A, B, D._15. The blastocyst:
C. Cytotrophoblast
D. Inner cell mass
A. is the earliest stage at which differentia- tion is clearly evident
B. is the stage at which implantation occurs
C. has a three-layered inner cell mass
D. can detect “readiness” of uterine endometrium
A,C. 16. Human chorionic gonadotropin is secreted by the:
A. trophoblast
B. 5-month placenta
C. chorion
D. corpus luteum
C. _17. The first major event in organogenesis is:
A. gastrulation
B. appearance of the notochord
C. neurulation
D. development of blood vessels in the umbilical cord
C. 18. Which of the following appears first in the development of the nervous system?
A. Neural crest cells
B. Neural folds
C. Neural plate
D. Neural tube
C. 19. Which of these digestive structures develops from ectoderm?
A. Midgut
B. Liver
C. Lining of the mouth and anus
D. Lining of esophagus and pharynx
A, B, C. 20. Mesodermal derivatives include:
A. somites
B. mesenchyme
C. most of the intestinal wall
D. sweat glands
B. 21. On day 17 of a woman’s monthly cycle:
A. FSH levels are rising
B. progesterone is being secreted
C. the ovary is in the ovulatory phase
D. the uterus is in the proliferative phase
A, C._22. A sudden decline in estrogen and proges- terone levels:
A. causes spasms of the spiral arteries
B. triggers ovulation
C. ends inhibition of FSH release
D. causes fluid retention
C. 23. A sexually transmitted infection (STI) that is more easily detected in males than females, is
treatable with penicillin, and can cause
lesions in the nervous and cardiovascular
systems is:
A. gonorrhea
C. syphilis
B. chlamydia
D. herpes
B 24. Mumps in males can result in:
A. urethritis
B. orchiditis
C. epididymitis
D. prostatitis
D._ 25. The outer layer of the blastocyst, which attaches to the uterine wall, is the:
A. yolk sac
B. inner cell mass
C. amnion
D. trophoblast
C 26. Braxton Hicks contractions are an indication of:
A. false labor
B. the dilation stage
C. the expulsion stage
D. the placental stage
D 27. Myelination of the fetal spinal cord occurs:
A. after 8 weeks
B. after 12 weeks
C. after 16 weeks
D. after 21 weeks
B. 28. Which of the following is a shunt to bypass the fetal liver?
A. Ductus arteriosus
B. Ductus venosus
C. Ligamentum teres
D. Umbilical vein
D 29. Which hormone controls the widening of the pubic symphisis?
A. Prolactin
B. Progesterone
C. Oxytocin
D. Relaxin
Anatomy & Physiology
QUESTION
ANSWER
Superior (Cephalic or
Cranial)
Above; upper body part.
Inferior (Caudal)
Below; away from the head.
Ventral (Anterior)
Toward the front; belly surface.
Dorsal (Posterior)
Toward the back.
Cranial
Toward the head.
Caudal
Toward the feet; near the sacral region of the spinal column.
Medial
Near the middle of the body; divide into a right and left.
Lateral
Toward the side; Away from the mid-line.
Proximal
Nearer to the attachment of limb, nearer to the origination of the structure.
Nucleus
Largest organelle control center, the brain of cell controls all cellular activity (tells us
what to do). Contains the chromosomes. Genetic information.
Nucleolus
Brain of the brain. Contains the RNA and protein to synthesizes(make) organelles
such as Ribosomes.
Rough ER
Works with Ribosomes to synthesize(make) protein.
Ribosomes
Compose of RNA, also helps to synthesize(make) protein. Attached to the
Ribosomes.
Smooth ER
Synthesizes(make) lipid (fat, steroids) Does not have Ribosomes.
Mitochondria
Kidney shape, site of Synthesize(make) Adenozine Triphosphate (ATP) Energy to
nutrients.
Peroxisome
Enzymes Detoxifies(kills) toxins/poisonous substances.
Lysosomes
Enzymes Digests (breaks down) waste products.
Organelles
Little organ of the cell the subdivision within the cell.
Cytoplasm
Substances inside the cell, containing the liquid Cytosol and organelles. Maintain
growth.
Intracellular
Fluid inside the cell (Cytosol).
Intercellular
Fluid in between cells.
Extracellular
Fluid outside of cell.
Golgi Apparatus
Looks like a stack of pancakes It is to modify, package and transport protein (product
control) QC.
Vesicles
Transports material(in/out) of cell.
Centrioles
Are paired cylinders that aid in cell reproduction(division) in mitosis.
Microvilli
Small and short extensions that move fluid(substances) around the cell.
Cilia
Long hairlike (same function) moves fluid around cell.
Flagellum
Tail like structure that propels(swims/moves) the cell Ex: sperm (only in human body).
Plasma Membrane
Selectively Permeable-Keeps the cell in tacked; semipermeable- (half, pass through
small amounts) Paula Abdul-Opposites Attract.
DNA
Deoxyribonucleic Acid-Blue print inside the nucleus (ID) does transcribes but not in
translation.
RNA
Ribonucleic Acid-Helps synthesize(make) protein work with Ribosomes. Transcribes
and Translates.
Transcription
To copy-transcribe the notes of the DNA strand onto the messenger RNA.
Messenger RNA
(mRNA)
Carries the message out of the nucleus into the Ribosomes and to the translation
from the DNA.
Transfer RNA (tRNA)
Taking the code from RNA, brings amino acids to be made into proteins.
Ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
Makes up the Ribosomes. Synthesize protein, transport protein out of the cell.
Mitosis
Division of somatic cells. Cellular reproduction from mother cell to daughter cell
(exactly the same). One cell divides into two identical daughter cells
Daughter Cells
Product of the cells in Mitosis. Exactly the same kind of DNA.
Interphase
Dormant-growth phase. DNA takes place.
Prophase
Chromosomes appear, first stage, gathering of.
Anaphase
Chromosomes split(divide) pull towards the opposite pole. Reforms.
Metaphase
Chromosomes gather together in the middle(center)of the cell(Centrioles) Centrioles
send out spindle fibers to guide the chromosome to it.
Telophase
A new membrane appears and then separates(splits) chromosome forming two new
nuclei.
Diffusion (Passive
Transport)
Constant movement of particles from high concentration to low concentration. No
energy needed; force. Ex. Exchange of O2 & CO2.
Osmosis (Passive
Transport)
Diffusion of water: Semipermeable-Movement of water to a low solute concentration
to high concentration. Needs force to go up. Only in water.
Filtration
Requires a pressure/force of water to separate substances out of the cell.
Facilitated Diffusion
The movement of proteins from high concentration to low concentration with the use
of an aid transporter.
Active Transport
Fluid flows in the opposite direction from high concentration to low concentration. This
requires energy ATP.
Selectively permeable
Only a certain particle goes through.
Phagocytosis "phagoeating"
The "eating" of cell (Pac Man). Engulfing large particles.
Pinocytosis "pinodrinking"
The "drinking" of cells. Intake of fluid droplets.
Endocytosis "endoinside"
Moves the bulk of substances inside of cell using vesicles.
Exocytosis "exo-exit"
Exit, moves substances out of cell, (removal of waste) using vesicles into the
Extracellular fluid.
Isotonic
Same concentration substance as of the fluid in the cell (cells remain the same)
Hypotonic
Lower concentration substance of the fluid in the cell (Too much O2): may swell and
burst.
Hypertonic
Higher concentration of the fluid in the cell (Not much O2): may crenation(shrink).
Positive Feedback
A process where the body is doing the it over and over again. Ex: Child birth,
lactation, and blood clotting.
Negative Feedback
Body trying to fix the problem to maintain homeostasis balance to the body. Ex: Blood
pressure.
Neoplasm
New growth.
Predisposing
More likely.
Passive Transport
No input of Energy(force).
Active Transport
Pumps from low concentration to high concentration needs energy.
Plasma Membrane
Semipermeable-Contains 3 major ingredients: Double layer of Phospholipids
embedded with Cholesterol and Proteins.
DNA-Gives traits,
identity Double helix
strand
Four nucleotides: Adenine(A)-Thymine(T) Guanine(G)-Cytosine(C).
RNA-what reads it
Single strand
Four nucleotides: Adenine(A)-Uracil(U) Guanine(G)-Cytosine(C).
Anabolism
The building/assembling simple components into more complex ones.
Catabolism
The breakdown of complex chemical substances into simpler components. Such as
food and nutrients to energy.
Adenosine
Triphosphate
Generates energy to fuel cell activities.
Metabolism
All life-sustaining reactions that occur within the body which include Catabolism and
Anabolism.
Nervous System
The system that processes sensory information.
Cardiovascular System
The system that delivers nutrients to body tissues.
Digestive System
The system that breaks down and absorbs food.
Integumentary System
The system that includes the fingernails.
Urinary System
The system that includes the bladder.
Skeletal System
The system that includes the joints.
Respiratory System
The system that delivers oxygen to the blood.
Lymphatic System
The system that includes the tonsils.
Anatomy
The study of structure.
Physiology
The study of function.
Pathology
The study of disease changes in organs and tissues.
Homeostasis
The maintenance of constant internal body state, equilibrium(balance).
Diaphragm
The thoracic and abdominal cavities.
Extracellular Fluid
(ECF)
Fluid outside of cell...
Umbilical Region
Navel is found...
Cross section
The section of how the penny-shaped slice of a banana is cut.
Stem Cells
Cell that has the potential to develop in different types of cells.
Right Lower Quadrant
The right iliac is found in this region...
Anatomic Position
The body is upright and palms are facing forward.
Dorsal Cavity
Cranial(brain), Spinal cavity (spinal cord).
Ventral Cavity
Divided into 2 main cavities: Thoracic (chest), Abdominopelvic cavity(abdomen)
Abdominopelvic
Inferior to the diaphragm. Divided into 2 regions: Abdominal, Pelvic Cavities.
Frontal (Coronal) Plane
From left to right, dividing the body into anterior and posterior planes.
Abdominal Cavity
The ventral body cavity that contains the stomach, most of the intestine, the liver, and
the spleen.
Epigastric Region
(Inferior)
The inferior of region closest to the sternum(breastbone).
Diaphragm
Is the space between the lungs. Separates the abdominopelvic cavity and thoracic
cavity.
Nervous System
Reception of stimuli and control of responses: brain, spinal cord and nerves: eyes,
ears, taste buds, and organs of smell. Receptors for pain, touch and sense, receive
stimuli.
Skeletal System
Support: Contains 206 bones and the joints
Muscular System
Movement: attach to bones and body structure, protect the organs, and maintain
posture.
Endocrine System
Produce special hormones: Regulate growth, food utilization in cells, reproduction:
thyroid, pituitary, and adrenal glands.
Cardiovascular System
Contains the heart and blood vessels pumps blood to the tissues bringing nutrients,
oxygen, needed substances. Can carry waste then discard them.
Digestive System
Involves in taking all the nutrients(food), for absorption: mouth, esophagus, stomach,
intestines, liver, pancreas.
Reproductive System
Production of offspring. Sex organs.
Integumentary System
A separate body system: skin, hair, nails, and sweat glands and oil glands.
Urinary System
Elimination of waste excess water: kidneys, ureters, bladder and urethra.
Lymphatic System
Aids in circulation, immunity, and protect against disease from: tonsils, thymus gland,
and spleen.
Circulatory System
The lymphatic and cardiovascular systems help make the....
Respiratory System
Intake of oxygen and release of carbon dioxide. Designed for gas exchange.
Sagittal Plane
From front to back, dividing the body into left and right parts.
Midsagittal Plane
Exactly down the midline.
Longitudinal Section
Parallel to long axis.
Oblique Section
At an angle.
Thoracic Cavity
Divided by the diaphragm, contains heart and lungs, and mediastinum.
Pelvic Cavity
Lower region containing reproductive organs, urinary bladder, and rectum.
Kilometers
1,000 times. (1km = 1 meter)
Centimeters
(100cm = 1 meter)1/100th (0.01). There is 2.5cm = inch
Millimeters
1/1,000th (0.001) (1,000ml = 1 liter)
Micrometer
1/1,000,000(0.000001) meters
Meter
Basic units of length.
Gram
Basic units of weight.
Liter
Basic units of volume.
Temperature
Measured in Celsius(centigrade)
Mediastinum
Space between lungs and the organs contained in that space.
Hypogastric Region
The most inferior of all the midline regions.
Hypochondriac Region
Just inferior to the ribs.
Lumbar Region
The level with the lumbar regions of the spine between the thoracic vertebrae and
sacrum.
Cytosol
Liquid portion of the cell.
Nucleotides
Building blocks of DNA and RNA.
Cells
Basic unit of all life.
Tissues
May function together as organs.
Organs Systems
Work together to maintain the body as a whole organism.
Organs
Work together for the same purpose to make up the body system.
Crenation
Shrinking of cell, as in the hypertonic solution.
Hemolysis
Red blood cells draw water and burst.
Mutation
Change in a gene or a chromosome. Usually harm the cell and cause cancer.
Cell Identity Markers
ID/Unique protein to the Immune System. Identity.
Transporters
Shuttles/drives to. Protein transport. Ex: glucose.
Receptors
Receives/accepts substances. Ex: hormones
Enzymes
Produce (Catalyst) speeds up action and /or reaction.
Channels
Gates that open to a specific area(opens/closes) Ex: Ions
Linkers
Gives structure and links/attaches (cell to cell)
Proteins
Located in the plasma membrane are: Channels, Transporters, Receptors, Enzymes,
Linkers, and Cell Identity Markers.
Phospholipids
Lipids containing phosphorus protein: Cholesterol, Protein, Carbohydrates.
Cell Aging
Mutations(changes) in genes. Slows down cellular activity. Apoptosis-programmed
death cells.
Microscope
Magnifying instrument to examine structures not visible to the naked eye.
Micrometer
Metric unit commonly used for microscopic measurement
Cancer
Cells turn into tumors that spread to other tissues.
Mitochondrion
Energy into nutrients to ATP.
Cancer Changes
Go through mutations(changes)uncontrollably spread of bad cells, over crowd and
destroy all good nutrients. Slows down cellular activity.
Cancer Risk Factors
Heredity-Family, Chemical-Cigarettes, food, drugs, Ionizing Radiation-X-Rays, UltraViolet rays, Radioactive Substances. Physical Irritation-Damage to tissues, VirusesLiver, blood, lymphatic tissues, and uterine cervix.
Scanning electron
Microscope
Three-dimensional view.
Compound light
Microscope
Most common microscope magnifies up to 1,000 times.
Transmission Electron
Up to 1 million times.
Supine
Body lying face up.
Prone
Body lying face down.
Superficial
Toward off on the surface of the body
Deep
Away from the surface of the body. (Within)
Distal
Farther away from the attachment of limb, nearer to the origination of structure.
Medical Terminology
QUESTION
ANSWER
cyt/o
Cell Ex: Cytology-study of cells.
micr/o
Small Ex: Microscopes are used to view structures too small to see with the naked eye.
bi-
Two Ex: The lipid bilayer is a double layer of lipid molecules.
-some
Body Ex: Ribosomes are small bodies in the cytoplasm that help make proteins.
chrom/o-
Color Ex: Chromosomes are small, threadlike bodies that stain darkly with basic dyes.
end/o-
In, within Ex: The endoplasmic reticulum is a membranous network within the cytoplasm.
lys/o
loosening, dissolving, separating Ex: Lysosomes are small bodies(organelles)with enzymes
that dissolve materials.
inter-
Between Ex: Interphase is the stage between one cell division(mitosis) and the next.
pro-
Before, in front of Ex: Prophase is the first stage of mitosis.
meta-
Change Ex: Metaphase is the second stage of mitosis when the chromosomes change
position and line up across the equator.
ana-
Upward, back again Ex: In the anaphase stage of mitosis, chromosomes move to opposite
sides of the cell.
tel/o
End Ex: Telophase is the last stage of mitosis.
semi-
Partial, half Ex: A semipermeable membrane lets some molecules pass through but not
others.
phag/o
To eat, ingest Ex: In phagocytosis the plasma membrane engulfs large particles and moves
them into the cell.
pin/o
To drink in pinocytosis the plasma membrane "drinks"(engulfs) droplets of fluid.
ex/o-
Outside, out of, away from Ex: In exocytosis the cell moves material out in vesicles.
iso-
Same, equal Ex: An isotonic solution has the same concentration as that of the cytoplasm.
hypo-
Deficient, below, beneath Ex: A hypotonic solution has the same concentration as that of the
cytoplasm.
hem/o
Blood Ex: Hemolysis is the destruction of red blood cells.
hyper-
Above, over, excessive Ex: a hypertonic solution's concentration is higher than that of the
cytoplasm.
carcin/o
Cancer, carcinoma Ex: A carcinogen is a chemical that causes cancer.
-gen
Agent that produces or originates
-tomy
Cutting, incision of Ex: Anatomy can be revealed by making incisions in the body.
dis-
Apart, away from Ex: To dissect is to cut apart.
physi/o
Nature, physical Ex: Physiology is the study of how the body functions.
path/o
Disease Ex: Pathology is the study of disease.
cata-
Down Ex: Catabolism is the breakdown of complex substances into simpler ones.
ana-
Upward, again, back Ex: Anabolixm is the building up of simple compounds into more
complex substances.
home/o-
Same Ex: Homeostasis is the steady state(sameness) within an organism.
stat
Stan, stoppage, constancy Ex: In homeostasis, "-stasis" refers to constancy.
aden/o
Gland
adip/o
Fat
anter/o
Front or before
caud/o
Tail, lower body part
cepha/o
Head
exo-
Out of
hist/o
Tissue
-ologist
Specialist
-ology
Study of
-plasia
Formation
poster/o
Back, towards the back
-stasis
Control
dor/o, dor/i
Back
abdomin/o
Abdomen
pelv/o, pelv/i
Pelvis
hypo-
Below, deficient
chondr/o,
chondr/i
Cartilage
epi-
Above, upon, on
gastr/o
Stomach
lumb/o
Lower back, loin
ili/o
Hip bone, ilium
retro-
Behind, backward
peritone/o
Peritoneum
-itis
Inflammation
-plasm
Growth of cells
-gene
Production
a-
Without, away from
ana-
Excessive, up
dys-
Bad, difficult
hyper-
Excessive, increase
-trophy
Development
crine, crin/o
Secrete
carcin/o
Cancerous
-oma
Tumor
-malacia
Abnormal Softening
-osis
Abnormal condition, disease
-sclerosis
Abnormal hardening
-ectomy
Surgical removal
eti/o
Cause
dem/o
Population, people
pan-
Entire
idi/o
Idiot, peculiar
Whole Body Terminology
QUESTION
ANSWER
A change in the structure and orientation of cells,
characterized by a loss of differentiation and reversion to
a more primitive form
anaplasia
plantar
pertaining to sole or bottom of foot
Umbilicus
The navel; also called the belly button
pertaining to the front; belly side
ventral
lying horizontally on the back, faceup
supine
histologist
medical scientist who specializes in the study of
tissues
any abnormal development of tissues or organs
dysplasia
lateral
Toward the side of the body, away from the
midline.
Cervical Vertebrae
C1-C7 make up bones of the neck
Pertaining to the front of the body, or toward the belly of
the body
anterior
Hyperplasia
An increase in the number of cells of a body part
("excessive formation")
what are the 3 types of muscle tissue
Smooth (Visceral), Skeletal, Cardiac
Inguinal region
lower Right and left side next to Hypogastric region
in the Abdominal regions
Mediolateral
pertaining to the middle and side of a structure
Coccyx
5th segment of vertebral column also known as the
Tailbone.
Triangular Bone, 4th segment of spinal column
Sacrum
L1-L5
Lumbar Vertebrae. Largest and Strongest
Vertebrae in Spinal column
What does the Spinal Cavity contain?
nerves of the spinal cord
What does the Pelvic Cavity contain?
urinary bladder and reproductive organs.
What is the Abdominopelvic Cavity?
space between diaphragm and groin
contains the brain
Cranial Cavity
Frontward, toward the belly
Ventral
separated from thoracic cavity by the diaphragm
Abdominal Cavity
What organs does the abdominal cavity contain?
liver, spleen, gallbladder, stomach, intestines,
pancreas,& kidneys
Contains the lungs, heart, aorta, esophagus, and trachea
Thoracic Cavity
The back or posterior
dorsum, dorsal
Prone
Lying face down on the abdomen
Supine
Lying Face up on the back
Where is the Inguinal region?
Lower left and right quadrants next to hypogastric
region
the navel or the belly button
Umbilicus
Histologist
specialist in the study of tissues
What is the Peritoneum?
Serous membrane that covers the entire
ABDOMINAL wall of the body.
Transmits impulses throughout the body coordinating and
controlling many functions of the body
Nervous Tissue
Internal organs
Visceral
Study of cells
Cytology
Midsagittal
divide the body right and left equally
Systems
group of organs that perform functions
Mediolateral
pertaining to the middle AND side of a structure
covers internal and external organs of the body
Epithelial tissue
Cytoplasm
gel-like substance containing the cell organs
Contain genes that transmit hereditary characteristics
chromosomes
Towards the middle
Medial
Below
Inferior
Proximal
close to point of attachment
Posterior
Back
Front
Anterior
out towards the side.
Lateral
Distal
Far from point of attachment
Divides body into front and back portions
Frontal or Coronal
Above
Superior/Cranial/Cephalic
Transverse plane
Divides Top and bottom in half
Where is the epigastric region?
center upper region between R&L Hypochondriac
regions
Connective Tissue
supports and binds other body tissue and parts
The cell's outer covering. Semipermeable.
cell membrane
Nucleus
Central controlling body within a living cell
New and abnormal development of cells that may be
benign or malignant.
Neoplasia
Anatomical Position
Standing with arms at sides and palms and feet
turn forward.
Hyperplasia
increase in the # of cells of a body part "Excessive
formation"
Any abnormal development of tissues or organs
"disordered formation"
dysplasia
Aplasia
a developmental failure resulting in the absence of
any organ or tissue
Where is the Hypogastric region?
Lower mid-section directly below Umbilical region.
Caudal
pertaining to the tail
deep
away from the surface and toward the inside of the
body
Pertainng to the sole or bottom of the foot
plantar
Where is the Umbilical region?
Middle section of abdomen
Where is the Lumbar region?
R&L Side Below Hypochondriac regions in middle
section of abdominal regions.
Tissue
Cells grouped together to perform specialized
functions.
hypoplasia
incomplete or underdeveloped organ or tissue,
usually the result of a decrease in the # of cells.
T1-T12
Thoracic vertebrae. Makes up Vertebral bones of
the chest.
Where is the Hypochondriac region?
Top region R&L above lumbar regions.
superficial
pertaining to the surface of the body or near the
surface
cranial
pertaining to the head
umbilc/0
navel
cyt/o
cell
anter/o
front
hist/o
tissue
inguin/o
groin
ventr/o
front
poster/o
back
later/o
side, towards the side away from midline
cervic/o
neck
medi/o
middle
inter-
between
hypo-
below
sub-
below
an-,a-
without or not
poly-
many
-itis
inflammation
epi-
upon
organelles that provide energy needed by the cell to carry
on it's essential functions
mitochondria
Physiology
QUESTION
ANSWER
the attachment of a muscle to a bone or structure that
doesn’t move when the muscle contracts. example:
anchor
Origin
the attachment of a muscle to a bone or structure that
moves when the muscle contracts
insertion
a muscle that has its origin and insertion located in
the same body region. EX The temporalis muscle is
________ to the head because its origin and insertion
are both in the head.
Intrinsic Muscle
A muscle that has its origin located in a body region
different from that of its insertion. EX the
sternocleidomastoid muscle is _______ to the head
because its origin is in the head but the insertion is in
the thorax
Extrinsic muscle
A muscle that holds an origin stable for another
muscle.
Fixator
Muscles that have the same action
Synergist
The main muscle of the synergists that performs the
action
Prime Mover
A muscle that has an opposing action.
Antagonist
Action that bends a part of the body anteriorly
Flexion
an action that bends a part of the body posteriorly
Extension
movement of a part of the body away from the
midline.
Abduction
movement that brings part of the body forward.
Protraction
position of standing on tiptoes with the heels off the
floor. (planting a seed).
plantar flextion
movement of the jaw laterally to either side
lateral excursion
the act of bringing the thumb to the palm.
Opposition:
movement of the jaw back to the midline.
medial excursion
the act of spinning on an axis. 
Rotation
the act of taking the thumb away from the palm.
Reposition:
Connective tissue surrounding the muscle cell/fiber
endomysium
Muscle fibers are grouped together to form a______
Fascicle
The connective tissue surrounding he fascicle
Perimysium
________ are grouped together to form a muscle
Fascicles
The entire muscle is surrounded by a connective
tissue called the______
Epimysium
_________ surrounds several muscles of an area,
forming muscle muscle compartments, and it
separates muscle from the hypodermis. EX Foam
roller
Fascia
The three connective tissues
Endomysium, Perimysium, Epimysium
runs between muscle fibers
endomysium
surrounds each fascicle
perimysium
surrounding the entire muscle merge at the ends of
the muscle to form the tendon that attaches the
muscle to the bone
epimysium
though, fibrous tissue that does not allow for
expansion. It surrounds several muscles of an area.
this is what you would use a foam roller for to release
it to allow muscle growth
fascia
Sarcolemma stands for
Cell membrane
the smooth endoplasmic reticulum of the cell is
called.... the function of this is to store calcium ions
until they are needed
Sarcoplasmic Reticulum
muscle fiber is a bundle of what?
myofibrils
what are myofybrils composed of?
A series of repeated functional units called Sarcomeres
running end to end
What is formed at the end of a sarcomere?
z lines
looks like a double chain of beads twisted together
actin
resembles athread running through the actin chain. it
covers the active sites on tactin where myosin
molecules could grab hold
tropomyosin
a small protein attached to tropomyosin
troponin
a muscle cell can be stimulated by a nerve to contract
excitability
when the stimulation from the nerve moves quickly
along the length of the muscle cell
conductivity
when a muscle cell can shorten with force. muscles
can only pull; they cannot push
contractility
when a muscle cell can be stretched
extensibility
when a muscle cell is stretched it will return to its
original shape
elasticity
excitability, conductivity, contractility, elasticity
the 4 physiological characteristics of muscle tissue
two types of contractions
isotonic and isometric
when the tension in the muscle stays constant and
motion was the result of this. EX punching someone
in the face
Isotonic contraction
When the tension of muscles has increased without
moving the arm EX flexing
Isometric
The central nervous system The peripheral Nervous
system
the two main divisions of the nervous system
this nervous system serves as the main processing
center and is composed of the brain and spinal cord
CNS
this nervous system is a network of all the nerves in
the body That sends messages to and from the
central processing center. it is composed of nerves
carrying messages in two different directions EX
Peripheral vision, I see all
PNS
two directions of message carriers
afferent efferent
sensory neurons carry these INCOMING
MESSAGES to the brain or spinal cord EX I sense
you are coming WHAT DIRECTION IS THIS
CALLED?
Afferent
Motor neurons carry outgoing messages away from
the brain and spinal cord EX motor on out
Efferent
the divisions of motor neurons
Somatomotor division autonomic division
the afferent messages that travel on motor neurons to
stimulate skeletal muscles to move the body
Somatomotor divison
the other efferent messages that travel to glands, the
cardiac muscle of the heart, or the smooth muscle of
hollow organs and blood cells
autonomic division
sends electrical messages to prepare the body for
physical activity such as fight or flight.
sympathetic division
sends electrical messages to carry out functions such
as digestion, defecation, and urination
parasympathetic division
this organ plays a central role in the control of most
bodily functions including awareness, movements,
sensations, thoughts, speech, and memory
brain
this fluid surrounds the brain and the spinal cord
cerebrospinal fluid
two channel proteins
sodium and potassium
this fluid is outside of the neuron
extracellular fluid
this fluid is inside the neuron
intracellular
when the outside is positive and inside is negative
polarized
when the positive sodium flows into the cell, the
difference in charge across the membrane changes
depolarization
an opening of potassium channels follows at a slightly
slower rate to allow the flow of potassium ions to the
Extracellular fluid which then does what to the
membrane
repolarizes
SODIUM is pumped out oft he cell through active
transport. when the resting membrane potential is
restores, the neuron is ready to begin again with
another nerve impulse. WHAT DEVICE DOES THIS
**EX a middle aged man working a dead end office
job
sodium potassium pump
WHAT IS THE first half of local potential
*DENDRITE is stimulated by flow of energy *SODIUM
CHANNEL on DENDRITE MEMBRANE opens
*SODIUM rushes in once channel opens and
SPREADS EVERYWHERE after sodium has their
moment... *POTASSIUM channels open for
repolarization
*SODIUM-POTASSIUM PUMP actively transports the
SODIUM OUT AGAIN *THIS RESTORES RESTING
MEMBRANE POTENTIAL
local potential
The flow of electricity along an axon of a neuron in
one direction from the trigger zone to the synaptic
knob all or nothing effect doesn't decrease with
distance not reversible goes through the full extent of
the axon
Action potential
what are the 2 main divisions of the nervous system
CNS PNS
BRAIN AND SPINAL CORD
STRUCTURE BELONGING TO THE CNS
SENSORY OR AFFERENT NEURONS, AND
MOTOR OR EFFERENT NEURONS
STRUCTURES OF THE PNS
INCOMING MESSAGES
AFFERENT
SESORY NEURONS, CARRY IMPULSES FROM
THE BODY TO THE SPINAL CORD OR BRAIN.
SENSORY NERUONS
OUTGOING MESSAGES
EFFERENT
CARRY IMPULSES AWAY FROM THE BRAIN OR
SPINAL CORD TO THE BODY
MOTOR NEURONS
SOMATOMOTOR AUTONOMIC
DIVISIONS OF MOTOR NEURONS
STIMULATES THE SKELETAL MUSCLE TO MOVE
THE BODY
SOMATOMOTOR
STIMULATION OF THE GLANDS, CARDIAC
MUSCLE OF THE HEART, OR SMOOTH MUSCLE
OF HOLLOW ORGANS AND BLOOD VESSELS
AUTONOMIC
PARASYMPATHETIC SYMPATHETIC
AUTONIMIC SYSTEM
SENDS ELECTRICAL MESSAGES TO CARRY OUT
FUNCTIONS SUCH AS DIGESTION, DEFECATION,
AND URINATION.
PARASYMPATHETIC
SENDS ELECTRICAL MESSAGES TO PREPARE
THE BODY FOR PHYSICAL ACTIVITY
SYMPATHETIC
WHAT ARE THE 2 CHANNEL PROTIENS
POTASSIUM SODIUM
ATTRACTED TO LARGE NEGATIVE IONS,
LOCATED WITHIN THE CELL MEMBRANE IN THE
INTRACELLULAR FLUID
POTASSIUM LOCATION
LOCATED OUTSIDE THE CELL MEMBRANE IN
THE EXTRACELLULAR FLUID
SODIUM LOCATION
THE ECF OUTSIDE THE CELL MEMBRANE IS
POSITIVELY CHARGED AND THE ICF INSIDE THE
CELL MEMBRANE IS NEGATIVELY CHARGED.
CALLED RESTING MEMBRANE POTENTIAL,
BECAUSE THERE IS POTENTIAL FOR A FLOW OF
CHARGES
POLARIZATION
DIFFERENCE IN CHARGE ACROSS THE
MEMBRANE HAS CHANGED DUE TO THE FLOW
OF SODIUM INTO THE ICF
DEPOLARIZATION
POTASSIUM CHANNELS OPEN TO ALLOW
POTASSIUM TO FLOW OUTSIDE THE CELL
MEMBRANE INTO THE ECF
REPOLARIZATION
WHAT IS THE PURPOSE OF THE SODIUM
POTASSIUM PUMP
RESPONSIBLE FOR RE-ESEBLISHING AND
MAINTAINING THE RESTING MEMBRANE
POTENTIAL BY PUMPING SODIUM OUT OF THE
CELL AGAIN THROUGH ACTIVE TRANSPORT.
WHAT IS THE PRIMARY ENDOCRINE GLAND
THE HYPOTHALAMUS REGULATES THE PITUITARY
GLAND
DERIVED FROM A CHOLESTEROL MOLECULE
LIPIDS CAN PASS THROUGH CELL MEMBRANES
CAN BE ABSORBEDD THROUGH THE SKIN
STEROIDS
A MOLECULE GENERATED USING AN AMINO
ACID AS A STARTING POINT NOT ALL WILL GET
INCORPERATED INTO PROTEINS SOME ARE
BUILDING BLOCKS OR STARTER MOLECULES
AMINO ACID DERIVATIVES
MADE UP OF AMINO ACID CHAINS SUCH AS
INSULIN TOO LARGE TO PASS TRHOUGH THTE
CELL MEMBRAIN MUST BE INJECTED
PROTEINS
NOT SECRETED AT A CONSTANT RATE BUT
WHEN THERE IS A NEED SECRETION IS
USUALLY RESULTED BY NEGATIVE FEEDBACK
REGULATION IS POSSITIVE FEEDBACK
CONTROLS SELF-PERPETUATING EVENTS LIKE
CHILD BIRTH
HORMONES
THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM IS COMPOSED OF 4
COMPONENTS. NAME THEM
GLANDS, HORMONES, TARGET TISSUES, AND
RECEPTORS
NAME THE THREE CATEGORIES OF HORMONES
STEROIDS, AMINO ACID DERIVATIVES, PROTEINS
A GROUP OF LIPIDS
COMPOSITION OF PROSTAGLANDINS
WHY ARE PROSTAGLANDINS MANUFACTURED?
BECAUSE ITS THE BODYS WAY OF DEALING WITH
INJURY AND ILLNESS
INFLAMMATION BLOOD FLOW FORMATION OF
BLOOD CLOTS INDUCTION OF LABOUR
PROCESSES CONTROLLED BY PROGLANDINS
HOW ARE PROSTAGLANDINS DIFFERENT FROM
HORMONES
NOT SECRETED FROM A GLAND
NOT CARRIED IN THE BLOODSTREAM TO WORK
ON SPECIFIC AREAS AROUND THE BODY CAN
BE MADE IN NEARLY ALL THE ORGANS IN THE
BODY
HOW PROSTAGLANDINS DIFFER FROM
HORMONES
NEURAL STIMULATION ANOTHER HORMONE
STIMULATING THE GLAND A SUBSTANCE OTHER
THAN A HORMONE STIMULATING A GLAND
3 WAYS HORMONES ARE SECRETED BY THE
BODY
WHERE ARE THE ENDOCRINE GLANDS
LOCATED
THE HYPOTHALAMUS IS CONNECTED TO THE
PITUITARY GLAND BY THE INFUNDIBULUM
THIS SYSTEM IS SLOWER AND MORE GENERAL
AS TO TARGET TISSUE
ENDOCRINE SYTEM
CAN BE STOPPED FAST
NERVOUS SYSTEM
EPINEPHRINE IS MADE FROM AMINO ACIDS
INSULIN IS A PROTEIN
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF HORMONES
STEROIDS PROTEINS AMINO ACID DERIVATIVES
HORMONES
WHERE ARE RECEPTORS LOCATED
ON THE CELL MEMBRANE IN THE CYTOPLASM
HOW IS THE LOCATION OF THE RECEPTOR
DETERMINED
IT IS DETERMINED BY THE CHEMICAL
COMPOSITION OF THE HORMONE
A HORMONE THAT WORKS ON THE SAME
TISSUE THAT PRODUCED IT
AUTOCRINE
WHAT HAPPENS TO THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
WITH AGING
*SOME HORMONES CONTINUES TO BE
PRODUCED IN HIGH LEVELS THROUGHOUT LIFE
*TARGET TISSUES TEND TO DOWN-REGULATE
WITH AGE *IN GENERAL, HORMONE LEVELS
DIMINISH WITH AGE. *THE EFFECTS OF SOME
HORMONES ARE DIMINISHED
HOW ARE HORMONES ELIMINATED FROM THE
SYSTEMS
*THEY CAN EXCRETED BY THE LIVER *THEY CAN
BE EXCRETED BY THE KIDNEYS. *THEY CAN BE
METABOLIZED BY THE TARGET TISSUE *THEY
CAN BE ACTIVELY TRANSPORTED TO THE GLAND
THAT PRODUCED THEM.
WHAT IS INCLUDED IN THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
*PATCHES OF CELLS IN THE STOMACH THAT
MAKE CHEMICALS TO COMMUNICATE WITH
NEARBY CELLS *NUCLEI IN THE HYPOTHALAMUS
*PANCREATIC ISLETS *GONADS
Cells
QUESTION
ANSWER
What is the basic living unit of living
things?
The cell
All organisms are composed of one or
more ______?
Cells
All cells arise from?
Pre-existing cells
Cell Theory
1) basic unit of living things 2) All organisms composed of one or
more cells 3) All cells arise from existing cells
In contrast to the cell theory
protein, organelles are not living.
Primary Cell structure
Plasma membrane, membrane structure, integral proteins,
peripheral proteins, glycoproteins
Primary Cell structure: Plasma membrane
The boundary between the internal and external environment.
regulates what enters and leaves the cell.
Primary Cell structure: Plasma membrane function
The membrane is fluid, and allowing to
move around.
think pool filled with volleyballs....move them around but doesn't
change the number of volleyballs, their structure, etc.
Primary Cell structure: Lipid bi-layer
two layers of lipid molecules.
Cell membrane is composed of
Lipids, carbohydrates and proteins.
Frameworks of cell membrane made of
phospholipid molecules.
Liquid bi-layer of the cell membrane
Tails of phospholipids inside cell
membrane
water insoluble part of cell membrane lipid bilayer made of fatty
acids- make them impearable to
Phospholipids are molecules whose
heads are hydropholic
water loving
Phospholipids tails are Hydrophobic
Water hating
Lipds are nonpolar and therefore
do not dissolve in water
Since lipids don't dissolve in water, then
the membrane can form
a barrier between the inside and outside of the cell.
The liquid bilayer is in
constant motion
What floats within the cell membrane?
proteins and other molecules
Integral proteins
Float through the entire membrane and provide channel
passageways for molecules in & out of cells membranes.
Peripheral proteins
A protein that floats at the surface of the membrane acts as an
enzyme and signals transmission.
Glycoproteins
Peripheral proteins that function in cell recognition
A sugar protein, known as self recognition,
enable cell to recognize foreign cells
Glycoproteins
This type of protein is important in relation
to the lymphatic and reproduction system
Glyco protein which is part of the peripheral protein.
Detects viruses, fungus, etc
Glycoproteins detects foreign cells
Membrane Intercellular junctions
Tight, Gap and desmosomes
Membrane Intercellular junctions: tight
Cells that are "zippered" together to PREVENT movement of
extracellular materials
Membrane Intercellular junctions: Tight
examples
epithelium of the gut; brain barrier (blood brain barrier)
Membrane Intercellular junctions: Gap
ALLOWS for INTERcellular movement of material
Membrane Intercellular junctions: gap
examples
Myocardium
Membrane Intercellular junctions:
desmosomes
Network of proteins between cell that provide strength to tissues
(they look like stitches)
Membrane Intercellular junctions;
desmosomes examples
skin...but as we get older, te number of desmosomes decrease,
increasing the risk of skin tares
Membrane Intercellular junctions: tight
junction closing the space
Adjoining cells converge and fuse together.
Membrane Intercellular junctions: Gap
junction function
The heart muscle and digestive tract are interconnected by tubular
channels and allows ions, nutrients, amino acids, nucleotides, etc
to move between them.
Cytoplasm
Semi fluid environment of the cell
Cytosol
The liquid found in cells
Cytoplasm function
supplies the basic substances required for the functioning of the
cell.
Primary cell structure
Plasma Membrane, cytoplasm, nucleus, nucleolus, organelles.
Actvities of a cell occur largely where?
Cytoplasm
Cytoplasm basic functions include this
where nutrient molecules are recieved, processed and used in
metabolic reactions
The nucleus
Bound by membranes
Contains chromosomes and nucleolus
The nucleus function
The Nucleolus
no membrane composed of protein and RNA Molecules.
Produces ribosomes
The Nucleolus function
Organelles
Mebrane/cytoskeleton bound structures in the cytoplasm which
carry on or support the function of the cell.
Spider web like matrix that holds things in
position
Organelles
Cytoplasm Organelle & structures
ribosomes, Endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi Bodies, Mitochondrion,
Lysosomes, Peroxisome, centrosome, cytoskeleton
Cytoplasm Organelle & Structures:
Ribosomes function
Protein synthesis;
amino acids are linked together to form
proteins.
Ribosomes
Ribosomes location
They are bound the the endoplasmic reticulum.
Endoplasmic reticulum
A system of membranous channels, tubes and flattened sacs
manufacture of lipid and protein components of organelles.
Tubular transport system that participates
in protein synthesis and lipid molecules
ER- these molecules can leave the cell, or be used within the cell
for functions such as producing new ER
Smooth ER- What substance is
processed?
Process proteins destined for secretions from the cell
Smooth ER- What does it manufacture?
Lipid and protein components of organelles
Rough ER -what substance does it
synthesis?
Proteins are synthesized and then transfer to the golgi apparatus
for further processing.
Rough ER - Where does protein synthesis
occur?
it occurs via attached ribosomes which are the sites of protein
synthesis.
What does Smooth ER contain?
enzymes important for synthesizing lipids, absorbing fats from the
digestive tract, and break down to drugs.
What is the relationship of smooth er and
rough er?
Lipids are synthesized in the smooth ER and are added to the
proteins that were from the Rough ER.
Golgi Bodies
Dictyosomes
What is the function of Golgi Bodies
Recieve materials (such as proteins) from the ER, package &
transport them to organelles or the plasma membrane.
Mitochondrion function
Extraction of energy from CHO, ATP formation.
The powerhouse of the cell
Mitochondria
cristae
Inner membrane of the Mitochondria, that is highly convulted,
forming folds that increases the surface area of the mitochondria.
within the cristae, sugar and other
nutrients are combined and energy is
produced called
ATP
Lysosomes
Tiny membranous sacs known as the garbage disposal of the cell
Degredation, recycling of materials,
removal of bacteria and worn cells
Lysosomes function.
Peroxisome
Membranous sacs, look very similar to a lysosome, but mainly
found in the liver and kidney.
Catalyze reactions and remove hydrogen
peroxide
Peroxisome function
Centrosome
Location of the centrioles
Separate sister chromotids during mitosis
by forming spindle fibers
Centrosome
What do centrosomes do during cell
division?
Centrioles migrate to either side of the nucleus, spindle fibers are
formed, pull on and distribute chromosomes (chromosomes carry
DNA) to the new cells.
What else does centrosomes produce?
cilia and flagella
Cytoskeleton function
internal Framework of microfilaments and microtubules to which
organelles and chromosomes are anchored.
chromosomes contains abundant protein
rods and tubules that form a supportive
framework called
Cytoskeleton
Cell Surface Features
Cillium & Flagellum
Cillium(a)
Extension of the cell membrane
Propulsion and movement of substances
Cillium(a) function
Flagellum(a)
Complex structure on cell surface
Propulsion
Flagellum(a) function
Difference between flagella and cilia
Cilia are small hair like rods vs Flagella is single and longer than
cilium.
Membrane transport
Brownian movement, diffusion,
Brownian Movement
The constant movement of molecules (above absolute zero)
Diffusion
movement of a substance across/thru a membrane
Membrane transport: routes thru the
membrane
Lipid bi-layer, protein channels, protein water pores
Route thru membrane: Lipid bi-layer
for substances soluble in lipids (non-polar)
lipid bi-layer examples
Oxygen, Carbon dioxide, steroids, anesthetics
Route thru membrane: Protein Channels
Integral - for substances not soluble in lipids (polar)
Protein channels examples
Na+, Cl-
Why can't water go thru non polar
substance?
Because it is polar
Cinamon gum example
Cinamon oil is non polar which enabled for it to absorb into skin.
Passive systems
no cellular energy required with movement down a concentration
gradient; From higher to lower
Simple diffusion
movement of substance directly through the lipid bi-layer.
Facilitated diffusion
Passage through proteins via change in molecular structure of
protein carriers.
Facilitated diffusion eg
insulin promotes forms of diffusion of glucose.
Tissues
TERM
DEFINITION
Tissues
A group of similar cells that performs a specialized function.
Extracellular matrix
Molecules that fill spaces between cells, consisting mostly of protein fiber
networks.
Epithelial tissues
Tissue type that covers all free body surfaces.
Basement membrane
A layer of extracellular matrix that anchors eipthelial tissue to underlying
connective tissues.
Simple squamous epithelium
A single layer of thin, flattened cells. These cells fit tightly together, like floor
tiles, and their nuclei are usually broad and thin.
Simple cuboidal epithelium
A single layer of cube-shaped cells.These cells usually have centrally located,
spherical nuclei.
Simple columnar epithelium
These cells are elongated. They are longer than they are wide.
Pseudostratified columnar
epithelium
These cells appear stratified or layered, but they are not.
Stratified squamous epithelium
The many cell layers make this tissue relatively thick.
Stratified columnar epithelium
Consists of several layers of cells. The superficial cells are columnar,
whereas basal layers consist of cuboidal cells.
Transitional epithelium
Specialized to change in response to increased tension.
Glandular epithelium
Composed of cells that are specialized to produce and screte substances into
ducts or into body fluids.
Exocrine glands
Glands that secrete their products into ducts that open onto surfaces, such as
the skin or lining of the digestive tract.
Endocrine glands
Glands that secrete their products into tissue fluid or blood.
Merocrine glands
Glands that release watery, protein-rich fluids by exocytosis.
Apocrine glands
Glands that lose small portions of their glandular cell bodies during secretion.
Holocrine glands
Glands in which the entire cell lyses during secretion.
Connective tissues
A basic type of tissue that consists of cells within an extracellular matrix,
including bone, cartilage, and blood.
Fibroblasts
Cell that produces fibers in connective tissues.
Macrophages/Histocytes
Originate as white blood cells and are almost as numerous as fibroblasts in
some connective tissues.
Mast cells
A cell to which antibodies, formed in response to allergens, attach, bursting
teh cell and releasing allergy mediators, which cause symptoms.
Collagenous fibers
White fibers consisting of the protein collagen, common in connective tissues,
including bone matrix.
Ligaments
A cord or sheet of connective tissue binding two or more bones at a joint.
Tendons
A cordlike or bandlike mass of white fibrous connective tissue that connects a
muscle to a bone.
Elastic fibers
Stretchy yellow connective tissue fibers consisting of the protein elastin.
Reticular fibers
Very thin collagenous fibers.
Loose connective tissue/Areolar
Tissue
Forms delicate, thin membranes throughout the body.
Adipose tissue
Fat-storing tissue.
Dense connective tissue
Consists of many closely packed, thick, collagenous fibers and fine network of
elastic fibers.
Cartilage
Type of connective tissue with cells in lacunae separated by a semisolid
extracellular matrix.
Chondrocytes
A cartilage cell.
Hyaline cartilage
The most common type, has a very fine collagenous fibers in its extracellular
matrix and looks somewhat like white glass.
Elastic cartilage
Contains a dense network of elastic fibers and thus is more flexible that
hyaline cartilage.
Fibrocartilage
A very tough tissue, contains many collagenous fibers.
Bone
The most rigid connective tissue.
Osteocytes
A mature bone cell.
Osteon
A cylinder-shaped unit including bone cells that surround a central canal.
Blood
Transports a variety of materials between interior body cells amd those that
exchange substances with the external environment.
Muscle tissues
Contractile tissue consisting of filaments of actin and myosin, which slide past
each other, shortening cells.
Skeletal muscle tissues
Type of voluntary muscle tissue in muscles attached to bones.
Smooth muscle tissue
Type of involuntary muscle tissue in teh walls of hollow viscera.
Cardiac muscle tissue
Specialized muscle tissue found only in the heart.
Nervous tissue
Neurons and neuroglia.
Neurons
A nerve cell.
Neuroglial cells
Specialized cells of teh nervous system that produce myelin, communicate
between cells, and maintain the ionic environment.
Organ
A structure consisting of a group of tissues with a specialized function.
Serous membranes
Membrane that lines a cavity without opening to the outside.
Mucous membranes
Line cavities and tubes that open to the outside of the body.
Cutaneous membrane
Pertaining to the skin.
Synovial membrane
Membrane that forms the inner lining of the capsule of a freely movable joint.
Stratified cuboidal epithelium
Consists of two or three layers of cuboidal cells that form the lining of the
lumen.
Body Cavities & Membranes
QUESTION
ANSWER
Pericardial Membranes
Parietal pericardium, visceral pericardium, pericardial cavity
(Skeleton) Axial
head, neck, and trunk
(Skeleton) Appendicular
upper and lower limbs
Body Cavities
Spaces within the body that contain internal organs
Two principal body cavities
dorsal and ventral cavity
Dorsal Body Cavity
located near the posterior/dorsal (back) surface of the body
What is the dorsal body cavity
composed of?
composed of cranial cavity(contains the brain), vertebral/spinal canal (contains
the spinal cord and surrounded by sections of the backbone)
Ventral Body Cavity
located on the anterior/ventral (belly) side of the body; contains the organs
called viscera
Two subdivisions of the ventral
body cavity
thoracic cavity and abdominopelvic cavity, separated by the diaphragm
The Thoracic Cavity
pleural cavities, pericardial cavity, the mediastinum
Pleural cavities
right and left: contain the lungs
Pericardial cavity
around the heart
The Mediastinum
region between the lungs, includes the heart, esophagus, trachea and thymus
gland
Abodominopelvic cavity
abdominal and pelvic cavity
Upper Abdominal Cavity
contains the stomach, liver, spleen, gallbladder and the small and large
intestines
Lower Pelvic Cavity
enclosed by the pelvic bones, terminal end of the large intestines, urinary
bladder, and internal reproductive organs
Oral Cavity
teeth and tongue
Nasal Cavity
sphenoidal and frontal sinuses
Orbital Cavities
eyes
Middle Ear Cavities
middle ear bones
Serous Membranes
thin, double layered membranes; lines the walls of cavities and folds back to
cover the organs; secretes a lubricating fluid called serous fluid
Parietal Membranes
line cavities
Visceral Membranes
cover organs
Pleural Membranes
deals with the lungs
Pericardial Membranes
deals with the heart
Peritoneal Membranes
deals with the abdominopelvic cavity
Pleural Membranes
Parietal pleura, visceral pleura, pleural cavity
Peritoneal Membranes
Parietal peritoneum, visceral peritoneum, peritoneal cavity
Parietal pleura
line the walls of the right and left thoracic cavities (lungs)
Visceral pleura
membranes that cover the lungs
Pleural cavity
located between the parietal and visceral pleural membranes
Parietal pericardium
lines the pericardial cavity (heart)
Visceral pericardium
(epicardium)
covers the heart surface
Pericardial cavity
located between the parietal and visceral pericardial membranes
Parietal peritoneum
lines the abdominal wall
Visceral peritoneum
covers each organ
Peritoneal cavity
the space between these membranes
Bones
QUESTION
ANSWER
Tubercle
A small rounded process of bone.
Lacrimal bones
2 small bones paper thin & shaped somewhat like a
fingernail.
Where are the Lacrimal bones located?
in the inner corner of each eye,forming the side wall
of the nasal cavity & middle wall of the eye orbit.
What do the Lacrimal bones form?
They join the cheek bones on each side to form the
fossa which houses the tear ducts.
Temporal bones
the 2 bones that form the lower sides & part of the
base of the skull.
What do the temporal bones contain?
The middle & inner ear structures,mastoid sinuses.
Where are the temporal bones located?
Immediately behind the external part of the ear
which projects downward from mastoid process.
What is a foramen?
Hole in a bone through which blood vessels or
nerves pass.
What is hematopoiesis?
Normal formation & development of red blood cells
in the bone marrow.
Intervertebral disc
A flat,circular platelie structure of cartilage that
serves as a cushion between the vertebrae. SHOCK
ABSORBER
What are long bones?
bones that are longer than they are wide. distinctive
shaped ends,such as the Femur.
Diaphysis
main shaftlike portion of a bone
what is the epiphyseal line?
layer of cartilage that separates the diaphysis from
the epiphysis of a bone. AKA growth plate or
epiphyseal plate
Flat bones
Bones that are broad & thin w/curved flat surfaces,
ex:sternum
Floating Ribs
Ribs 11-12. connect to vertebrae in back but are free
from any attachment in the front.
Fontanelle or Fontanel
Space between bones of an infant's cranium AKASOFT SPOT
Immovable joi8nts, such as those of the cranium.
Sutures
Osteoporosis
condition when bones were once strong but are now
losing density.
Disease in which the bones become abnormally soft due
to a deficiency in calcium&phosphorous in the blood.
Osteomalacia
What happens to people with Osteomalacia?
Fractures and noticeable deformaties of the weightbearing bones.
What is Osteomalacia called in children?
Rickets
The conversion of cartilage and fibrous connective tissue
to bone; the formation of bone.
Ossification
What are mature bone cells called?
Osteocytes
What are Intercostal Spaces?
Spaces between the ribs
What is the end of a bone called?
Epiphysis
Rib pairs 8-10, connect to vertebrae in back but not to
sternum in front.
False ribs
What are the 3 parts of the sternum?
Manubrium, body, xiphoid process
What is the Manubrium?
broad upper end of sternum.
What is the sternum?
Breastbone
What is the body of sternum?
elongated part of sternum,connects on it's sides
w/2nd-7th pair of ribs
What is the xiphoid process?
The bottom part of the sternum;can be broken
during CPR.
Where is the Humerous located?
upper arm bone.Joins scapula
More slender of the 2 leg bones. On pinky side of foot.
Fibula
Larger & stronger of the 2 lower leg bones.
Tibia AKA shin bone located on big toe side
Knee bone or Knee cap
Patella
What is the definition of the Patella?
Largest-sesamoid bone in the body.
Where is the Patella located?
In the tendon of the large anterior thigh muscle,the
point of connection between Femur and tibia
What is the purpose of the Patella?
To cover and protect the knee.
The thigh bone
Femur
What is the definition of Femur?
Longest,heaviest&strongest bone in the body.
The pro9ximal end of the Femur has a large ro9unded
head that fits into the.....of the hip bones forming the hip
joint. fill in dots.
Acetabulum
Occurs when a bone,which is weakend by a preexesting
disease,breakks in response to a force that wouldn't
normally cause a bone to break.
Pathological Fracture Ex of underlying factors:
rickets, osteomalacia, osteoporosis.
What are metatarsals?
The bones of the foot or hand
Tarsals
The bones of the ankle
On the lateral or thumb side of the lower arm
Radius
Abnormal lateral curvature of a portion of the spine. The
curvature may be to the lft. or rt.
Scoliosis
A local or generalized infection of the bone&bone
marrow,resulting from a bacterial infection that has
spread to the bone tissue through the blood.
Osteomyelitis oste/o=bone myel/o=bone marrow itis=inflammation
The bones of the hand, beyond the carpals.
Metacarpals
An abnormal OUTWARD CURVATION of a portion of the
spine, commonly known as humpback or hunchback.
Kyphosis
Forms the forehead & upper part of the bony cavities that
contain the eyeballs.
Frontal bone frontal sinuses are located in this
bone,just above the area where the frontal bone
joins the nasal bone
phalanges
bones of the fingers. Each finger has 3 bones. The
thumb only has 2.
Bones of the toes each toe has 3. The big toe has 2.
phalanges
An abnormal INWARD CURVATURE of a portion of the
spine, commonly known as sway back...in LUMBAR
vertebrae
Lordosis
What is a Condyle?
knuckle like projection at the end of a bone
ilium
largest of the 3 hip bones. upper flared portion of the
hip bones.
The upper curved edge of the ilium. Has anterior
projection.
Iliac crest AKA anterior iliac spine
What is the ischium?
the lowest part of the hip bones & strongest of the
pelvic bones.
On the medial or pinky side of the lower arm. joins
Humerous at top.
Ulna.
What is the Olecranon process ?
Large projection on the end of the ulna forms the
point of the elbow.
MUSCLES
QUESTION
ANSWER
Torso
Midsection or Trunk
Origin
Less movable;point of attachment of a muscle to a bone
Articular Cartilage
covers the surface of connecting bones
Muscle Biopsy; can be done by
biobsy needle or incisional
biopsy
extraction of a specimen of muscle tissue for the purpose of examining under
a microscope.
Atrophy
Wasting away;literally "without development"
Circumduction
the movementof an extremity around in a circular motion
Crepitation
Crepitation Clicking or crackling sounds heard upon joint movement.
Bunionectomy
Surgical removal of a bunion;removing the bursa & bony overgrowth
flexion
A bending motion that decreases the angle between 2 bones.
Ligaments
connect bone to bone;offers suport to the joint
Joint Cavity
The space between two connecting bones
Arthralgia
joint pain
Dorsiflexion
Bending foot backward/upward at ankle(toward tibia)
Ganglionectomy
surgical removal of ganglion
Hinge Joint
Joint that allows movement in one direction. back-and-forth motion. ex:
knees,elbows
Photosensitivity
Increased reaction of the skin to exposure to light
Fascia
Holds Fibers together. Thin sheets of fibrous connective tissue that
penetrate&co9ver the
Bursa
Small sac that contains synovial fluid for lubricating the area @the joint
WHERE FRICTION IS MOST LIKELY TO OCCUR. ex:knee, elbow,shoulder
latissimus dorsi
Forms the posterior border of axilla/armpit.
Involuntary Muscle
Muscles that act w/out conscious control
Viscous
sticky;gelatinous
gout
A form of ACUTE arthritis that is characterized of the first metatarsal joint of
the great toe.
ganglion
ganglionCystic tumor developing on a tendon.Sometimes occuring on the
back of the wrist.
tendon
Attaches Muscle to bone.
Striated Muscle
Muscles that have a striped appearance when viewed under a
microscope.EX:Skeletal&Cardiac muscles
insertion
The POINT OF ATTACHMENT of a muscle to bone and moves. MORE
MOVEABLE
Tibialis Anterior
muscle positioned on the front of the leg. responsible for turning foot
inward&for dorsiflexing the foot.
gastrocnemius
Main muscle of the Calf. Used in standing on tiptoes(plantar flexing foot) &
flexing toes.
gluteus medius
Used for IM injection, smaller muscle located above the upper outer quadrant
of the gluteus maximus. helps abduct thigh.
gluteus maximus
Forms most of the fleshy part of the buttock.Offers support when individual is
standing. extends thigh
deltoid
Used for IM injections. Muscle that covers shoulder joint;originates from the
clavicle & scapula,inserts on lateral side of humerus.
Abduction
Movement of a bone away from midline of body.
Adduction
Movement of a bone towards midline of the body.
Pelvic girdle weakness
Weakness in the pelvic girdle. In MD it weakens causing a child to use 1 or
both hands to assist in rising from a sitting position by "walking" the hands up
the lower extremities until in upright position.
Arthralgia
pain in the joins;symptoms present many joint diseases.
ArthritisInflammation of the
joints
Inflammation of the joints
Trapezius
TRIANGULAR-SHAPED muscle that extends acrose the back of the
shoulder.Covers the back of the neck & inserts on the clavicle & scapula.
Pronation
Turning palms downward or backward
Supination
Turning palms upward or forward
Rotation
The turning of a bone on it's own axis.
Osteoarthritis AKA Degenerative
Joint Disease
MOST COMMON FORM OF ARTHRITIS;results from wear and tear on the
joints, especially weight bearing joints such as knees and hipsl.
Sciatica
Inflammation of the nerve marked by pain & tenderness along the path of the
nerve through the thigh and leg
arthrocentesis
Surgical puncture of a joint w/a needle for the purpose of withdrawing fluid for
analysis.
arthroplasty
Surgical reconstruction/repair of a joint
Rheumatoid Arthritis
CHRONIC,SYSTEMIC INFLAMATORY DISEASE,affects multiple joints such
as those in the hands and feet.
Lyme disease
ACUTE inflammatory infection transmitted through the bite of an infected
deer tick.
Pectoralis Major
Fan shaped muscle that crosses the upper part of the front of the chest.
Muscular Dystrophy (MD)
Group of genetically transmitted disorders characterized by progressive
symmetrical wasting of skeletal muscles;no evidence of nerve or nerve
involvement or degeneration of nerve tissue.
Subluxation
An incomplete dislocation of a bone; such as the shoulder joint.
Electromyography
ElectromyographyProcess of recording the strength of the contraction of a
muscle when it is stimulated by an electric current
Rotator cuff tear
A tear in the muscles that form a "cuff" over the head of the humerus.
strains
Injury to the body of the muscle or attachment of the tendon, resulting from
bunion
Abnormal enlargment of the joint at the base of the great toe.
Contracture
An abnormal(usually permanent) bending of a joint into a fixed position.
malaise
A vague feeling of weakness
Kyphosis
Humpback
ball-and-socket joint
Joint that allows free movement in many directions around a central point.
Masseter
Used when chewing and biting. Raises lower jaw.
Buccinator
Cheek muscle
temporal
muscle located above and near the ear.
plantar flexion
Bending foot downward pointing toes
Suture
An immovable joint
Synovial Fluid
Thick lubricating fluid located in synovial joints
Closed Reduction or
Manipulation
Manual forcing of a joint back into it's original psition without surgery
Extension
A straightening motion;increases the angle between two bones.
Hamstring muscles
located in the posterior part of the thigh are hamstring muscles which are
responsible for flexing the leg on the thigh
Skeletal muscles
muscles that attach to the bones of the skeleton; also known as striated
muscle. Skeletal muscles act voluntarily
Smooth muscle
muscles found in the walls of hollow organs and tubes such as the stomach,
intestines, respiratory passageways, and blood vessels; also known as
visceral muscles. Smooth muscles act involuntarily
Visceral muscle
muscles of the internal organs
Voluntary muscle
muscles that operate under conscious control
Fibrous joint
the surfaces of the bones fit closely together and are held together by fibrous
connective tissue
Cartilaginous joint
the bones are connected by cartilage-as in the symphysis(joint between the
pubic bones of the pelvis
Synovial joint
the bones have a space between them called the joint cavity
Hinge joint
allows movement in one direction-a back-and-forth type of motion
Dorsiflexion
the foot narrows the angle between the leg and the top of the foot
Bunion
abnormal enlargement of the joint at the base of the great toe
Synovial membrane
the lining of a synovial joint cavity
Dislocation
is the displacement of a bone from its normal location within a joint, causing
loss of functionof the joint
Herniated disk
is the rupture of the central portion, or nucleus, of the disk throuh the disk
wall and into the spinal canal
Sprains
is an injury involving the ligaments that surround and support a joint, caused
by a wrenching or twisting motion
Systemic lupus erythematosus
is a chronic inflammatory connective-tssue disease affecting the skin, joints,
nervous system, kidneys, lungs, and other organs
Arthroscopy
is the visualization of the interior of a joint using an endoscope
Rheumatoid factor
test is a blood test that measures the presence of unusual antibodies that
develop in a number of connective tissue diseases, such as rheumatoid
arthritis
Nervous System
QUESTION
ANSWER
What is the nervous system responsible for
control and integration of the various parts and
activities of the body
What is the nervous system composed of
neurons and neuroglia
What are the two systems that make up the nervous
system
central nervous system, peripheral nervous system
What makes up the central nervous system
brain and spinal cord
What makes up the peripheral nervous system
"everything else" -anything that comes off the CNS
How many pairs of spinal nerves are there
31
How many pairs of cranial nerves are there
12
What does the somatic nervous system control
voluntary activities
What does the autonomic nervous system control
involuntary activities (automatic)
What are the two divisions of the autonomic nervous
system
parasympathetic, sympathetic
What does parasympathetic do
rest and digest
What does sympathetic do
fight or flight
What are the two pathways off the brain and spinal cord
sensory and motor pathways
What are the two systems that come off the motor
pathways
autonomic nervous system, somatic nervous system
Is autonomic nervous system voluntary or involuntary
involuntary
Is the somatic nervous system voluntary or involuntary
voluntary
What are the three divisions of the autonomic nervous
system
sympathetic, parasympathetic, enteric
What does enteric involve
intestines
Structural and functional unit of the nervous system
neurons
What is responsible for reception, integration,
transformation, and transmission of information
neuron
What are the three components of the neuron
cell body, dendrites, axons
Where is the cell body located
gray matter of the CNS
Collections are called ___ in the PNS and ___ in the
CNS
ganglia, nuclei
Where is the nucleus located
cell body
Carry impulses towards the cell body
dendrites
Carry impulses away from the cell body
axons
What brings multiple impulses into the cell body
dendrites
What speeds up production of things
myelin
What are the three classifications of neurons
Unipolar (pseudounipolar) neurons, bipolar neurons,
multipolar neurons
What are the characteristics of a unipolar
(pseudounipolar) neuron
have one process that divides into a central branch
(functions as an axon) and a peripheral branch
(functions as a dendrite)
What are the examples of unipolar (pseudounipolar)
neurons
sensory neurons in the PNS, spinal, and cranial nerve
ganglia
What are the characteristics of bipolar neurons
have two processes (1 axon, 1 dendrite) that contains
a neuron in the middle of the axon and dendrite
Bipolar neurons are largely ___
sensory
What are the examples of bipolar neurons
found in olfactory epithelium, the retina of the eye,
and the inner ear
What are the characteristics of multipolar neurons
contain several dendrites and only one axon, most
common in the CNS
What are examples of multipolar neurons
motor cells found in the anterior/lateral horns of the
spinal cord and autonomic ganglion cells
Where are sympathetic nerve system nerve cell bodies
found
lateral horns
Collection of nerve cell bodies found within the CNS are
___
nuclei
Collection of nerve cell bodies found outside the CNS
are ___
ganglion
What do the peripheral axon terminals connect to
the next cell body
Is the multipolar neuron a motor or sensory neuron
motor
Is the pseudounipolar neuron a motor or sensory
neuron
sensory neuron
What are the support cells of the nervous system
neuroglia
In the CNS, neuroglia include:
oligodendrocytes, astrocytes, microglia (myelin)
In the PNS, neuroglia include:
satellite cells, schwann cells, (myelin)
Help form barriers (for example: blood-brain barrier)
astrocytes
Play a role in myelin formation in the CNS
oligodendrocytes
Phagocytize neuronal waste products (eat foreign
debris)
microglia
Play a role in myelin formation in the PNS
schwann cells
Found in the PNS but function similarly to the astrocytes
satellite cellls
Form sheathes around axons; help speed conduction of
impulse responses
myelin
What parts of the neuroglia form myelin
oligodendrocytes, schwann cells
What does GSA, GSE, GVA, and GVE stand for
GSA-general somatic afferent, GSE-general somatic
efferent, GVA-general visceral afferent, GVE-general
visceral efferent
Afferent or Efferent carry impulse toward nervous
system
afferent
Afferent or Efferent carry impulse away from nervous
system
efferent
Afferent carries impulse toward nervous system
(sensory or motor)
sensory
Efferent carries impulse away from nervous system
(sensory or motor)
motor
GSA, GSE, GVA, GVE-transmit pain, temperature,
touch, and proprioception from the body to the CNS
GSA
GSA, GSE, GVA, GVE-carry motor impulses to skeletal
muscles of the body
GSE
GSA, GSE, GVA, GVE-carry sensory impulses from the
viscera (organs) to the CNS
GVA
GSA, GSE, GVA, GVE-stretching, irritation of organs
GVA
GSA, GSE, GVA, GVE-transmit motor impulses to the
smooth muscle, cardiac muscles, and glandular tissue
GVE
All autonomics are what kind of fiber
GVE
List the seven functional components of peripheral
nerves
GSA, GSE, GVA, GVE, SSA, SVA, SVE
What does SSA, SVA, and SVE stand for
special somatic afferent, special visceral afferent,
special visceral efferent
SSA, SVA, SVE-convey special sensory impulses of
vision, hearing, and equilibrium to the CNS
SSA
SSA, SVA, SVE-transmit smell and taste sensations to
the CNS
SVA
SSA, SVA, SVE-conduct motor impulses to the muscles
of the head and neck
SVE
SSA, SVA, SVE-these arise from branchiomeric formed
structures (special formation from pharyngeal arches
during embryological development)
SVE
SSA, SVA, SVE-include the muscles for mastication,
facial expression, and to the pharynx and larynx
SVE
Taste and smell are more ___ than ___
visceral, sensation
The radial nerve spans from what to what
C5-T1
What three systems is the autonomic nervous system
divided up into
sympathetic division, parasympathetic division,
enteric division
What is another name for the sympathetic division of
the autonomic nervous system
thoracolumbar
What is another name for the parasympathetic division
of the autonomic nervous system
craniosacral
What two neurons does the autonomic nervous system
consist of
preganglionic (presynaptic) fibers, postganglionic
(postsynaptic) fibers
Where are the preganglionic nerve cell bodies located
in the lateral horn of the thoracic and upper lumbar
spinal cord
Where does the lateral horn span
T1-L2 or L3
What is the lateral horn also known as
the interomediolateral gray column
What are the three things that preganglionic fibers can
pass through
ventral roots, spinal nerves, white rami
communicantes
The white rami communicantes connect the ___ to the
___
spinal nerve, sympathetic chain
Once the preganglionic fibers have passed through its
three options, what are its three options to do for its
synapse
1-synapse on the sympathetic chain, 2-can travel up
or down the chain to synapse at a remote ganglion, 3travel through the splanchnic nerves along major
blood vessels in the abdomen
Postganglionic fibers travel from ___ to their destination
ganglia
The postganglionic fibers can supply what three things;
secretory fibers, motor fibers, vasomotor
secretory fibers to sweat glands, motor fibers to the
arrector pili muscles in the skin, vasomotor to the
blood vessels
Postganglionic fibers can hitch hike to ___/___ for
feedback
organs/glands
What system is responsible for acting in emergency
situations
sympathetic
Name the four things that happen in fight or flight
response
increase heart rate, inhibit GI motility & secretions,
dilate pupils, increase respiration
What sits on top of the vertebra (typically sit on top of
aorta)
prevertebral ganglion
Name the four courses taken by presynaptic
sympathetic fibers within the sympathetic trunks
1-ascend and then synapse, 2-synapse at level of
entry, 3-descend and then synapse, 4-pass through
sympathetic trunk without synapsing to enter an
andominopelvic splanchnic nerve
In parasympathetic nervous system, preganglionic
nerve cell bodies arise from what
brainstem and sacral part of the spinal cord
In the parasympathetic nervous system, preganglionic
nerve cell bodies arise from the brainstem via what
cranial nerves 3, 7, 9, 10
In the parasympathetic nervous system, preganglionic
nerve cell bodies arise from the sacral part of the spinal
cord via what
pelvic splanchnic nerves S2-S4
The parasympathetic system is characterized by having
what types of presynaptic and postsynaptic fibers
long presynaptic, short postsynaptic
Post ganglionic fibers travel from a ___ to their
destination
ganglia
The parasympathetic nervous system involves the walls
of ___, but unlike sympathetic system, it does not go
into the ___ or ___
organs, skin, periphery
Which system is responsible for maintaining
homeostasis
parasympathetic
What is the nickname for the parasympathetic system
rest and digest
What are the two main actions of the parasympathetic
system
decrease heart rate, increase GI motility and
secretions
What cranial nerve involved in parasympathetic
innervation, supplies the organs of the body
vagus
Where does the vagus stop innervating, and what takes
over and where
left colic flexure, sacral nerves take over at the distal
large intesting
What organ parts do the sacral nerves supply
distal large intestine, rectum, bladder, penis, clitoris
What are the four ganglions involved in
parasympathetic system
ciliary ganglion, pterygopalatine ganglion, otic
ganglion, submandibular ganglion
What does the enteric nervous system consist of
enteric ganglia, plexus of the GI tract
What are the two plexi that are responsible for control of
the motility and secretions of the GI tract in the enteric
nervous system
myenteric (auerbach's) plexus, submucosal
(meissner's) plexus
What plexus is responsible for peristaltic movements
myenteric plexus
What plexus is responsible for secretions of the glands
within organs
submucosal plexus
Transmitters of nerve impulses toward CNS.
afferent nerves
The inability to convert one's thoughts into writing.
agraphia
Without sensitivity to pain.
analgesia
Without feeling or sensation.
anesthesia
A localized dilation in the wall of an atrery that expands
with each pulsation of the artery.
aneurysm
Inability to communicate through speech, writing, or
signs because of an injury to or disease in certain
areasn of the brain.
aphasia
Inability to perform coordinated movements or use
objects properly.
apraxia
Without muscular coordination
ataxia
The sensation of an individual experiences prior to the
onset of a migraine headache or an epileptic seizure.
aura
The part of the nervous system that regulates the
involuntary vital functions of the body.
automic nervous system
The part of the cell that transports nerve impulses away
from the nerve cell body.
Axon
Abnormally slow movement.
bradykinesia
The stemlike portion of the brain that connects the
cerebral hemisphere with the spinal cord. medulla
oblongata
brain stem
A positive sign of meningitis
Brudzinski's sign
A hole drilled into the skull using a form of drill
burr hole
One of the two main divisions of the nervous system,
consisting of the brain and spinal cord.
Central nervous system
headache
cephalgia
The part of the brain responsible for coordinating
voluntary muscular movement.
cerebellum
A brief interruption of brain function, usually with loss of
consciousness lasting for few minutes.
cerebral concussion
Small scattered venous hemorrages in the brain; better
described as "bruise" of the brain tissue occuring when
the brain strikes the inner skull.
cerebral contussion
The fluid flowing through the brain and around the
spinal cord that protects them from physical blow or
impact.
cerebrospinal fluid
The largest and uppermost part of the brain.
cerebrum
A deep sleep in which the individual cannot be aroused
and does not respond to external stimuli
coma
A surgical incision into the cranium or skull
craniotomy
A projection that extends from the nerve cell body. It
recieves impulses and conducts them on to the cell
body.
dendrite
Difficult speech
dysphasia
Transmitter of nerve impulses away from CNS.
efferent nerves
The style of walking
gait
Paralysis of one half of the body.
hemiplegia
shingles
herpes zoster
Excessive sensitivity to sensory stimuli, such as pain or
touch.
hyperesthesia
state of being sluggish
lethargy
Most essential part of the brain in that it contains the
cardiac,vasomotor and respitory centers of the brain
medulla oblongata
The three layers of the protective membranes that
surround the brain and spinal cord.
meninges
A protective shealth that covers the axonsof many
nerves in the body. Speed
myelin sheath
Uncintrolled, sudden attacks of sleep.
narcolepsy
A cordlike bundle of nerve fibers that transmit impulses
to and from the brain and spinal cord to other parts of
the body.
nerve
The injection of a local anesthetic along the course of a
nerve or nerves to eliminate sensation to the area
supplied by the nerve.
nerve block
Severe, sharp, spasmlike pain that extends along the
course of one or more nerves
neuralgia
Inflammation of a nerve.
neuritis
The supporting tissue of the nervous system.
neuroglia
A Physician who specializes in treating the diseases
and disorders of the nervous system.
neurologist
The study of the nervous system and its disorders.
neurology
A nerve cell.
neuron
A physician who specializes in surgery of the nervous
system.
neurosurgery
blockage
occlusion
soothing
palliative
Paralysis of the lower extremities and trunk
paraplegia
Nerves of the ANS that regulate essential involuntary
body functions.
parasympathetic nerves
A sensation of numbness or tingling.
paresthesia
consisting of 12pairs of cranial nerves and 31 pairs of
spinal nerves.
peripheral nervous system
The process by which certain cells engulf and destroy
microorganisms and cellular debris.
Phagocytosis
A small cone-shaped structure biological clock
pineal gland
A network of interwoven nerves.
plexus
Paralysis of all four extremities
quadriplegia
A sensory nerve ending.
receptor
Inflammation of the sciatic nerve.
sciatica
Nreves of the ANS that regulate essential involuntary
body functions
sympathetic nerves
The space between the end of one nerve and the
beginning of another, through which nerve impulses are
transmitted.
synapse
Fainting
syncope
recieves all sensory stimuli, except those of smell.
Thalamus
An abnormal condition in which a clot develops in a
bllod vessel.
thrombosis
A small hollow within the brain that is filled with
cerebrospinal fluid
ventricle
An injury to the cervical vertebrae and their supporting
structures due to sudden back and forth jerking
movement of the head and neck
whiplash
Deterioration of a person's intellectual functioning.
Alzheimer's disease
Severe weakening and wasting of the involved muscle
groups, usually begining with hands and progressing to
the shoulders, upper arms, and legs.
ALS
Abscence of the brain and spinal cord at birth.
anencephaly
temporary or permanent unilateral weakness or
paralysis of the muscles in the face following trauma to
the face, an unknown infection, or a tumor pressing on
the facial nerve.
Bell's palsy
Brief interruption of brain function, usually with aloss of
consciousness lasting for few seconds
cerebal concussion
small, scattered venous hemorrhage in the brain
occurring when brain strikes the inner skull.
cerebral contussion
Term used to describe congenital brain damage that is
permanent but not progressive. Characterized by lack of
control of voluntary muscles.
Cerebral Palsy
Stroke
CVA
shingles
herpes zoster
uncontrolled sudden attacks of sleep
narcolepsy
highly malignant tumor of the sympathetic nervous
system
neuroblastoma
degenerative, slowly progressive deterioration of nerve
in the brain stem's motor system, stooped posture with
body flexed forward;a bowed head;a shuffling gait
Parkinson's disease
degenerative inflammatory disease of the CNS
attacking the myelin sheath in the spinal cord and brain.
Multiple sclerosis-MS
Serious bacterial infection of the meninges
Meningitis(acute bacterial)
increase of cerebrospinal fluid in the brain
hydrocephalus
cell found in the interstitial tissue of the nervous system
oligodendrocyte
pinching or compression of the median nerve within the
carpal tunnel due to inflammation and swelling of the
tendons
carpal tunnel syndrome
inflammation of the brain or spinal cord tissue largely
cause by a virus
encephalitis
recurring episodes of excessive irregular electrical
activity of the brain
epilepsy
sudden loss of consciousness and by generalized
involuntary muscular contraction
grand mal seizure
small seizure in which there is a sudden temporary loss
of consciousness only a few seconds
petit mal seizure
developing on one side of the head
migraine headache
typically two or three hours after falling asleep
cluster headache
occurs from long, endured contraction of the skeletal
muscles around the face, scalf,upper back and neck
tension headache
above the arachnoid layer of the meninges
hematoma, subdural
visualization of the cerebral vascular system via x-ray
after
cerebral angiography
measurement of electrical activity produced by the brain
and recorded through electrodes placed on the scalp
electroencephalography
insertion of a hollow needle and stylet into the
subarachnoid space
lumbar puncture
a noninvasive scanning procedure that provides
visualization of fluid without radiation
magnetic resonance imaging
used to evaluate cerebellar function and balances
Romberg Test
Cardiovascular System
QUESTION
ANSWER
aorta
Largest artery of the body; vessel through which oxygenated blood exits the heart
Arteriole
A tiny artery connecting to a capillary
Artery
A thick-walled blood vessel that, in systemic circulation, carries oxygenated blood away
from the heart
Atrioventricular
bundle
bundle of fibers in the interventricular septum that transfers charges in the hearts
conduction system; also called the bundle of His
Atrium
Either of the two upper chambers of the heart
blood
essential fluid made up of plasma and other elements that circulates throughout the
body; delivers nutrients to and removes waste from the body's cells
blood pressure
measure of the force of blood surging against the walls of the arteries
bundle of His
same as atrioventricular bundle
capillary
the smallest blood vessel that forms the exchange point between the arterial and
venous vessels
carbon dioxide
waste material transported in the venous blood
carotid artery
artery that transports oxygenated blood to the head and neck
diastole
Relaxation phase of a heartbeat
Ductus arteriosus
Structure in the fetal circulatory system through which blood flows to bypass the fetus's
nonfunctioning lungs
endocardium
membranous lining of the chambers and valves of the heart; the innermost layer of heart
tissue
femoral artery
an artery that supplies blood to the thigh
heart
muscular organ that receives blood from the veins and sends it into the arteries
inferior vena cava
large vein that draws blood from the lower part of the body to the right atrium
left atrium
upper left heart chamber
left ventricle
lower left heart chamber
myocardium
muscular layer of heart tissue between the epicardium and the endocardium
popliteal artery
an artery that supplies blood to the cells of the area behind the knee
pulmonary artery
one of two arteries that carry blood that is low in oxygen from the heart to the lungs
Purkine fibers
specialized fibers that conduct the charge
pulmonary vein
one of four veins that bring oxygenated blood from the lungs to the left atrium
pulse
rhythmic expansion and contraction of a blood vessel, usually an artery
right atrium
upper right chamber of the heart
right ventricle
lower right chamber of the heart
septum
partition between the left and right chambers of the heart
sinus rhythm
normal heart rhythm
superior vena cava
large vein that transports blood collected from the upper part of the body to the heart
systole
contraction phase of the heartbeat
ventricle
either of the two lower chambers of the heart
angi(o)
blood vessel
aort(o)
aorta
arteri(o)
artery
ather(o)
fatty matter
atri(o)
atrium
cardi(o)
heart
phleb(o)
vein
Ven(o)
vein
aden(o)
gland
ech(o)
sound
hem(o)
blood
electr(o)
electric
AMI
acute myocardial infarction
AV
atrioventricular
BP
blood pressure
CABG
coronary artery bypass graft
CAD
coronary artery disease
CHD
coronary heart disease
CHF
congestive heart failure
CPR
cardiopulmonary resuscitation
CVA
cerebrovascular accident
CVD
cardiovascular disease
DSA
digital subtraction angiography
DVT
deep venous thrombosis
arteriography
viewing of a specific artery by x-ray after injection of a contrast medium
auscultation
process of listening to body sounds via a stethoscope
cholesterol
fatty substance present in animal fats; cholesterol circulates in the bloodstream ,
sometimes causing arterial plaque to form
doppler ultrasound
ultrasound test of blood flow in certain blood vessels
echocardiography
use of sound waves to produce images showing the stucture and motion of the heart
holter monitor
portable device that provides a 24 hour electrocardiogram
phlebography
viewing of a vein by x-ray after injection of a contrast medium
sonography
production of images based on the echoes of sound waves against structures
sphygmomanometer
device for measuring blood pressure
stress test
test that measures heart rate, blood pressure, and other body functions while the patient
is exercising on a treadmill
aneurysm
ballooning of the artery wall caused by weakness in the wall
angina pectoris
chest pain, usually caused by a lowered oxygen or blood supply to the heart
aortic regurgitation
backward flow or leakage of blood through a faulty aortic valve
arrhythmia
irregularity in the rhythm of the heartbeat
asystole
cardiac arrest
atheroma
a fatty deposit (plaque) in the wall of an artery
bradycardia
heart rate of fewer than 60 beats per minute
cardiac arrest
sudden stopping of the heart; also called asystole
claudication
limping caused by inadequate blood supply during activity; usually subsides during rest
congestive heart
failure
inability of the heart to pump enough blood out during the cardiac cycle; collection of
fluid in the lungs results
coronary artery
disease
condition that reduces the flow of blood and nutrients through the arteries of the heart
cyanosis
bluish or purplish coloration, as of the skin, caused by inadequate oxygenation of the
blood.
deep vein thrombosis
formation of a thrombus (clot) in a deep vein, such as a femoral vein
dysrhythmia
abnormal heart rhythm
fibrillation
random, chaotic, irregualr heart rhythm
flutter
regular but very rapid heartbeat
gallop
triple sound of a heartbeat, usually indicative of serious heart disease
hemorrhoids
varicose condition of veins in the anal region
hypertension
chronic condition with blood pressure greater than 140/90
hypotension
chronic condition with blood pressure below normal
infarct
area of necrosis caused by a sudden drop in the supply of arerial or venous blood
ischemia
localized blood insufficiency caused by an obstruction
mitral stenosis
abnormal narrowing at the opening of the mitral valve
murmur
soft heart humming sound heard between normal beats
myocardial infarction
sudden drop in the supply of blood to an area of the heart muscle, usually due to a
blockage in a coronary artery
occlusion
the closing of a blood vessel
perfusion deficit
lack of flow through a blood vessel, usually caused by an occlusion
phlebitis
inflammation of a vein
pulmonary edema
abnormal accumulation of fluid in the lungs
rub
frictional sound heard between heartbeats, usually indicating a percardial murmur
tachycardia
heart rate greater than 100 beats per minute
thrombus
stationary blood clot in the cardiovascular system, usually formed from matter found in
the blood
varicose
dilated, enlarged, or twisted wein, usually on the leg
angioplasty
opening of a blocked blood vessel, as by balloon dilation
arteriotomy
surgical incision into an artery, especially to remove a clot
balloon catheter
dilation
insertion of a balloon catheter into a blood vessel to open the passage so blood can
flow freely
bypass
a structure (usually a vein graft) that creates a new passage for blood to flow from one
artery to another artery or port of an artery; used to create a detour around blockages in
arteries
embolectomy
surgical removal of an embolus
endarterectomy
surgical removal of the diseased portion of teh lining of an artery
graft
any tissue or organ implanted to replace or mend damaged areas
stent
surgically implanted device used to hold something (as a blood vessel) open
thrombectomy
surgical removal of a thrombus
venipuncture
small puncture into a vein, usually to draw blood or inject a solution
antianginal
agent used to relieve or prevent attacks of angina
antiarrhythmic
agent used to help normalize cardiac rhythm
anticoagulant
agent that prevents the formation of dangerous clots
antihypertensive
agent that helps control high blood pressure
beta blocker
agent that lowers blood pressure by reducing contraction strength of the heart muscle;
slows heartbeat
diuretic
medication that promotes the excretion fo urine
thrombolytic
agent that dissolves a thrombus
vasoconstrictor
agent that narrows the blood vessel
vasodilator
agent that dilates or widens the blood vessels
aneurysm
localized dilation of a weakened area of the wall of an artery
atherosclerosis
characterized by fatty deposits building up within the inner layers of the walls of larger
arteries
bruit
an abnormal sound or murmur heard when listening to a carotid artery, organ, or gland
with a stethoscope
claudication
cramp-like pains in the calves of the legs caused by poor circulation to the muscles of the
legs
coronary artery
one of a pair of arteries that branch from the aorta; supply blood and oxygen to the heart
muscle
cusp
any one of the small flaps on the valves of the heart
dependent edema
a fluid accumulation in the tissues influenced by gravity; usually greater in the lower
extremities than in tissue levels above the level of the heart
diastole
relaxation of the heart
dysrhytmia
abnormal rhythm
edema
the localized or generalized collection of fluid within the body tissues, causing the area to
swell
endocarditis
inflammation of the inner lining of the heart
hypertension
elevated blood pressure persistently higher than 135/85
hypotension
low blood pressure
infarction
localized area of necrosis in tissue, a vessel, an organ. or a part resulting from lack of
oxygen due to interrupted blood flow to the area
mediastinum
the area between the lungs in the chest cavity that contains the heart, aorta, trachea,
esophagus, and bronchi
murmur
a low-pitched humming or fluttering sounds, as in a "heart murmur", heard on auscultation
myocardium
the middle muscular layer of the heart
occlusion
closure, or state of being closed
pacemaker
the SA node (sinoatrial)
palpitation
a pounding or racing of the heart, associated with normal emotional responses or with
heart disorders
pericardium
the double membranous sac that encloses the heart
pitting edema
swelling, usually of the skin of the extremities, that when pressed firmly with a finger will
maintain the dent produced by the finger
pulmonary artery
only arteries in the body to carry oxygenated blood
pulmonary
circulation
from the heart, to the lungs, back to the heart
pulmonary vein
only veins in the body to carry oxygenated blood
SA node
sinoatrial node; pacemaker of the heart
septum
a wall, or partition, that divides or separates two cavities
systemic circulation
the circulation of blood from the left ventricle of the heart, throughout the body, and back
to the right atrium of the heart
systole
the contraction phase of the heartbeat
vasoconstriction
narrowing of the lumen of a blood vessel
vegetation
an abnormal growth of tissue around a valve
anorexia
loss of appetite
anxiety
a feeling of apprehension, worry, uneasiness, or dread, especially of the future
bradycardia
a slow heart rate
chest pain
a feeling of discomfort in the chest area
cyanosis
slightly bluish, grayish, slatelike, or dark discoloration of the skin
dyspnea
air hunger resulting in labored or difficult breathing
edema
a local or generalized condition in which the body tissues contain an excessive amount of
tissue fluid; swelling
fatigue
a feeling of tiredness or weariness; state of exhaustion
fever
elevation of temperature above the normal
headache
a diffuse pain in different portions of the head and not confined to any nerve distribution
area
nausea
unpleasant sensation, usually preceding vomiting
pallor
lack of color; paleness
palpitation
rapid, violent, or throbbing pulsation, as an abnormally rapid throbbing or fluttering of the
heart
sweat
perspiration; the liquid secreted by the sweat glands
tachycardia
abnormal rapidity of heart action
vomiting
ejection through the mouth of the gastric content
weakness
lacking physical strength or vigor
angina pectoris
severe pain and constriction about the heart, usually radiating to the left shoulder and
down the left arm- creating a feeling of pressure in the anterior chest
cardiomyopathy
disease of the heart itself; noninflammatory disease of the heart results in enlargement of
the heart
congestive heart
failure
condition characterized by weakness, breathlessness, abdominal discomfort; edema in
the lower portions of the body resulting from the flow of the blood through the vessels
being slowed and the outflow of blood from the left side of the heart is reduced
coronary artery
disease
the narrowing of the coronary arteries to the extent that adequate blood supply to the
myocardium is prevented
endocarditis
inflammation of the membrane lining of the valves and chamber of the heart caused by
direct invasion of bacteria or other organisms and leading to deformity of the valve cusps
mitral valve
prolapse
drooping of one or both cusps of the mitral valve back into the left atrium during
ventricular systole resulting in incomplete closure of the valve and mitral insufficiency
myocardial
infarction
heart attack: a condition caused by occlusion of one or more of the coronary arteries
myocarditis
inflammation of the myocardium; may be caused by viral or bacterial infections may also
be caused by fungal infections
pericarditis
inflammation of the pericardium
rheumatic fever
an inflammatory disease that my develop as a delayed reaction to insufficiently treated
group A beta-hemolytic streptococcal infection of the upper respiratory tract
Raynaud's
phenomenon
intermittent attacks of vasoconstriction of the arterioles, followed by cyanosis and then
redness before returning to normal color
thrombophlebitis
inflammation of a vein; usually occurs in an extremity, most frequently a leg
varicose veins
enlarged, superficial veins; a twisted, dilated vein with incompetent valves
venous
insufficiency
an abnormal circulatory condition characterized by decreased return of venous blood from
the legs to the trunk of the body
atrial flutter
condition in which the contraction of the atria become extremely rapid
atrial fibrillation
extremely rapid, incomplete contraction of the atria resulting in disorganized and
uncoordinated twitching of the atria
ventricular
fibrillation
condition which results in rapid, tremulous and ineffectual contractions of the ventricles
angiography
x-ray visualization of the internal anatomy of the heart and blood vessels after introducing
a radiopaque substance
cardiac
catheterization
a diagnostic procedure in which a catheter is introduced into a large vein or artery and
then threaded through the circulatory system to the heart
cardiac enzymes
test
blood contained by venipuncture to determine the presence of damage to the myocardial
muscle
echocardiography
diagnostic procedure for studying the structure and motion of the heart
electrocardiogram
graphic record of the electrical action of the heart
event monitor
similar to the Holter monitor in that it also records the electrical activity of the heart while
the patient goes about usual daily activities (usually a month)
exercise stress
testing
means of assessing cardiac function, by subjecting the patient to the carefully controlled
amounts of physical stress
Holter monitoring
a small, portable monitoring device that makes prolonged electrocardiograph recording on
a portable tape recorder
thallium stress test
one of several nuclear stress tests, is a combination of exercise stress testing with
thallium imaging to assess changes in coronary blood flow during exercise
Respiratory System
QUESTION
ANSWER
Thin leaf- shaped structure located immediately
posterior to the roof of the tongue. Covers the
entrenace of the larynx
Epiglottis
enlarged upper end of the trachea below the
roof of the tongue. Voice Box
Larynx
Part of the pharynx located above soft palate.
Nasopharynx
hollow area or cavities within the skull that
communicate with nasal cavity
Paranasal Sinuses
Two branches leading from trachea to the
lungs.
Bronchi
lowest part of the lung, resting on diaphragm.
base of lung
upper portion of lung
apex of lung
double-folded membrane of lung
pluera
Condition of coughing or spitting up blood
hemoptysis
Collection of air or gas in the plueral cavity.
pneumothorax
Highpitched sound caused by airway
obstruction
stridor
Surgical removal of the palatine tonsils
Tonsillectomy
Functional unit of the lungs
alveoli
Bring up sputum
productive cough
Medical term for nose bleed
epistaxis
Abnormal sound heard on ausculation of the
chest is a crackling sound similar to that of
moisture crackling in a tube as air passes
through it
rales
Surgical puncture in the chest
thoracentesis
Medical term describes the common cold
coryza
temporary cessation of breathing
apnea
Collecting plueral fluid by passing a needle into
pluera space
plueral biopsy
Spitting up blood
hemoptysis
breathing patter may lead to hyperventilation
tachypnea
disease associated with coal miners
Anthracosis
Hoarseness
dysphonia
hairline projections that sweep particles toward
the throat
cilia
inflammation of visceral and parietal pleura
Pleurisy
An inflammed voice box
Laryngitis
Nostrils
Nares
Anther name for Respiratory Distress
Hyaline Membrane Disease
Throat
Pharynx
The Chest
Thorax
Portion of the pleura that is closest to the
internal organs
Viseral PLEURA
Look into the bronchus with scope
Bronchoscopy
Breathing fast
tachypnea
Breathing Slowly
Bradypnea
Inflammation of the lungs
Pneumonia
Rattling in the throat
rhondi
Deep gasping sound associated with diabetic
acidosis
Kussmaul Respirations
Inflammation of the nose
Rhinitis
Runny Nose
Rhinorrhea
Bloody Nose
Epitaxis
Forcible Expellation of air thru nose
sneeze
Coughing up blood
Hemoptysis
Act of spitting or coughing up saliva
Expectorate
A cough that sounds like a bark
Croup
Whooping Cough
Pertussis
Breathing improves if erect (sitting or Standing)
Orthopnea
Lung Disease resulting from inhalation of
asbestos
Asbestosis
Inflammation of both the viseral and pariertal
plueral
Pleurisy
Lung Disease resulting from inhalation of silicia
dust(quartz
Silicosis
Black lung disease
Anthracosis
Brown Lung disease
Byssinosis
A whistling sound resulting from narrowing of
lumen of respiratory passageway,asthma
wheezing
An endoscopic exam of bronchi
bronchoscopy
Accumulation of pus in the pleural cavity.
empyema
Difficulty breathing
dyspnea
functional unit of lung
alveoli
inspection
visual examination of the external surface of the body as well
as of its movements and posture
palpation
process of examining by application of the hands or fingers to
the external surface of the body
auscultation
process of listening with a stethoscope for sounds within the
body
Percussion
Use of the fingertips to tap the body lightly but sharply to
determine position, size, and consistency of an underlying
structure and the presence of fluid or pus in a cavity
adenoids
lymphatic tissue forming a prominence on the wall of the
recess of the nasopharynx
bronchiole
one of the smallest subdivisions of the bronchial tubes.
diaphragm
the musculomembranous wall separating the abdomen from
the thoracic cavity.
trachea/windpipe
cylinder-shaped tube lined with the rings of cartilage (to keep
open) that is 4.5inches long, from the larynx to the bronchial
tubes
cough
forceful sometimes violent expiratory effort preceded by a
preliminary inspiration
dyspnea
air hunger resulting in labored or difficult breathing sometimes
accompanied by pain.
pharyngitis
inflammation of the pharynx, usually resulting in sore throat.
sinusitis
inflammation of a sinus, especially a paranasal sinus.
tonsillitis
inflammation of the palatine tonsils
asthma
paroxysmal dyspnea accompanied by wheezing caused by a
spasm of the bronchial tubes or by swelling of their mucous
membrane.
bronchitis
inflammation of the mucous membrane of the bronchial tubes.
emphysema
chronic pulmonary diseases characterized by increase
beyond the normal in the size of air spaces distal to the
terminal bronchiole either from dilation of the alveoli or from
destruction of their walls.
pulmonary edema
swelling of the lungs caused by an abnormal accumulation of
fluid in the lungs, either in the alveoli or the interstitial spaces.
pulmonary embolism
the obstruction of one or more plumonary arteries by a
thrombus that dislodges from another location and is carried
through the venous system to the vessels of the lung.
pulmonary heart disease/ cor pulmonale
hypertrophy of the right ventricle of the hear resulting from
disorders of the lungs, pulmonary vessels, or chest wall, heart
failure resulting from pulmonary diseases.
tuberculosis
an infectious disease caused by the tubercle bacillus and
characterized by inflammatory infiltrations formation of
tuberciles and caseous necrosis in the tissues of the lungs.
chest x ray
the use of high-energy electromagnetic waves passing
through the body onto a photographic film, to produce a
picture of the internal stuctures of the body for diagnosis and
therapy.
laryngoscopy
examination of the interior of the larynx using a lighted,
flexible tube.
pulmonary function tests
physicians use this variety of tests to asses respiratory
function.
Digestive System
QUESTION
ANSWER
oral cavity
mouth
pharynx
throat
listening for sounds in order to detect an abnormal
condition using a stethoscope
auscultation
use of fingertips to lightly tap the body in order to
determine position, size, and consistency of an underlying
structure and/or the presence of fluid in a cavity
percussion
bitter, yellow-green secretion of the liver
bile
enzyme that breaks down starch into smaller
carbohydrate molecules
amylase
hormone produced by alpha cells of the pancreas that
stimulates the liver to convert glycogen in glucose when
the blood sugar level is dangerously low
glucagon
liquid or semi-liquid food is introduced into the stomach
through a tube
gavage
gland that secretes enzymes directly into the blood
capillaries instead of being transported by ducts
endocrine gland
gland that secretes enzymes into a network of tiny ducts
that transport it to the surface of an organ or tissue into a
vessel
exocrine gland
abnormal passageway in the skin near the anus usually
connecting with the rectum
anal fistula
fungal infection in the mouth and throat producing sore,
creamy white, slightly raised, curd-like patches on the
tongue and other oral mucosal surfaces; caused by
candida albicans
thrush
irregular protrusion of tissue, organ or a portion of an
organ through a break in the surrounding cavity's
muscular wall
hernia
small, non-infectious ulcerated lesions on lips, tongue and
inside cheeks
aphthous stomatis
pigmented or hardened cholesterol stones formed as a
result of bile crystallization
gallstones
tooth decay caused by acid-forming microorganisms
dental caries
increased motility of the small or large intestinal wall
resulting in abdominal pain. Flatulence, nausea, anorexia,
and the trapping of gas in the intestines
irritable bowel syndrome
chronic digestive tract inflammation that causes fever,
cramping, diarrhea, weight loss, anorexia and extreme
swelling of the bowel and can lead to obstruction
crohn's disease
permanently distended veins in the distal rectum or anus
hemorrhoids
audible abdominal sound caused by hyperactive intestinal
peristalsis; can be heard with stethoscope as a rumbling,
gurgling, or tinkling sound
borborygmus
insertion of a needle into the peritoneal cavity to remove
excess fluid
abdominocentesis
irrigation or washing out of the stomach with sterile water
or saline
gastric lavage
surgical creation of a new opening on the abdominal wall
through which feces will be expelled by bringing the
incised colon out to the abdominal surface
colostomy
surgical removal of the gall bladder
cholecystectomy
x-ray of gall bladder following oral ingestion of pills
containing radiopaque iodinated dye
oral cholecystography
x-ray of small bowel taken at timed intervals to observe
progression of a contrast medium; barium-sulfate through
the small intestine
small bowel follow through
another name for jaundice
icterus
back flow of stomach contents of the stomach in the
esophagus; often the result of incompetence of the lower
esophageal sphincter
gastroesophageal reflux
surgical hernia repair using sutures mesh or wire
herniorrhaphy
absence of hydrochloric acid in the gastric juice
achlorhydria
excessive leanness caused by disease or lack of nutrition
emaciation
vague epigastric discomfort after eating
dypepsia
abnormal accumulation of fluid withing the peritoneal
cavity
ascites
loss of swallowing ability
aphagia
material expelled from the stomach during vomiting
emesis
air or gas in the intestine that is passed through the
rectum
flatulence
bringing up air from the stomach through the mouth with a
characteristic belching sound
eructation
unpleasant sensation often leading to the urge to vomit
nausea
chronic condition of itching around the anus
pruritis ani
swallowing
deglutition
chewing
mastication
passage of digested food molecules into intestinal cells
absorption
emesis
vomiting
greater than normal amounts of fat in the feces
steatorrhea
liver
produces bile to break down fat
gall bladder
stores bile which is produced by the liver
pancreas
exocrine gland that manufactures digestive juices
that break down protein, fats, carbohydrates, and
sodium bicarbonates which neutralize stomach
acids
primary teeth
deciduous teeth
digestion
process of altering the chemical and physical
composition of food so that it can be used by the
body cells
digestive tract
gastrointestinal tract
chyme
liquid-like material of partially digested food and
digestive secretions found in the stomach just
before it is released into the duodenum
crown
part of the tooth that is seen
enamel
material which covers the crown
gastroenterologist
physician who specializes in the G.I. tract
dietitian
allied health professional trained to plan nutrition
programs for sick, as well as healthy people
gingiva
gums
defecation
the act of expelling feces from the rectum through
the anus
Urinary System
QUESTION
ANSWER
cystitis
inflammation of the urinary bladder
glomerulonephritis
inflammation of the glomerulus of the kidney
glomerulus
ball shaped collection of very tiny coiled and intertwined capillaries located in the
cortex of the kidney
medulla
innermost part of a structure or organ
nephrolith
kidney stone of renal calculi
peritonitis
inflammation of the membrane lining the abdominal cavity
polycystic kidney
disease
many cysts in the kidneys
pyelonephritis
inflammation of the renal pelvis and kidney
vesicoureteral reflux
abnormal backflow of urine from the bladder to the ureters
hemodialysis
breakdown or filtering blood through a machine
hydronephrosis
distension of the pelvis and calyces of the kidney caused by urine that cannot flow
past an obstruction of the ureter
plycystic kidney
hereditary disorder of kidneys in which grape-like, fluid-filled sacs or cysts replace
normal kidney tissue
glomerular filtrate
substances that filter out of the blood through the thin walls of the glomeruli
Bowman's Capsule
the cup shaped end of the renal tubule containing or surrounding a glomerulus
antiseptic
inhibits growth and reproduction of microorganisms
peritoneum
membrane which lines the abdominal cavity
erythropoietin
a hormone produced by the kidneys that stimulates the production of red blood cells
within the bone
glycosuria
glucose in the urine
hematuria
blood in the urine
nocturia
especially excessive night-time urination
ketouria
excessive ketone bodies in the urine
uremia
excessive amounts of urea and other nitrogenous waste products in the blood
turbid
urine which appears cloudy
oliguria
diminished or scanty urine output
polydipsia
excessive thirst
pyuria
pus in the urine, indicative of an infection of the urinary tract
urgency
feeling of need to void immediately
urinary incontinence
the inability to control urination
dysuria
painful urination
albuminuria
abnormal presence of large amounts of protein in the urine
bacteriuria
presence of bacteria in the urine
anuria
cessation (stopping) of urine production
micturition
the act of eliminating urine from the bladder
arteriole
smallest branch of an artery
cortex
outer layer of a body organ or structure
cystometrography
recording the measurement of urine in the bladder
cystoscopy
process of viewing the bladder
cystoscope
instrument used to view the interior of the bladder, ureter, or kidney
intravenous pyelogram
(IVP)
x-ray of the renal pelvis using contrast dye in the vein
KUB
x-ray of kidneys, ureters, and bladder without contrast medium
retrograde pyelogram
x-ray of back portion of the renal pelvis
urinalysis
breakdown analysis of urine
voiding
cystourethrogram
x-ray of the bladder and urethra while voiding
midstream specimen
another term for a clean catch specimen
residual urine
urine that remains in the bladder after urinating
first-voided specimen
first voided specimen of the day, kept refrigerated and taken to the lab or medical
office upon opening
dialysate
solution which contains water and electrolytes that passes through the artificial kidney
to remove excess fluids and wastes form the blood
dialysis
process of removing waste products from the blood when the kidneys are unable
dwell time
length of time dialysis solution stays in the peritoneal cavity during peritoneal dialysis
random specimen
A urine specimen that is collected at any time.
clean-catch specimen
this collection is used to avoid contamination of the urine specimen from the
microorganisms normally present on the external genitalia
24-hour urine
specimen
a collection of all the urine excreted by the individual over a 24-hour period. The urine
is collected in one large container.
fossa
a hollow or depression, especially on the surface of the end of a bone
hilum
the depression, or pit, of an organ where the vessels and nerves enter
meatus
an opening or tunnel through any part of the body, as in the urinary meatus, which is
the external opening of the urethra
pyelitis
inflammation of the renal pelvis
renal pelvis
the central collecting part of the kidney that narrows into the large upper end of the
ureter. It receives urine through the calyces and drains it into the ureters
toxic
poisonous
ureter
one of the pair of tubes that carries urine from the kidney to the bladder
urethra
a small tubular structure that drains urine from the bladder to the outside of the body
urine
the fluid released by the kidneys, transported by the ureters, retained in the bladder,
and eliminated through the urethra
fatigue
a state of exhaustion or loss of strength or endurance
frequency
the number of repetitions of any phenomenon within a fixed period of time
malaise
a vague feeling of bodily weakness or discomfort, often marking the onset of disease
or infection
polyuria
excretion of abnormally large amounts of urine
renal failure, chronic
progressively slow development of kidney failure occurring over a period of years
catheterization
the introduction of a catheter into a body cavity or organ to instill a substance or to
remove a fluid
Endocrine System
QUESTION
ANSWER
androgens
male sex hormones
acromegaly
chronic metabloic condition characterized by gradual noticeable enlargement and
elongation of the facial bones, jaw, and extremities due to over secretion of the
pituitary gland after puberty
gestational diabetes
condition occurring during pregnancy; inability to metabolize carbohydrates due to
insulin deficiency and elevated blood sugar levels
diabetes insipidus
condition due to deficiency in antidiuretic hormone (ADH) by the posterior pituitary
gland with large amounts of urine and sodium being secreted
dwarfism
growth retardation due to human growth hormone deficiency before puberty
gigantism
overgrowth of body tissue due to hypersecretion of human growth hormone before
puberty causing abnormal growth of the long bones
simple, non-toxic goiter
hyperplasia of the thyroid gland due to deficient iodine in the diet
myxedema
most severe form of hypothyroidism characterized by puffy appearance and thick
tongue
hyperthyroidism
Grave's disease
thyroid storm
Thyrotoxicosis
cushing's syndrome
adrenal condition with these symptoms; obesity "moon" face, edema,
hypertension, muscle weakness, poor wound healing, low potassium, and
emotional changes
addison's disease
life-threatening adrenal cortex disease, symptoms; low blood glucose and sodium,
weight loss, dehydration, G.I. disturbances, increased pigmentation of skin, cold
intolerance, anxiety, and depression
diabetes mellitus
pancreatic disorder- beta cells of I of L (Islets of Langerhans) fail to produce
adequate insulin, resulting in; inability to metabolize carbohydrates, fats, and
proteins
glycosuria
sugar in the urine
virilism
development of secondary male sex traits in women, cause; excessive
adrenocortical androgens from adrenal cortex
adenohypophysis
anterior pituitary gland
cretinism
congenital condition caused by lack of thyroid secretion, characterized by;
dwarfism, slowed mental development, puffy facial features, dry skin, and large
tongue
endocrine gland
ductless gland; produces hormone secreted directly into the blood stream
exophthalmia
marked outward protrusion of the eyeballs
diabetic retinopathy
consequence of long-term diabetes mellitus in which capillaries of the retina
experience microaneurysms, hemorrhages and scarring
euthyroid
normally functioning thyroid
hypercalcemia
elevated blood calcium level
hyperkalemia
elevated blood potassium level
glycogenesis
conversion of excess glucose into glycogen for storage in the liver as needed
hyperglycemia
elevated blood sugar level
hypernatremia
elevated blood sodium level
hypocalcemia
less than normal blood calcium level
hypoglycemia
less than normal blood sugar level
hypokalemia
less than normal blood potassium level
hyponatremia
less than normal blood sodium level
polyuria
excretion of excessive amounts of urine
insulin shock
shock as a result of extremely low blood sugar levels
medulla
internal part of a structure organ
metabolism
sum of all physical and chemical processes that take place in the body
polydipsia
excessive thirst
oxytocin
hormone secreted by posterior pituitary gland, stimulates contractions of uterus
during childbirth and stimulates milk release from the breasts of lactating women
growth hormone
somatotropic hormone
syndrome
group of symptoms, indicative of a particular disease or abnormality
tetany
condition of complication of hypocalcemia, symptoms; severe cramping and
twitching of muscles, sharp flexion of wrist and ankle joints
hyperinsulinism
excessive insulin in the body
endocrinology
study of diseases and disorders of the endocrine system
glucagon
pancreatic hormone secretion which stimulates the liver to convert glycogen to
glucose and release into the blood stream
glycogenolysis
break down of stored sugar (starch) into simple sugar
androgens
male steroid hormones
serum glucose tests
blood tests that measure the amount of glucose in the blood at the time the
sample was drawn
glucose tolerance test
test which evaluates a person's ability to tolerate a concentrated glucose load by
measuring glucose levels prior to dose, 30min., one hour, two hours, and three
hours later
thyroid scan
an examination that determines the position, size, shape, and physiological
function of the thyroid gland through the use of radionuclear scanning
adenopathy
any disease of a gland, characterized by enlargement
adrenocortical
pertaining to the cortex of the adrenal glands
cortex
pertaining to the outer region of a structure
endocrinologist
A physician who specializes in the medical practice of treating the diseases and
disorders of the endocrine system
estrogen
one of the female hormones that promotes the development of female secondary
sex characteristics
glucogenesis
The formation of glycogon from fatty acids and proteins instead of carbohydrates
Graves' Disease
hyperthyroidism
hypergonadism
excessive activity of the ovaries or testies
hyperparathyroidism
hyperactivity of any of the four parathyroid glands, resulting in an oversecretion of
parathyroid hormone
hyperpituitarism
overactivity of the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland
hypothyroidism
less than normal activity of the thyroid gland
polyphagia
excessive eating
progesterone
a female hormone secreted by the ovaries. This hormone is primarily responsible
for the changes that occur in the endometrium in anticipation of a fertilized ovum,
and for development of the maternal placenta after implantation of a fertilized
ovum
thyroiditis
inflammation of the thyroid gland
chronic thyroiditis
chronic inflammation of the thyroid gland, leading to enlargement of the thyroid
gland
somatotropic hormone
a hormone secreted by the anterior pituitary gland that regulates the cellular
processes necessary for normal body growth, also called the growth hormone
pancreatic cancer
a life-threatening primary malignant neoplasm typically found in the head of the
pancreas
pancreatitis
an acute or chronic destructive inflammatory condition of the pancreas
fasting blood sugar
blood glucose sample taken usually early in the morning after the person has been
without food or drink since midnight
hemoglobin A1C test
a blood test that shows the average level of glucose in an individual's blood during
the last 3 months.
thyroid function tests
tests that measure the blood levels of the hormones T3, T4, and TSH.
thyroid-stimulating
hormone (TSH) blood test
a test that measures the concentration of TSH in the blood
Reproductive System
QUESTION
ANSWER
What is mitosis?
Process by which a single cell duplicates its genetic material
Mitosis gives humans a new body how
often?
Every 10 years
How many chromosomes in a
duplicated(mitotic)cell?
46
What is meiosis?
A special type of cellular devision that produces the sex
cells(spermatozoa and ova)
How many chromosomes are in meiotic
cells?
23
What is the name for the primary sex
organs of the male reproductive system?
Paired male gonads(AKA: testes or testicles)
How is oxygenated blood transported to
the testes?
Via the testicular arteries
What is the function of the testicular
veins?
Carry deoxygenated blood away from the testes
The testes are responsible for producing
what?
1. Spermatozoa 2. Testosterone
What is the name for male sex cells?
Spermatozoa
In what part of the testicle does
spermatogenesis occur?
Seminiferous tubules
How many spermatozoa are produced
each day?
300 million
Name the 3 parts of the spermatozoa?
1. The head 2. The midpiece 3. The flagellum(tail)
The head of each spermatozoa contains?
Chromosomes
Genes are contained where?
In chromosomes
What substance is found in genes?
Deoxyribonucleic Acid(DNA)
Each midpiece of spermatozoa contains
this which aids in locomotion?
ATP(energy)
Identify the function of the flagellum?
Propel spermatozoa up the female reproductive tract
Where are developing spermatozoa
stored?
Epididymis
What is the Epididymis?
A comma shaped structure adjacent to each testicle, a
duct(tube)with a length of 20 feet long.
How long does it take spermatozoa to
move through the epididymis?
Approximately 20 days
What structures allow for travel of
spermatozoa from the epididymis to the
urethra?
Vasa deferetia(AKA: seminal ducts or ductus deferentes)
What is the name for surgical removal of
a section from both seminal ducts causing
sterility?
Bilateral Vasectomy
True or False: Vasectomy procedure
affects the sex drive or secondary sexual
characteristics?
FALSE
What structures are surrounded by the
spermatic cord?
1. Seminal duct 2. Testicular artery 3. Testicular vein
What is the role of the ejaculatory ducts?
Expulsion of the spermatozoa into the urethra
What is the name for the liquid portion of
the ejaculate?
Semen(AKA Seminal fluid)
What is the average volume of semen per
ejaculation?
2.5-6 mL
The number of spermatozoa ejaculated
can be in excess of?
300 million
How many spermatozoa reach the
cervix?
Only a few thousand
How many spermatozoa reach the ovum?
Only a few hundred
A male is considered sterile if?
The number of spermatozoa falls below 20 million
How long can spermatozoa live inside the
female reproductive tract once
ejaculated?
Approximately 48-72 hours
why are large numbers of spermatozoa
required to fertilize an ovum?
The ovum has a protective membrane that must be broken down by
an enzyme secreted from the head of each spermatozoon
What are the characteristics of seminal
fluid?
Milky color,Viscous,Sticky(contains fructose-energy for
sperm),Alkaline to neutralize acidity of vaginal secretions and
urine,Seminalplasmin,Enzymes that activate the spermatozoa after
ejaculation Prostaglandins-promote muscle contractions of fem.
tract
What is the purpose of seminalplasmin in
semen?
Protect the spermatozoa by destroying certain bacteria found in the
vaginal tract and semen(like an Abx)
Semen is produced by?
1. Prostate 2. Seminal Vesicles 3. Bulbourethral glands
What is the prostate?
Donut-shaped gland approximately the size of a chestnut
Where is the prostate located?
Surrounding the superior portion of the urethra just inferior to the
urinary bladder
What are the seminal vesicles?
Paired pouch-like structures appoximately 2 inches in length located
posterior to and at the base of the urinary bladder in front of the
rectum
What is another name for the
Bulbourethral Glands?
Cowper Glands
What are the Bulbourethral Glands?
Paired glands the size of peas and are located just inferior to the
prostate
What is the name of the male sex
hormone?
Testosterone
What is the name for the part of each
testicle that produces testosterone?
Interstitial cells of Leydig
What is an outpouching of loose skin from
the pelvic wall which supports and
contains the testes?
Scrotum
Internally the scrotum is separated into
two sacs by what?
A septum(wall)
Each sac contains a?
Testicle(testis)
Why does the scrotum lie outside of the
body?
Spermatozoa and testosterone production requires a temp 3
degrees lower than normal body temp
The scrotum has the ability to contract
and relax depending on what?
Temperature
What is the function of the urethra in
males?
Carries urine, spermatozoa, and semen to the outside of the body
How long is the male urethra?
8 inches long
Name the 3 parts that the male urethra is
subdivided into?
1. Prostatic Urethra 2. Membranous Urethra 3.
Spongy(cavernous)Urethra
The Prostatic Urethra is surrounded by?
The Prostate
The Membranous Urethra runs from what
to what?
From the prostatic urethra to the penis
The Spongy Urethra is found where?
Inside the Penis
The Spongy Urethra terminates where?
At the male urethral orifice (meatus,os)
The penis is designed to do what?
Introduce spermatozoa into the female reproductive tract
What is the distal portion of the penis
called?
Glans penis
The section of loose skin which covers
the glans penis is called?
Prepuce(foreskin)
Internally, the penis is composed of what?
3 cylindrical masses of spongy tissue containing blood sinuses
What does sexual stimulation do to the
penile arteries?
Causes them to dilate allowing large quantities of blood to enter the
penis
What causes compression of the penile
veins?
Expansion of the blood sinuses
What causes an erection?
1.Dilation of the penile arteries 2.Compression of the penile veins
What causes the penile arteries to
constrict?
Cessation of sexual stimulation
An erection is lost when?
The penile veins drain the blood(from the penis)
The inability to achieve or maintain an
erection is called?
Impotence (AKA: Erectile Dysfunction)
Impotence can be caused by?
1. Poorly controlled stress 2. Trauma to nerves controlling blood
flow to the penis 3. Diabetes Mellitus 4. Arteriosclerosis of arteries
that supply blood flow to penis 5. Side effects from certain
medications(ex: antihypertensives/antidepressants)
How do ED drugs
(viagra,cialis,levitra)work?
Causes vasodilation of the arteries supplying the penis
The primary sex organs of the female
reproductive system are called?
Ovaries(paired female gonads)
Ovaries are the size of what?
Unshelled Almonds
What structures are located in the
superior portion of the pelvic cavity, one
on each side of the uterus?
Ovaries
What is the utero-ovarian ligament?
A structure that attaches an ovary to the uterus
What functions are the ovaries
responsible for?
1. Oogenesis(creation of ova) 2. Production of female sex
hormones(estrogen and progesterone)
What are oocytes?
Immature ova
What are follicles?
Developing ova
The hormone produced by the pituitary
gland that is responsible for matuation of
a follicle is called?
Follicle Stimulating Hormone(FSH)
How often is FSH released?
Approximately every 28 days
The hormone produced by the pituitary
gland that stimulates ovulation is known
as?
Luteinizing hormone(LH)
What is Ovulation?
Expulsion of an ovum from an ovary
How many times does the average
female ovulate in a lifetime?
Approximately 450 times
The ovaries typically alternate doing
what?
Ovulating
What occurance can result in
fraternal(dizygotic)twins?
When the ovaries ovulate at the same time and the two ova are
fertilized
What occurance can result in
identical(monozygotic)twins?
When a fertilized ovum splits it's genetic material(DNA)into two
separate ova
Give 3 names for the structures that
transport ova from the ovaries to the
uterus?
1. Fallopian tubes 2. Uterine tubes 3. Oviducts
What are fimbriae?
Finger-like projections of the fallopian tubes that catch the expelled
ovum
How is the ovum moved into and through
an oviduct?
1. A waving action of the fimbriae 2. Ciliary action 3. Peristalsis
Identify the secondary female sexual
characteristics developed by release of
estrogen during puberty?
1. Menstruation(menses) 2. Breast Development 3. Pubic, Body,
and Axillary Hair 4. Pelvic bones widen 5. Fat deposits(adipose
tissue)in the skin cause a "soft look"
What is fertilization(conception)?
Union of a spermatozoon with an ovum
Development of a fertilized ovum is
known as?
Gestation or Pregnancy
Another name for the uterus is?
Womb
The uterus is located?
In the pelvic cavity between the urinary bladder and the rectum
What shape is the uterus?
An inverted pear
The uterus should be angled forward in
what position?
Anteflexion(position)
The uterus is where the fertilized ovum
will?
1. implant 2. Develop into a zygote,embryo,and fetus 3. Be expelled
during labor
Name the superior portion of the uterus?
Fundus
Name the middle portion of the uterus?
Corpus(body)
Name the inferior portion(neck) of the
uterus?
Cervix(CX)
What is the uterine cavity?
Interior of the corpus(body)of the uterus
What is the cervical canal?
Interior of the cervix
The opening of the cervix into the vagina
is called?
External os
What is the perimetrium(uterine serosa)?
Outermost layer of the uterus
The middle(muscle)layer of the uterus is
called?
Myometrium
The innermost layer of the uterus is?
Endometrium
What is the region between the uterus
and the rectum(recto-uterine
pouch)called?
Douglas' cul-de-sac
What is known as the cyclic
sloughing(shedding)of the endometrium?
Menstruation or menses
What is the range for a "normal"
menstrual cycle?
24-35 days
Identify the phases of the menstrual
cycle?
1. Menstrual phase: Days 1-5 2. Pre-Ovulatory phase: Days 6-13 3.
Ovulatory phase: Day 14 4. Post-Ovulatory phase: Days 15-28
What does the menstrual phase involve?
Sloughing(shedding)of the endometrium
Regeneration of the endometrium in
preparation for implantation occurs in
what phase of menstrual cycle?
Pre-Ovulatory phase
What happens during the ovulatory
phase?
The ovum is expelled from an ovary
What does the post-ovulatory phase
involve?
1. Endometrial hypertrophy in preparation to receive the fertilized
ovum 2. Endometrial atrophy in preparation for the menstrual phase
What hormones are responsible for the
development of the endometrium?
Estrogen and Progesterone
Most Birth control pills(BCPs) are varying
doses of what?
Estrogen and progesterone
What is the placenta?
The tissue that will form a connection between the maternal and
fetal blood supplies
What is HCG(Human Chorionic
Gonadotropin)?
A hormone produced by the placenta that will support the
developing pregnancy
How can HCG be detected?
With an early pregnancy test(EPT)
EPTs can be perfomed on a woman's
what?
Urine or Blood Serum
Placenta also secretes increasing levels
of estrogen and progesterone to support
pregnancy and cause?
1. Breast (mammary tissue)development 2. Milk
Production(lactogenesis)
The vagina is a tubular structure which is
lined with?
Mucous membranes
What are the functions of the vagina?
1. Passageway for menstruation(menses) 2. Receptacle for the
penis, semen, and spermatozoa during
intercourse(coitus,copulation) 3. Inferior portion of the birth canal
The connection between the vagina and
the cervix is called?
Fornix
The external female genitalia is known
as?
Vulva or pudendum
What is the mons pubis(veneris)?
Mound of elevated adipose(fat)tissue that becomes covered with
pubic hair
The lips of the vaginal orifice are called?
Labia majora(outer lips) and Labia minora(inner lips)
What is the clitoris?
A small cylindrical mass of erectile tissue with nerves found at the
anterior junction of the labia minora
The region within the labia majora and
labia minora is called?
Vestibule
What is the hymen?
A thin fold of tissue that partially closes the distal end of the vagina
located within the vestibule
What is the name for the mucus
secreting(lubrication)glands located on
either side of the urethral meatus?
Lesser vestibular glands(AKA: Skene's glands)
What two mucus
secreting(lubrication)glands are located
on both sides of the vaginal os?
Greater vestibular glands(AKA: Bartholin's glands)
The area between the vaginal os and the
anus is usually referred to as?
Perineum
The external urogenital and anal region of
both males and females is known as?
Perineum
What are mammary glands?
Modified sudoriferous(sweat)glands
Where are the mammary glands located?
Anterior to the pectoralis major and minor muscles of the
thoax(chest)
How many lobes does each mammary
gland consist of?
15-20 lobes(sections)
The smaller compartments located in
each lobe of the mammary glands are
called?
Lobules
What determines the size and shape of
the breast?
Location and amount of adipose tissue deposited
What are the lactogenic(milk
producing)cells that are located in the
lobules known as?
Alveoli
The milk is stored where?
Ampullae(AKA: Lactiferous sinuses)
How does milk travel from the alveoli to
the lactiferous sinuses?
Through the lactiferous ducts
Give another name for Mammary Papilla?
Nipple
What is known as the dark pigmented
region surrounding each nipple(papilla)?
Areola
What is lactation?
Process of secreting and ejecting milk
What is the name of the hormone
secreted by the pituitary gland which
stimulates the production of
milk(lactogenesis)
Prolactin
What is ART?
Assisted Reproductive Technologies
What is IVF?
In Vitro Fertilization
What are Fertility Drugs?
Medications designed to stimulate the ovaries to ovulate
Name 5 functions of testosterone?
1. Develop and maintain male sex organs 2. Descent of testes from
abdominopelvic cavity into scrotum 3. Broadens shoulders and
narrows hips during puberty 4. Protein buildup in muscles-muscular
bulk and firmness in physique 5. Maturation of spermatozo
What are 5 other functions of
testosterone?
1. Enlargement of thyroid cartilage(adam's apple 2. Deepening of
voice 3. Influencing aggressive behavior 4. Causing facial,body,and
pubic hair to appear 5. Stimulates the sexual drive(libido)