President of the United States
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President of the
United States of America
Presidential seal
Presidential flag
Incumbent
Donald Trump
since January 20, 2017

Executive branch of the U.S. Government

Style
Executive Office of the President

Mr. President[1][2]
(informal)

The Honorable[3]
(formal)

His Excellency[4][5][6]
(diplomatic)
Status

Head of State

Head of Government
POTUS
Abbreviation
Member of
Residence

Cabinet

Domestic Policy Council

National Economic Council

National Security Council
White House
Seat
Washington, D.C.
Nominator
Political parties or self-nomination
Appointer
Electoral College
Term length
Four years, renewable once
Constituting instrument
Constitution of the United States
Formation
June 21, 1788
(232 years ago)[7][8]
First holder
George Washington[9]
Salary
$400,000 annually
Website
www.whitehouse.gov
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The president of the United States (POTUS)[A] is the head
of state and head of government of the United States of
America. The president directs the executive branch of
the federal government and is the commander-in-chief of
the United States Armed Forces.

In contemporary times, the president is looked upon as one
of the world's most powerful political figures as the leader of
the only remaining global superpower.[11][12][13][14] The role includes
responsibility for the world's most expensive military, which has
the second largest nuclear arsenal. The president also leads
the nation with the largest economy by nominal GDP. The
president possesses significant domestic and
international hard and soft power.

Article II of the Constitution establishes the executive branch
of the federal government. It vests the executive power of the
United States in the president. The power includes the
execution and enforcement of federal law, alongside the
responsibility of appointing federal executive, diplomatic,
regulatory and judicial officers, and concluding treaties with
foreign powers with the advice and consent of the Senate. The
president is further empowered to grant federal pardons and
reprieves, and to convene and adjourn either or both houses
of Congress under extraordinary circumstances.[15] The
president directs the foreign and domestic policies of the
United States, and takes an active role in promoting his or her
policy priorities to members of Congress.[16] In addition, as part
of the system of checks and balances, Article I, Section 7 of
the Constitution gives the president the power to sign
or veto federal legislation. The power of the presidency has
grown substantially since its formation, as has the power of the
federal government as a whole.[17]

Through the Electoral College, registered voters indirectly
elect the president and the vice president to a four-year term.
This is the only federal election in the United States which is
not decided by popular vote.[18] Nine vice presidents became
president by virtue of a president's intra-term death or
resignation.[B]

Article II, Section 1, Clause 5 sets three qualifications for
holding the presidency: natural-born U.S. citizenship; at least
thirty-five years of age; and residency in the United States for
at least fourteen years. The Twenty-second Amendment states
that no person who has been elected to two presidential terms
may be elected to a third. In all, 44 individuals have served 45
presidencies spanning 57 full four-year terms.[18] Grover
Cleveland served two non-consecutive terms, so he is counted
twice, as both the 22nd and 24th president.[19]

Donald Trump is the 45th and incumbent president of the
United States. He assumed office on January 20, 2017.
Contents











1Origin
2Powers and duties
o 2.1Article I legislative role
o 2.2Article II executive powers
 2.2.1War and foreign affairs powers
 2.2.2Administrative powers
 2.2.3Juridical powers and privileges
o 2.3Ceremonial roles
o 2.4Critics of presidency's evolution
3Selection process
o 3.1Eligibility
o 3.2Campaigns and nomination
o 3.3Election
4Tenure
o 4.1Inauguration
o 4.2Term limit
o 4.3After the presidency
o 4.4Impeachment
5Succession and disability
6Political affiliation
7Compensation
8Residence
9Travel
10Protection
11Post-presidency
o 11.1Presidential libraries





12See also
13Notes
14References
15Further reading
o 15.1Primary sources
16External links
Origin

In July 1776, during the American Revolutionary War,
the Thirteen Colonies, acting jointly through the Second
Continental Congress, declared themselves to be 13
independent sovereign states, no longer
under British rule.[20] Recognizing the necessity of closely
coordinating their efforts against the British,[21] the Continental
Congress simultaneously began the process of drafting a
constitution that would bind the states together. There were
long debates on a number of issues, including representation
and voting, and the exact powers to be given the central
government.[22] Congress finished work on the Articles of
Confederation to establish a perpetual union between the
states in November 1777 and sent it to the states
for ratification.[20]

Under the Articles, which took effect on March 1, 1781,
the Congress of the Confederation was a central political
authority without any legislative power. It could make its own
resolutions, determinations, and regulations, but not any laws,
and could not impose any taxes or enforce local commercial
regulations upon its citizens.[21] This institutional design
reflected how Americans believed the deposed British system
of Crown and Parliament ought to have functioned with respect
to the royal dominion: a superintending body for matters that
concerned the entire empire.[21] The states were out from under
any monarchy and assigned some formerly royal
prerogatives (e.g., making war, receiving ambassadors, etc.) to
Congress; the remaining prerogatives were lodged within their
own respective state governments. The members of Congress
elected a president of the United States in Congress
Assembled to preside over its deliberation as a
neutral discussion moderator. Unrelated to and quite dissimilar
from the later office of president of the United States, it was a
largely ceremonial position without much influence.[23]

In 1783, the Treaty of Paris secured independence for each
of the former colonies. With peace at hand, the states each
turned toward their own internal affairs.[20] By 1786, Americans
found their continental borders besieged and weak and their
respective economies in crises as neighboring states agitated
trade rivalries with one another. They witnessed their hard
currency pouring into foreign markets to pay for imports,
their Mediterranean commerce preyed upon by North
African pirates, and their foreign-financed Revolutionary War
debts unpaid and accruing interest.[20] Civil and political unrest
loomed.

Following the successful resolution of commercial and
fishing disputes between Virginia and Maryland at the Mount
Vernon Conference in 1785, Virginia called for a trade
conference between all the states, set for September 1786
in Annapolis, Maryland, with an aim toward resolving furtherreaching interstate commercial antagonisms. When
the convention failed for lack of attendance due to suspicions
among most of the other states, Alexander Hamilton led the
Annapolis delegates in a call for a convention to offer revisions
to the Articles, to be held the next spring in Philadelphia.
Prospects for the next convention appeared bleak until James
Madison and Edmund Randolph succeeded in
securing George Washington's attendance to Philadelphia as a
delegate for Virginia.[20][24]

When the Constitutional Convention convened in May 1787,
the 12 state delegations in attendance (Rhode Island did not
send delegates) brought with them an accumulated experience
over a diverse set of institutional arrangements between
legislative and executive branches from within their respective
state governments. Most states maintained a weak executive
without veto or appointment powers, elected annually by the
legislature to a single term only, sharing power with an
executive council, and countered by a strong legislature.[20] New
York offered the greatest exception, having a strong, unitary
governor with veto and appointment power elected to a threeyear term, and eligible for reelection to an indefinite number of
terms thereafter.[20] It was through the closed-door negotiations
at Philadelphia that the presidency framed in the U.S.
Constitution emerged.
Powers and duties
Main article: Powers of the president of the United States
Article I legislative role
President Lyndon B. Johnson signs the 1964 Civil Rights Act as Martin Luther King Jr. and others look on
President Donald Trump delivers his 2018 State of the Union Address, with Vice President Mike Pence
and Speaker of the House Paul Ryan

The Presentment Clause requires that any bill passed
by Congress must be presented to the president before it can
become law. Once the legislation has been presented, the
president has three options:
1. Sign the legislation within ten days, excluding
Sundays—the bill becomes law.
2. Veto the legislation within the above timeframe and
return it to the house of Congress from which it
originated, expressing any objections—the bill does not
become law, unless both houses of Congress vote to
override the veto by a two-thirds vote.
3. Take no action on the legislation within the above
timeframe—the bill becomes law, as if the president
had signed it, unless Congress is adjourned at the time,
in which case it does not become law (a pocket veto).

In 1996, Congress attempted to enhance the president's
veto power with the Line Item Veto Act. The legislation
empowered the president to sign any spending bill into law
while simultaneously striking certain spending items within the
bill, particularly any new spending, any amount of discretionary
spending, or any new limited tax benefit. Congress could then
repass that particular item. If the president then vetoed the new
legislation, Congress could override the veto by its ordinary
means, a two-thirds vote in both houses. In Clinton v. City of
New York, 524 U.S. 417 (1998), the U.S. Supreme Court ruled
such a legislative alteration of the veto power to be
unconstitutional.

The president can also be involved in crafting legislation by
suggesting, requesting, or even insisting that Congress enact
laws he believes are needed. Additionally, he can attempt to
shape legislation during the legislative process by exerting
influence on individual members of Congress.[25] Presidents
possess this power because the Constitution is silent about
who can write legislation, but the power is limited because only
members of Congress can introduce legislation.[26] Article I,
Section 1 of the Constitution, bolstered by Article I, Section 8,
puts all lawmaking power in Congress's hands, and Article 1,
Section 6, Clause 2 prevents the president (and all other
executive branch officers) from simultaneously being a
member of Congress.

The president or other officials of the executive branch may
draft legislation and then ask senators or representatives to
introduce these drafts into Congress. The president can further
influence the legislative branch through constitutionally
(e.g. Article II, Section 3) or statutorily mandated periodic
reports to Congress. These reports may be either written or
oral, but today the greatest in importance is given as the
oral State of the Union addresses, which often outline the
president's legislative proposals for the coming year.
Additionally, the president may attempt to have Congress alter
proposed legislation by threatening to veto that legislation
unless requested changes are made.[27]

In the 20th century, critics charged that too many legislative
and budgetary powers that should have belonged to Congress
had slid into the hands of presidents. As the head of the
executive branch, presidents control a vast array
of agencies that can issue regulations with little oversight from
Congress. One critic charged that presidents could appoint a
"virtual army of 'czars'—each wholly unaccountable to
Congress yet tasked with spearheading major policy efforts for
the White House".[28] Presidents have been criticized for
making signing statements when signing congressional
legislation about how they understand a bill or plan to execute
it.[29] This practice has been criticized by the American Bar
Association as unconstitutional.[30] Conservative
commentator George Will wrote of an "increasingly swollen
executive branch" and "the eclipse of Congress".[31]
Article II executive powers
Presidents Gerald Ford, Richard Nixon, George H. W. Bush, Ronald Reagan and Jimmy Carter at the
dedication of the Reagan Presidential Library
War and foreign affairs powers
Abraham Lincoln, the 16th president of the United States, successfully preserved the Union during
the American Civil War.

One of the most important of executive powers is the
president's role as commander-in-chief of the United States
Armed Forces. The power to declare war is constitutionally
vested in Congress, but the president has ultimate
responsibility for the direction and disposition of the military.
The exact degree of authority that the Constitution grants to
the president as commander-in-chief has been the subject of
much debate throughout history, with Congress at various
times granting the president wide authority and at others
attempting to restrict that authority.[32]

The amount of military detail handled personally by the
president in wartime has varied greatly.[33] George Washington,
the first U.S. president, firmly established military subordination
under civilian authority. In 1794, Washington used his
constitutional powers to assemble 12,000 militia to quell
the Whiskey Rebellion—a conflict in western Pennsylvania
involving armed farmers and distillers who refused to pay an
excise tax on spirits. According to historian Joseph Ellis, this
was the "first and only time a sitting American president led
troops in the field", though James Madison briefly took control
of artillery units in defense of Washington, D.C., during the War
of 1812.[34] Abraham Lincoln was deeply involved in overall
strategy and in day-to-day operations during the American Civil
War, 1861–1865; historians have given Lincoln high praise for
his strategic sense and his ability to select and encourage
commanders such as Ulysses S. Grant.[35]

The present-day operational command of the Armed Forces
is delegated to the Department of Defense and is normally
exercised through the secretary of defense. The chairman of
the Joint Chiefs of Staff and the Combatant Commands assist
with the operation as outlined in the presidentially approved
Unified Command Plan (UCP).[36][37][38] The framers of the
Constitution took care to limit the president's powers regarding
the military; Alexander Hamilton explained this in Federalist
No. 69:

The President is to be commander-in-chief of the army and
navy of the United States. ... It would amount to nothing more
than the supreme command and direction of the military and
naval forces ... while that [the power] of the British king extends
to the DECLARING of war and to the RAISING and
REGULATING of fleets and armies, all [of] which ... would
appertain to the legislature.[39] [Emphasis in the original.]

Pursuant to the War Powers Resolution, Congress must
authorize any troop deployments longer than 60 days, although
that process relies on triggering mechanisms that have never
been employed, rendering it ineffectual.[40] Additionally,
Congress provides a check to presidential military power
through its control over military spending and regulation.
Presidents have historically initiated the process for going to
war,[41][42] but critics have charged that there have been several
conflicts in which presidents did not get official declarations,
including Theodore Roosevelt's military move into Panama in
1903,[41] the Korean War,[41] the Vietnam War,[41] and the
invasions of Grenada in 1983[43] and Panama in 1989.[44]

The Constitution also empowers the president to propose
and chiefly negotiate agreements between the United States
and other countries. Such agreements, upon receiving the
advice and consent of the U.S. Senate (by a two-thirds
majority vote), become binding with the force of federal law.
Administrative powers
Suffice it to say that the President is made the sole repository of the executive powers of the United States, and the
powers entrusted to him as well as the duties imposed upon him are awesome indeed.

Nixon v. General Services
Administration, 433 U.S. 425 (1977) (Rehnquist, J., dissenting)

The president is head of the executive branch of the federal
government and is constitutionally obligated to "take care that
the laws be faithfully executed".[45] The executive branch has
over four million employees, including the military.[18]

Presidents make numerous executive branch appointments:
an incoming president may make up to 6,000 before taking
office and 8,000 more while serving. Ambassadors, members
of the Cabinet, and other federal officers, are all appointed by a
president with the "advice and consent" of a majority of the
Senate. When the Senate is in recess for at least ten days, the
president may make recess appointments.[46] Recess
appointments are temporary and expire at the end of the next
session of the Senate.

The power of a president to fire executive officials has long
been a contentious political issue. Generally, a president may
remove executive officials purely at will.[47] However, Congress
can curtail and constrain a president's authority to fire
commissioners of independent regulatory agencies and certain
inferior executive officers by statute.[48]

To manage the growing federal bureaucracy, presidents
have gradually surrounded themselves with many layers of
staff, who were eventually organized into the Executive Office
of the President of the United States. Within the Executive
Office, the president's innermost layer of aides (and their
assistants) are located in the White House Office.

To allow the government to act quickly in case of a major
domestic or international crisis arising when Congress is not in
session, the president is empowered by Article II, Section 3 of
the Constitution to call a special session of one or both houses
of Congress. Since John Adams first did so in 1797, the
president has called the full Congress to convene for a special
session on 27 occasions. Harry Truman was the most recent to
do so in July 1948 (the so-called "Turnip Day Session"). In
addition, prior to ratification of the Twentieth Amendment in
1933, which brought forward the date on which Congress
convenes from December to January,
newly inaugurated presidents would routinely call the Senate to
meet to confirm nominations or ratify treaties. Correspondingly,
the president is authorized to adjourn Congress if the House
and Senate cannot agree on the time of adjournment; no
president has ever had to exercise this administrative
power.[49][50]

The president also possesses the power to manage
operations of the federal government through issuing various
types of directives, such as presidential
proclamation and executive orders. When the president is
lawfully exercising one of the constitutionally conferred
presidential responsibilities, the scope of this power is
broad.[51] Even so, these directives are subject to judicial
review by U.S. federal courts, which can find them to be
unconstitutional. Moreover, Congress can overturn an
executive order through legislation (e.g., Congressional
Review Act).
Juridical powers and privileges
For further information, see List of people pardoned or granted clemency by the
president of the United States.

The president has the power to nominate federal judges,
including members of the United States courts of appeals and
the Supreme Court of the United States. However, these
nominations require Senate confirmation before they may take
office. Securing Senate approval can provide a major obstacle
for presidents who wish to orient the federal judiciary toward a
particular ideological stance. When nominating judges to U.S.
district courts, presidents often respect the long-standing
tradition of senatorial courtesy. Presidents may also
grant pardons and reprieves. Gerald Ford pardoned Richard
Nixon a month after taking office. Presidents often grant
pardons shortly before leaving office, like when Bill
Clinton pardoned Patty Hearst on his last day in office; this is
often controversial.[52][53][54]

Two doctrines concerning executive power have developed
that enable the president to exercise executive power with a
degree of autonomy. The first is executive privilege, which
allows the president to withhold from disclosure any
communications made directly to the president in the
performance of executive duties. George Washington first
claimed the privilege when Congress requested to see Chief
Justice John Jay's notes from an unpopular treaty negotiation
with Great Britain. While not enshrined in the Constitution or
any other law, Washington's action created the precedent for
the privilege. When Nixon tried to use executive privilege as a
reason for not turning over subpoenaed evidence to Congress
during the Watergate scandal, the Supreme Court ruled
in United States v. Nixon, 418 U.S. 683 (1974), that executive
privilege did not apply in cases where a president was
attempting to avoid criminal prosecution. When Bill Clinton
attempted to use executive privilege regarding the Lewinsky
scandal, the Supreme Court ruled in Clinton v.
Jones, 520 U.S. 681 (1997), that the privilege also could not be
used in civil suits. These cases established the legal
precedent that executive privilege is valid, although the exact
extent of the privilege has yet to be clearly defined.
Additionally, federal courts have allowed this privilege to
radiate outward and protect other executive branch employees,
but have weakened that protection for those executive branch
communications that do not involve the president.[55]

The state secrets privilege allows the president and the
executive branch to withhold information or documents
from discovery in legal proceedings if such release would
harm national security. Precedent for the privilege arose early
in the 19th century when Thomas Jefferson refused to release
military documents in the treason trial of Aaron Burr and again
in Totten v. United States 92 U.S. 105 (1876), when the
Supreme Court dismissed a case brought by a former Union
spy.[56] However, the privilege was not formally recognized by
the U.S. Supreme Court until United States v.
Reynolds 345 U.S. 1 (1953), where it was held to be
a common law evidentiary privilege.[57] Before the September
11 attacks, use of the privilege had been rare, but increasing in
frequency.[58] Since 2001, the government has asserted the
privilege in more cases and at earlier stages of the litigation,
thus in some instances causing dismissal of the suits before
reaching the merits of the claims, as in the Ninth Circuit's ruling
in Mohamed v. Jeppesen Dataplan, Inc.[57][59][60] Critics of the
privilege claim its use has become a tool for the government to
cover up illegal or embarrassing government actions.[61][62]

The degree to which the president personally has sovereign
immunity from court cases is contested and has been the
subject of several Supreme Court decisions. Nixon v.
Fitzgerald (1982) dismissed a civil lawsuit against by-then
former president Richard Nixon based on his official
actions. Clinton v. Jones (1997) decided that a president has
no immunity against civil suits for actions taken before
becoming president, and ruled that a sexual harassment suit
could proceed without delay, even against a sitting president.
The 2019 Mueller Report on Russian interference in the 2016
presidential election detailed evidence of possible obstruction
of justice, but investigators declined to refer Donald Trump for
prosecution based on a United States Department of
Justice policy against indicting an incumbent president. The
report noted that impeachment by Congress was available as a
remedy. As of October 2019, a case was pending in the federal
courts regarding access to personal tax returns in a criminal
case brought against Donald Trump by the New York County
District Attorney alleging violations of New York state law.[63]
Ceremonial roles
President Woodrow Wilson throws out the ceremonial first ball on Opening Day, 1916

The president fulfills many ceremonial duties. William
Howard Taft started the tradition of throwing out the ceremonial
first pitch in 1910 at Griffith Stadium, Washington, D.C., on
the Washington Senators's Opening Day. Every president
since Taft, except for Jimmy Carter, threw out at least one
ceremonial first ball or pitch for Opening Day, the All-Star
Game, or the World Series, usually with much fanfare.[64] Every
president since Theodore Roosevelt has served as honorary
president of the Boy Scouts of America.[65]

Other presidential traditions are associated with American
holidays. Rutherford B. Hayes began in 1878 the first White
House egg rolling for local children.[66] Beginning in 1947,
during the Harry S. Truman administration,
every Thanksgiving the president is presented with a live
domestic turkey during the annual National Thanksgiving
Turkey Presentation held at the White House. Since 1989,
when the custom of "pardoning" the turkey was formalized
by George H. W. Bush, the turkey has been taken to a farm
where it will live out the rest of its natural life.[67]

Presidential traditions also involve the president's role as
head of government. Many outgoing presidents since James
Buchanan traditionally give advice to their successor during
the presidential transition.[68] Ronald Reagan and his
successors have also left a private message on the desk of the
Oval Office on Inauguration Day for the incoming president.[69]
Four ruffles and flourishes
and 'Hail to the Chief' (long
version)
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
During a state visit by a foreign head of state, the president
typically hosts a State Arrival Ceremony held on the South
Lawn, a custom was begun by John F. Kennedy in
1961.[70] This is followed by a state dinner given by the
president which is held in the State Dining Room later in the
evening.[71]

The modern presidency holds the president as one of the
nation's premier celebrities. Some argue that images of the
presidency have a tendency to be manipulated by
administration public relations officials as well as by presidents
themselves. One critic described the presidency as
"propagandized leadership" which has a "mesmerizing power
surrounding the office".[72] Administration public relations
managers staged carefully crafted photo-ops of smiling
presidents with smiling crowds for television cameras.[73] One
critic wrote the image of John F. Kennedy was described as
carefully framed "in rich detail" which "drew on the power of
myth" regarding the incident of PT 109[74] and wrote that
Kennedy understood how to use images to further his
presidential ambitions.[75] As a result, some political
commentators have opined that American voters have
unrealistic expectations of presidents: voters expect a
president to "drive the economy, vanquish enemies, lead the
free world, comfort tornado victims, heal the national soul and
protect borrowers from hidden credit-card fees".[76]
Critics of presidency's evolution
Main article: Imperial Presidency

The nation's Founding Fathers expected the Congress—
which was the first branch of government described in
the Constitution—to be the dominant branch of government;
they did not expect a strong executive department.[77] However,
presidential power has shifted over time, which has resulted in
claims that the modern presidency has become too
powerful,[78][79] unchecked, unbalanced,[80] and "monarchist" in
nature.[81] Professor Dana D. Nelson believes presidents over
the past thirty years have worked towards "undivided
presidential control of the executive branch and its
agencies".[82] She criticizes proponents of the unitary
executive for expanding "the many existing uncheckable
executive powers—such as executive orders, decrees,
memorandums, proclamations, national security directives and
legislative signing statements—that already allow presidents to
enact a good deal of foreign and domestic policy without aid,
interference or consent from Congress".[82] Bill Wilson, board
member of Americans for Limited Government, opined that the
expanded presidency was "the greatest threat ever to
individual freedom and democratic rule".[83]
Selection process
George Washington, the first president of the United States
Eligibility

Article II, Section 1, Clause 5 of the Constitution sets three
qualifications for holding the presidency. To serve as president,
one must:




be a natural-born citizen of the United States;
be at least 35 years old;
be a resident in the United States for at least 14 years.[84]
A person who meets the above qualifications would,
however, still be disqualified from holding the office of
president under any of the following conditions:



Under the Twenty-second Amendment, no person can be
elected president more than twice. The amendment also
specifies that if any eligible person serves as president or
acting president for more than two years of a term for which
some other eligible person was elected president, the
former can be elected president only once.[85][86]
Under Article I, Section 3, Clause 7, upon conviction in
impeachment cases, the Senate has the option of
disqualifying convicted individuals from holding federal
office, including that of president.[87]
Under Section 3 of the Fourteenth Amendment, no person
who swore an oath to support the Constitution, and later
rebelled against the United States, can become president.
However, this disqualification can be lifted by a two-thirds
vote of each house of Congress.[88]
Campaigns and nomination
Main articles: United States presidential primary, United States presidential nominating
convention, United States presidential debates, and United States presidential election
President Jimmy Carter (left) debates Republican nominee Ronald Reagan on October 28, 1980.

The modern presidential campaign begins before
the primary elections, which the two major political parties use
to clear the field of candidates before their national nominating
conventions, where the most successful candidate is made the
party's presidential nominee. Typically, the party's presidential
candidate chooses a vice presidential nominee, and this choice
is rubber-stamped by the convention. The most common
previous profession of presidents is lawyer.[89]

Nominees participate in nationally televised debates, and
while the debates are usually restricted to
the Democratic and Republican nominees, third
party candidates may be invited, such as Ross Perot in the
1992 debates. Nominees campaign across the country to
explain their views, convince voters and solicit contributions.
Much of the modern electoral process is concerned with
winning swing states through frequent visits and mass
media advertising drives.
Election
Map of the United States showing the number of electoral votes allocated following the 2010 census to
each state and the District of Columbia for the 2012, 2016 and 2020 presidential elections; it also notes
that Maine and Nebraska distribute electors by way of the congressional district method. 270 electoral votes
are required for a majority out of 538 votes possible.
Main article: United States Electoral College

The president is elected indirectly by the voters of each state
and the District of Columbia through the Electoral College, a
body of electors formed every four years for the sole purpose
of electing the president and vice president to concurrent fouryear terms. As prescribed by Article II, Section 1, Clause 2,
each state is entitled to a number of electors equal to the size
of its total delegation in both houses of Congress. Additionally,
the Twenty-third Amendment provides that the District of
Columbia is entitled to the number it would have if it were a
state, but in no case more than that of the least populous
state.[90] Currently, all states and the District of Columbia select
their electors based on a popular election.[91] In all but two
states, the party whose presidential–vice
presidential ticket receives a plurality of popular votes in the
state has its entire slate of elector nominees chosen as the
state's electors.[92] Maine and Nebraska deviate from
this winner-take-all practice, awarding two electors to the
statewide winner and one to the winner in each congressional
district.[93][94]

On the first Monday after the second Wednesday in
December, about 6 weeks after the election, the electors
convene in their respective state capitals (and in Washington,
D.C.) to vote for president and, on a separate ballot, for vice
president. They typically vote for the candidates of
the party that nominated them. While there is no constitutional
mandate or federal law requiring them to do so, the District of
Columbia and 32 states have laws requiring that their electors
vote for the candidates to whom they are pledged.[95][96] The
constitutionality of these laws was upheld in Chiafalo v.
Washington (2020).[97] Following the vote, each state then
sends a certified record of their electoral votes to Congress.
The votes of the electors are opened and counted during a
joint session of Congress, held in the first week of January. If a
candidate has received an absolute majority of electoral votes
for president (currently 270 of 538), that person is declared the
winner. Otherwise, the House of Representatives must meet to
elect a president using a contingent election procedure in
which representatives, voting by state delegation, with each
state casting a single vote, choose between the
top three electoral vote-getters for president. For a candidate
to win, he or she must receive the votes of an absolute majority
of states (currently 26 of 50).[91]

There have been two contingent presidential elections in the
nation's history. A 73–73 electoral vote tie between Thomas
Jefferson and fellow Democratic-Republican Aaron Burr in
the election of 1800 necessitated the first. Conducted under
the original procedure established by Article II, Section 1,
Clause 3 of the Constitution, which stipulates that if two or
three persons received a majority vote and an equal vote, the
House of Representatives would choose one of them for
president; the runner-up would become vice president.[98] On
February 17, 1801, Jefferson was elected president on the
36th ballot, and Burr elected vice president. Afterward, the
system was overhauled through the Twelfth Amendment in
time to be used in the 1804 election.[99] A quarter-century later,
the choice for president again devolved to the House when no
candidate won an absolute majority of electoral votes (131 of
261) in the election of 1824. Under the Twelfth Amendment,
the House was required to choose a president from among the
top three electoral vote recipients: Andrew Jackson, John
Quincy Adams, and William H. Crawford. Held February 9,
1825, this second and most recent contingent election resulted
in John Quincy Adams being elected president on the first
ballot.[100]
Tenure
Inauguration
Main article: United States presidential inauguration

Pursuant to the Twentieth Amendment, the four-year term of
office for both the president and the vice president begins at
noon on January 20.[101] The first presidential and vice
presidential terms to begin on this date, known as Inauguration
Day, were the second terms of President Franklin D.
Roosevelt and Vice President John Nance Garner in
1937.[102] Previously, Inauguration Day was on March 4. As a
result of the date change, the first term (1933–37) of both men
had been shortened by 43 days.[103]

Before executing the powers of the office, a president is
required to recite the presidential Oath of Office, found
in Article II, Section 1, Clause 8 of the Constitution. This is the
only component in the inauguration ceremony mandated by the
Constitution:

I do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I will faithfully execute
the Office of President of the United States, and will to the best
of my ability, preserve, protect, and defend the Constitution of
the United States.[104]

Presidents have traditionally placed one hand upon
a Bible while taking the oath, and have added "So help me
God" to the end of the oath.[105][106] Although the oath may be
administered by any person authorized by law to administer
oaths, presidents are traditionally sworn in by the chief justice
of the United States.[104]
Term limit

When the first president, George Washington, announced in
his Farewell Address that he was not running for a third term,
he established a "two-terms then out" precedent. Precedent
became tradition after Thomas Jefferson publicly embraced the
principle a decade later during his second term, as did his two
immediate successors, James Madison and James
Monroe.[107] In spite of the strong two-term tradition, Ulysses S.
Grant sought a non-consecutive third term in 1880,[108] as
did Theodore Roosevelt in 1912 (though it would have been
only his second full term).[109] Both were unsuccessful.
Franklin D. Roosevelt won a record four presidential elections (1932, 1936, 1940 and 1944).

In 1940, after leading the nation through the Great
Depression, Franklin Roosevelt was elected to a third term,
breaking the self-imposed precedent. Four years later, with the
U.S. engaged in World War II, he was re-elected again despite
his declining physical health; he died 82 days into his fourth
term on April 12, 1945.[110]

In response to the unprecedented length of Roosevelt's
presidency, the Twenty-second Amendment was adopted in
1951. The amendment bars anyone from being elected
president more than twice, or once if that person served more
than two years (24 months) of another president's four-year
term. Harry S. Truman, president when this term limit came
into force, was exempted from its limitations, and briefly sought
a second full term—to which he would have otherwise been
ineligible for election, as he had been president for more than
two years of Roosevelt's fourth term—before he withdrew from
the 1952 election.[110]

Since the amendment's adoption, five presidents have
served two full terms: Dwight D. Eisenhower, Ronald
Reagan, Bill Clinton, George W. Bush, and Barack Obama.
Both Jimmy Carter and George H. W. Bush sought a second
term but were defeated. Richard Nixon was elected to a
second term, but resigned before completing it. Lyndon B.
Johnson, having held the presidency for one full term in
addition to only 14 months of John F. Kennedy's unexpired
term, was eligible for a second full term in 1968, but
he withdrew from the Democratic primary. Additionally, Gerald
Ford, who served out the last two years and five months of
Nixon's second term, sought a full term but was defeated by
Jimmy Carter in the 1976 election.
After the presidency

Until 1958, former presidents had no governmental aid to
maintain themselves. Gradually, a small pension was
increased, but with the public disaffection with Presidents
Johnson and Nixon, some began to question the propriety and
the amounts involved. Some ex-presidents were very active,
especially in international affairs, most notably Theodore
Roosevelt;[111] Herbert Hoover;[112] Richard Nixon;[113] and Jimmy
Carter.[114][115]
Impeachment
Further information: Impeachment in the United States and U.S. presidential
impeachment

Article II, Section 4 of the Constitution allows for the removal
of high federal officials, including the president, from office for
"treason, bribery, or other high crimes and
misdemeanors". Article I, Section 2, Clause 5 authorizes the
House of Representatives to serve as a "grand jury" with the
power to impeach said officials by a majority vote.[116] Article I,
Section 3, Clause 6 authorizes the Senate to serve as
a court with the power to remove impeached officials from
office, by a two-thirds vote to convict.[117]

Three presidents have been impeached by the House of
Representatives: Andrew Johnson in 1868, Bill Clinton in 1998,
and Donald Trump in 2019; all three were acquitted by the
Senate. Additionally, the House Judiciary
Committee conducted an impeachment inquiry against Richard
Nixon in 1973–74; however, he resigned from office before the
full House voted on the articles of impeachment.[116]
Succession and disability

Vacancies and succession in the office of president may
arise under several possible circumstances: death, resignation,
and removal from office. Deaths have occurred a number of
times, resignation has occurred only once, and removal from
office has never occurred.

The Constitution, in Article II, Section 1, Clause 6, stipulates
that the vice president takes over the "powers and duties" of
the presidency in the event of a president's removal, death,
resignation, or inability.[118] Even so, it does not clearly state
whether the vice president would become president of the
United States or simply act as president in a case of
succession.[119] This ambiguity was alleviated in 1967
by Section 1 of the Twenty-fifth Amendment, which
unequivocally states that the vice president becomes president
upon the removal from office, death, or resignation of the
president.

Under Section 3 of the Twenty-fifth Amendment, the
president may transfer the presidential powers and duties to
the vice president, who then becomes acting president, by
transmitting a statement to the speaker of the House and
the president pro tempore of the Senate stating the reasons for
the transfer. The president resumes the discharge of the
presidential powers and duties upon transmitting, to those two
officials, a written declaration stating that resumption. Such a
transfer of power has occurred on three occasions: Ronald
Reagan to George H. W. Bush once, on July 13, 1985,
and George W. Bush to Dick Cheney twice, on June 29, 2002,
and on July 21, 2007.[120]

Under Section 4 of the Twenty-fifth Amendment, the vice
president, in conjunction with a majority of the Cabinet, may
transfer the presidential powers and duties from the president
to the vice president by transmitting a written declaration to the
speaker of the House and the president pro tempore of the
Senate that the president is incapacitated—unable to
discharge their presidential powers and duties. If this occurs,
then the vice president will assume the presidential powers
and duties as acting president; however, the president can
declare that no such inability exists and resume the discharge
of the presidential powers and duties. If the vice president and
Cabinet contest this claim, it is up to Congress, which must
meet within two days if not already in session, to decide the
merit of the claim.

Article II, Section 1, Clause 6 also authorizes Congress to
declare who shall become acting president in the "Case of
Removal, Death, Resignation or Inability, both of the president
and vice president".[119] The Presidential Succession Act of
1947 (codified as 3 U.S.C. § 19) provides that if both the
president and vice president have left office or are both
otherwise unavailable to serve during their terms of office,
the presidential line of succession follows the order of: speaker
of the House, then, if necessary, the president pro tempore of
the Senate, and then if necessary, the eligible heads of federal
executive departments who form the president's cabinet. The
cabinet currently has 15 members, of which the secretary of
state is first in line; the other Cabinet secretaries follow in the
order in which their department (or the department of which
their department is the successor) was created. Those
department heads who are constitutionally ineligible to be
elected to the presidency are also disqualified from assuming
the powers and duties of the presidency through succession.
No statutory successor has yet been called upon to act as
president.[121]
Political affiliation

Political parties have dominated American politics for most of
the nation's history. Though the Founding Fathers generally
spurned political parties as divisive and disruptive, and their
rise had not been anticipated when the U.S. Constitution was
drafted in 1787, organized political parties developed in the
U.S. in the mid-1790s nonetheless. They evolved from political
factions, which began to appear almost immediately after the
Federal government came into existence. Those who
supported the Washington administration were referred to as
"pro-administration" and would eventually form the Federalist
Party, while those in opposition joined the
emerging Democratic-Republican Party.[122]

Greatly concerned about the very real capacity of political
parties to destroy the fragile unity holding the nation together,
Washington remained unaffiliated with any political faction or
party throughout his eight-year presidency. He was, and
remains, the only U.S. president never to be affiliated with a
political party.[123][124] Since Washington, every U.S. president has
been affiliated with a political party at the time of assuming
office. The number of presidents per political party (at the time
of entry into office) are:[125][126]
Party
Rep
ubli
can
#
Name(s)
Chester A. Arthur, George H. W. Bush, George W. Bush, Calvin Coolidge, Dwight D. Eisenhow
1 er, Gerald Ford, James A. Garfield, Ulysses S. Grant, Warren G. Harding, Benjamin Harrison, R
9 utherford B. Hayes, Herbert Hoover, Abraham Lincoln, William McKinley, Richard Nixon, Ron
ald Reagan, Theodore Roosevelt, William Howard Taft, and Donald Trump
De
James Buchanan, Jimmy Carter, Grover Cleveland, Bill Clinton, Andrew Jackson, Lyndon B. Jo
moc 1 hnson, John F. Kennedy, Barack
rati 4 Obama, Franklin Pierce, James K. Polk, Franklin D. Roosevelt, Harry S. Truman, Martin Van B
c
uren, and Woodrow Wilson
De 4 John Quincy Adams, Thomas Jefferson, James Madison, and James Monroe
moc
rati
cRep
ubli
can
Whi
4 Millard Fillmore, William Henry Harrison, Zachary Taylor, and John Tyler[C]
g
Fed
eral
ist
1 John Adams
Nati
onal
1 Andrew Johnson[D]
Uni
on
Non
1 George Washington
e

The following graphical timeline depicts the progression of
the presidents and their political affiliation at the time of
assuming office.
Compensation
Presidential pay history[127][128]
Year
established
Salary
Salary in
2018 USD
1789
$25,000
$709,000
1873
$50,000 $1,080,000
1909
$75,000 $2,140,000
1949
$100,000 $1,050,000
1969
$200,000 $1,370,000
2001
$400,000
$567,000
2018
$400,000
$400,000

Since 2001, the president's annual salary has been
$400,000, along with a: $50,000 expense allowance; $100,000
nontaxable travel account, and $19,000 entertainment account.
The president's salary is set by Congress, and under Article II,
Section 1, Clause 7 of the Constitution, any increase or
reduction in presidential salary can not take effect before the
next presidential term of office.[129][130]
Residence
For the official residences in which President Washington resided, see Presidency of
George Washington § Residences. For the private residences of the various U.S.
presidents, see List of residences of presidents of the United States.

The White House in Washington, D.C. is the official
residence of the president. The site was selected by George
Washington, and the cornerstone was laid in 1792. Every
president since John Adams (in 1800) has lived there. At
various times in U.S. history, it has been known as the
"President's Palace", the "President's House", and the
"Executive Mansion". Theodore Roosevelt officially gave the
White House its current name in 1901.[131] Facilities that are
available to the president include access to the White House
staff, medical care, recreation, housekeeping, and security
services. The federal government pays for state dinners and
other official functions, but the president pays for personal,
family, and guest dry cleaning and food.[132]

Camp David, officially titled Naval Support Facility Thurmont,
a mountain-based military camp in Frederick County,
Maryland, is the president's country residence. A place of
solitude and tranquility, the site has been used extensively to
host foreign dignitaries since the 1940s.[133]

President's Guest House, located next to the Eisenhower
Executive Office Building at the White House Complex
and Lafayette Park, serves as the president's official guest
house and as a secondary residence for the president if
needed. Four interconnected, 19th-century houses—Blair
House, Lee House, and 700 and 704 Jackson Place—with a
combined floor space exceeding 70,000 square feet (6,500 m2)
comprise the property.[134]

Presidential residences


White House, the official residence


Camp David, the official retreat


Blair House, the official guest house
Travel
Main article: Transportation of the president of the United States

The primary means of long-distance air travel for the
president is one of two identical Boeing VC-25 aircraft, which
are extensively modified Boeing 747 airliners and are referred
to as Air Force One while the president is on board (although
any U.S. Air Force aircraft the president is aboard is
designated as "Air Force One" for the duration of the flight). Incountry trips are typically handled with just one of the two
planes, while overseas trips are handled with both, one primary
and one backup. The president also has access to smaller Air
Force aircraft, most notably the Boeing C-32, which are used
when the president must travel to airports that cannot support
a jumbo jet. Any civilian aircraft the president is aboard is
designated Executive One for the flight.[135][136]

For short-distance air travel, the president has access to a
fleet of U.S. Marine Corps helicopters of varying models,
designated Marine One when the president is aboard any
particular one in the fleet. Flights are typically handled with as
many as five helicopters all flying together and frequently
swapping positions as to disguise which helicopter the
president is actually aboard to any would-be threats.

For ground travel, the president uses the presidential state
car, which is an armored limousine designed to look like
a Cadillac sedan, but built on a truck chassis.[137][138] The U.S.
Secret Service operates and maintains the fleet of several
limousines. The president also has access to two armored
motorcoaches, which are primarily used for touring trips.[139]

Presidential transportation


The presidential limousine, dubbed "The Beast"


The presidential plane, called Air Force One when the president
is on board


Marine One helicopter, when the president is aboard
Protection

The U.S. Secret Service is charged with protecting the
president and the first family. As part of their protection,
presidents, first ladies, their children and other immediate
family members, and other prominent persons and locations
are assigned Secret Service codenames.[140] The use of such
names was originally for security purposes and dates to a time
when sensitive electronic communications were not
routinely encrypted; today, the names simply serve for
purposes of brevity, clarity, and tradition.[141]
Post-presidency
From left: George H. W. Bush, Barack Obama, George W. Bush, Bill Clinton, and Jimmy Carter. Photo taken in
the Oval Office on January 7, 2009; Obama formally took office thirteen days later.

Under the Former Presidents Act, all living former presidents
are granted a pension, an office, and a staff. The pension has
increased numerous times with congressional approval.
Retired presidents now receive a pension based on the salary
of the current administration's cabinet secretaries, which was
$199,700 each year in 2012.[142] Former presidents who served
in Congress may also collect congressional pensions.[143] The
act also provides former presidents with travel funds
and franking privileges. Prior to 1997, all former presidents,
their spouses, and their children until age 16 were protected by
the Secret Service until the president's death.[144][145] In 1997,
Congress passed legislation limiting Secret Service protection
to no more than 10 years from the date a president leaves
office.[146] On January 10, 2013, President Obama signed
legislation reinstating lifetime Secret Service protection for
him, George W. Bush, and all subsequent presidents.[147] A
spouse who remarries is no longer eligible for Secret Service
protection.[146]

Some former presidents have had significant careers after
leaving office. Prominent examples include William Howard
Taft's tenure as chief justice of the United States and Herbert
Hoover's work on government reorganization after World War
II. Grover Cleveland, whose bid for reelection failed in 1888,
was elected president again 4 years later in 1892. Two former
presidents served in Congress after leaving the White
House: John Quincy Adams was elected to the House of
Representatives, serving there for 17 years, and Andrew
Johnson returned to the Senate in 1875, though he died soon
after.

Presidents may use their predecessors as emissaries to
deliver private messages to other nations or as official
representatives of the United States to state funerals and other
important foreign events.[148][149] Richard Nixon made multiple
foreign trips to countries including China and Russia and was
lauded as an elder statesman.[150] Jimmy Carter has become a
global human rights campaigner, international arbiter, and
election monitor, as well as a recipient of the Nobel Peace
Prize. Bill Clinton has also worked as an informal ambassador,
most recently in the negotiations that led to the release of two
American journalists, Laura Ling and Euna Lee, from North
Korea. Clinton has also been active politically since his
presidential term ended, working with his wife Hillary on
her 2008 and 2016 presidential bids and President Obama on
his 2012 reelection campaign.

As of July 2020, there are four living former U.S. presidents.
The most recent former president to die was George H. W.
Bush (1989–1993), on November 30, 2018. The living former
presidents, in order of service, are:

Jimmy Carter
(1977–1981)
Age 95

Bill Clinton
(1993–2001)
Age 73

George W. Bush
(2001–2009)
Age 74

Barack Obama
(2009–2017)
Age 58
Presidential libraries
Main article: Presidential library

Every president since Herbert Hoover has created
a repository known as a presidential library for preserving and
making available his papers, records, and other documents
and materials. Completed libraries are deeded to and
maintained by the National Archives and Records
Administration (NARA); the initial funding for building and
equipping each library must come from private, non-federal
sources.[151] There are currently thirteen presidential libraries in
the NARA system. There are also presidential libraries
maintained by state governments and private foundations and
Universities of Higher Education, such as the Abraham Lincoln
Presidential Library and Museum, which is run by the State
of Illinois; the George W. Bush Presidential Library and
Museum, which is run by Southern Methodist University;
the George H. W. Bush Presidential Library and Museum,
which is run by Texas A&M University; and the Lyndon Baines
Johnson Presidential Library and Museum, which is run by
the University of Texas at Austin.

A number of presidents have lived for many years after
leaving office, and several of them have personally overseen
the building and opening of their own presidential libraries.
Some have even made arrangements for their own burial at
the site. Several presidential libraries contain the graves of the
president they document, including the Dwight D. Eisenhower
Presidential Library, Museum and Boyhood Home in Abilene,
Kansas, Richard Nixon Presidential Library and
Museum in Yorba Linda, California, and the Ronald Reagan
Presidential Library in Simi Valley, California. These gravesites
are open to the general public.
See also

United States portal

Politics portal



Outline of American politics
Curse of Tippecanoe
Second-term curse
Notes
1.
2.
3.
4.
^ The informal term POTUS originated in the Phillips Code, a
shorthand method created in 1879 by Walter P. Phillips for the rapid
transmission of press reports by telegraph.[10]
^ The nine vice presidents who succeeded to the presidency upon
their predecessor's death or resignation and finished-out that
unexpired term are: John Tyler (1841); Millard Fillmore (1850); Andrew
Johnson (1865); Chester A. Arthur (1881); Theodore
Roosevelt (1901); Calvin Coolidge (1923); Harry S.
Truman (1945); Lyndon B. Johnson (1963); and Gerald Ford (1974).
^ Former Democrat John Tyler was elected vice president on the Whig
Party ticket with Harrison in 1840. Tyler's policy priorities as president
soon proved to be opposed to most of the Whig agenda, and he was
expelled from the party in September 1841.
^ Democrat Andrew Johnson was elected vice president on the
National Union Party ticket with Republican Abraham Lincoln in 1864.
Later, while president, Johnson tried and failed to build a party of
loyalists under the National Union banner. Near the end of his
presidency, Johnson rejoined the Democratic Party.
References
1.
2.
3.
4.
^ "How To Address The President; He Is Not Your Excellency Or Your
Honor, But Mr. President". The New York Times. August 2, 1891.
^ "USGS Correspondence Handbook—Chapter 4". Usgs.gov. July 18,
2007. Archived from the original on September 26, 2012.
Retrieved November 15, 2012.
^ "Models of Address and Salutation". Ita.doc.gov. Archived from the
original on July 20, 2010. Retrieved September 4, 2010.
^ Heads of State, Heads of Government, Ministers for Foreign Affairs,
Protocol and Liaison Service, United Nations. Retrieved November 1,
2012.
5.
^ The White House Office of the Press Secretary (September 1,
2010). "Remarks by President Obama, President Mubarak, His
Majesty King Abdullah, Prime Minister Netanyahu and President
Abbas Before Working Dinner". obamawhitehouse.archives.gov.
Retrieved July 19, 2011.
6. ^ "Exchanges of Letters". Jimmy Carter Library. September 1978.
Retrieved November 9,2017.
7. ^ Maier, Pauline (2010). Ratification: The People Debate the
Constitution, 1787–1788. New York, New York: Simon & Schuster.
p. 433. ISBN 978-0-684-86854-7.
8. ^ "March 4: A forgotten huge day in American history".
Philadelphia: National Constitution Center. March 4, 2013.
Retrieved July 29, 2018.
9. ^ "Presidential Election of 1789". Digital Encyclopedia. Mount Vernon,
Virginia: Mount Vernon Ladies' Association, George Washington's
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10. ^ Safire, William (2008). Safire's Political Dictionary. Oxford University
Press. p. 564. ISBN 9780195340617.
11. ^ Von Drehle, David (February 2, 2017). "Is Steve Bannon the Second
Most Powerful Man in the World?". Time.
12. ^ "Who should be the world's most powerful person?". The Guardian.
London. January 3, 2008.
13. ^ Meacham, Jon (December 20, 2008). "Meacham: The History of
Power". Newsweek. Retrieved September 4, 2010.
14. ^ Zakaria, Fareed (December 20, 2008). "The Newsweek 50: Barack
Obama". Newsweek. Retrieved September 4, 2010.
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Archives.gov. Retrieved September 4, 2010.
16. ^ Pfiffner, J. P. (1988). "The President's Legislative Agenda". Annals
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Expanding Federal Power". Proceedings of the American Political
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63. doi:10.2307/3038511. JSTOR 3038511.
18. ^ Jump up to:a b c "Executive Branch". obamawhitehouse.archives.gov.
April 2015. Retrieved January 24, 2020.
19. ^ "Grover Cleveland—24". White House..
20. ^ Jump up to:a b c d e f g Milkis, Sidney M.; Nelson, Michael (2008). The
American Presidency: Origins and Development (5th ed.).
Washington, D.C.: CQ Press. pp. 1–25. ISBN 978-0-87289-336-8.
21. ^ Jump up to:a b c Kelly, Alfred H.; Harbison, Winfred A.; Belz, Herman
(1991). The American Constitution: Its Origins and Development. I (7th
ed.). New York: W.W. Norton & Co. pp. 76–81. ISBN 978-0-39396056-3.
22. ^ "Articles of Confederation, 1777–1781". Washington, D.C.: Office of
the Historian, Bureau of Public Affairs, United States Department of
State. Archived from the original on December 30, 2010.
Retrieved January 20, 2019.
23. ^ Ellis, Richard J. (1999). Founding the American Presidency.
Lanham, Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield. p. 1. ISBN 0-8476-9499-2.
24. ^ Beeman, Richard (2009). Plain, Honest Men: The Making of the
American Constitution. New York: Random House. ISBN 978-0-81297684-7.
25. ^ Pfiffner, James. "Essays on Article II: Recommendations
Clause". The Heritage Guide to the Constitution. Heritage Foundation.
Retrieved April 14, 2019.
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Washington, D.C.: The White House. Retrieved April 14, 2019.
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Legislative Process in the U.S. Congress" (PDF). R42843 · Version 14
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29. ^ Nelson, Dana D. (October 11, 2008). "The 'unitary executive'
question". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved October 4, 2009.
30. ^ Suarez, Ray; et al. (July 24, 2006). "President's Use of 'Signing
Statements' Raises Constitutional Concerns". PBS Online NewsHour.
Archived from the original on March 21, 2007. Retrieved November
11, 2009. The American Bar Association said President Bush's use of
"signing statements", which allow him to sign a bill into law but not
enforce certain provisions, disregards the rule of law and the
separation of powers. Legal experts discuss the implications.
31. ^ Will, George F. (December 21, 2008). "Making Congress Moot". The
Washington Post. Retrieved September 28, 2009.
32. ^ Ramsey, Michael; Vladeck, Stephen. "Common Interpretation:
Commander in Chief Clause". National Constitution Center
Educational Resources (some internal navigation required). National
Constitution Center. Retrieved May 23, 2017.
33. ^ Andrew J. Polsky, Elusive Victories: The American Presidency at
War (Oxford University Press, 2012) online review
34. ^ "George Washington and the Evolution of the American Commander
in Chief". The Colonial Williamsburg Foundation.
35. ^ James M. McPherson, Tried by War: Abraham Lincoln As
Commander in Chief (2009)
36. ^ "DOD Releases Unified Command Plan 2011". United States
Department of Defense. April 8, 2011. Archived from the original on
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37. ^ 10 U.S.C. § 164
38. ^ Joint Chiefs of Staff. About the Joint Chiefs of Staff. Retrieved
February 25, 2013.
39. ^ Hamilton, Alexander. The Federalist #69 (reposting). Retrieved June
15, 2007.
40. ^ Christopher, James A.; Baker, III (July 8, 2008). "The National War
Powers Commission Report". The Miller Center of Public Affairs at the
University of Virginia. Archived from the original (PDF) on November
26, 2010. Retrieved December 15, 2010. No clear mechanism or
requirement exists today for the president and Congress to consult.
The War Powers Resolution of 1973 contains only vague consultation
requirements. Instead, it relies on reporting requirements that, if
triggered, begin the clock running for Congress to approve the
particular armed conflict. By the terms of the 1973 Resolution,
however, Congress need not act to disapprove the conflict; the
cessation of all hostilities is required in 60 to 90 days merely if
Congress fails to act. Many have criticized this aspect of the
Resolution as unwise and unconstitutional, and no president in the
past 35 years has filed a report "pursuant" to these triggering
provisions.
41. ^ Jump up to:a b c d "The Law: The President's War Powers". Time.
June 1, 1970. Retrieved September 28, 2009.
42. ^ Mitchell, Alison (May 2, 1999). "The World; Only Congress Can
Declare War. Really. It's True". The New York Times.
Retrieved November 8, 2009. Presidents have sent forces abroad
more than 100 times; Congress has declared war only five times: the
War of 1812, the Mexican War, the Spanish–American War, World
War I and World War II.
43. ^ Mitchell, Alison (May 2, 1999). "The World; Only Congress Can
Declare War. Really. It's True". The New York Times.
Retrieved November 8, 2009. President Reagan told Congress of the
invasion of Grenada two hours after he had ordered the landing. He
told Congressional leaders of the bombing of Libya while the aircraft
were on their way.
44. ^ Gordon, Michael R. (December 20, 1990). "U.S. troops move in
Panama in effort to seize Noriega; gunfire is heard in capital". The
New York Times. Retrieved November 8, 2009. It was not clear
whether the White House consulted with Congressional leaders about
the military action, or notified them in advance. Thomas S. Foley, the
Speaker of the House, said on Tuesday night that he had not been
alerted by the Administration.
45. ^ "Article II, Section 3, U.S. Constitution". Legal Information Institute.
2012. Retrieved August 7, 2012.
46. ^ NLRB v. Noel Canning, 572 U.S. __ (2014).
47. ^ Shurtleff v. United States, 189 U.S. 311 (1903); Myers v. United
States, 272 U.S. 52(1926).
48. ^ Humphrey's Executor v. United States, 295 U.S. 602 (1935)
and Morrison v. Olson, 487U.S. 654 (1988), respectively.
49. ^ Forte, David F. "Essays on Article II: Convening of Congress". The
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50. ^ Steinmetz, Katy (August 10, 2010). "Congressional Special
Sessions". Time. Retrieved April 14, 2019.
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and Abuse of Executive Orders and Other Presidential Directives".
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23, 2018.
52. ^ Johnston, David (December 24, 1992). "Bush Pardons Six in Iran
Affair, Aborting a Weinberger Trial; Prosecutor Assails 'CoverUp'". The New York Times. Retrieved November 8, 2009. But not
since President Gerald R. Ford granted clemency to former President
Richard M. Nixon for possible crimes in Watergate has a Presidential
pardon so pointedly raised the issue of whether the president was
trying to shield officials for political purposes.
53. ^ Johnston, David (December 24, 1992). "Bush Pardons Six in Iran
Affair, Aborting a Weinberger Trial; Prosecutor Assails 'CoverUp'". The New York Times. Retrieved November 8, 2009. The
prosecutor charged that Mr. Weinberger's efforts to hide his notes may
have 'forestalled impeachment proceedings against President Reagan'
and formed part of a pattern of 'deception and obstruction'. ... In light
of President Bush's own misconduct, we are gravely concerned about
his decision to pardon others who lied to Congress and obstructed
official investigations.
54. ^ Eisler, Peter (March 7, 2008). "Clinton-papers release blocked". USA
Today. Retrieved November 8, 2009. Former president Clinton issued
140 pardons on his last day in office, including several to controversial
figures, such as commodities trader Rich, then a fugitive on tax
evasion charges. Rich's ex-wife, Denise, contributed $2,000 in 1999 to
Hillary Clinton's Senate campaign; $5,000 to a related political action
committee; and $450,000 to a fund set up to build the Clinton library.
55. ^ Millhiser, Ian (June 1, 2010). "Executive Privilege 101". Center for
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Executive Power". Political Science Quarterly. 120 (1): 85–
112. doi:10.1002/j.1538-165x.2005.tb00539.x. Use of the state secrets
privilege in courts has grown significantly over the last twenty-five
years. In the twenty-three years between the decision in Reynolds
[1953] and the election of Jimmy Carter, in 1976, there were four
reported cases in which the government invoked the privilege.
Between 1977 and 2001, there were a total of fifty-one reported cases
in which courts ruled on invocation of the privilege. Because reported
cases represent only a fraction of the total cases in which the privilege
is invoked or implicated, it is unclear precisely how dramatically the
use of the privilege has grown. But the increase in reported cases is
indicative of greater willingness to assert the privilege than in the past.
59. ^ Savage, Charlie (September 8, 2010). "Court Dismisses a Case
Asserting Torture by C.I.A." The New York Times. Retrieved October
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60. ^ Finn, Peter (September 9, 2010). "Suit dismissed against firm in CIA
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61. ^ Glenn Greenwald (February 10, 2009). "The 180-degree reversal of
Obama's State Secrets position". Salon. Retrieved October 8, 2010.
62. ^ "Background on the State Secrets Privilege". American Civil
Liberties Union. January 31, 2007. Retrieved October 8, 2010.
63. ^ "President Trump Doesn't Need To Release His Tax Returns — For
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64. ^ Duggan, Paul (April 2, 2007). "Balking at the First Pitch". The
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65. ^ "History of the BSA Fact Sheet" (PDF). Boy Scouts of America.
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66. ^ Grier, Peter (April 25, 2011). "The (not so) secret history of the White
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67. ^ Hesse, Monica (November 21, 2007). "Turkey Pardons, The Stuffing
of Historic Legend". The Washington Post. Retrieved May 14, 2011.
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71. ^ "The White House State Dinner". The White House Historical
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Retrieved November 11, 2009. Dana D. Nelson's book makes the
case that we've had 200+ years of propagandized leadership ...
73. ^ Neffinger, John (April 2, 2007). "Democrats vs. Science: Why We're
So Damn Good at Losing Elections". HuffPost. Retrieved November
11, 2009. ... back in the 1980s, Lesley Stahl of 60 Minutes ran a piece
skewering Reagan's policies on the elderly ... But while her voiceover
delivered a scathing critique, the video footage was all drawn from
carefully - [sic]staged photo-ops of Reagan smiling with seniors and
addressing large crowds ... Deaver thanked ... Stahl ... for
broadcasting all those images of Reagan looking his best.
74. ^ Nelson, Dana D. (2008). "Bad for democracy: how the Presidency
undermines the power of the people". U of Minnesota
Press. ISBN 978-0-8166-5677-6. Retrieved November 11,2009. in rich
detail how Kennedy drew on the power of myth as he framed his
experience during World War II, when his PT boat was sliced in half by
a Japanese ...
75. ^ Nelson, Dana D. (2008). "Bad for democracy: how the Presidency
undermines the power of the people". U of Minnesota
Press. ISBN 978-0-8166-5677-6. Retrieved November 11,2009. Even
before Kennedy ran for Congress, he had become fascinated, through
his Hollywood acquaintances and visits, with the idea of the image ...
(p.54)
76. ^ Lexington (July 21, 2009). "The Cult of the Presidency". The
Economist. Retrieved November 9, 2009. Gene Healy argues that
because voters expect the president to do everything ... When they
inevitably fail to keep their promises, voters swiftly become
disillusioned. Yet they never lose their romantic idea that the president
should drive the economy, vanquish enemies, lead the free world,
comfort tornado victims, heal the national soul and protect borrowers
from hidden credit-card fees.
77. ^ Kakutani, Michiko (July 6, 2007). "Unchecked and Unbalanced". The
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of kings" ... and that certainly did not find their way into our founding
documents, the 1776 Declaration of Independence and the
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institutions doing nothing to prevent it.
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88. ^ Moreno, Paul. "Articles on Amendment XIV: Disqualification for
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100. ^ Boller, Paul F. (2004). Presidential Campaigns: From George
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101. ^ Larson, Edward J.; Shesol, Jeff. "The Twentieth Amendment". The
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102. ^ "The First Inauguration after the Lame Duck Amendment: January
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the presidential oath". ConstitutionDaily. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania:
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and Elections". Miller Center of Public Affairs, University of Virginia.
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Campaigns and Elections". Miller Center of Public Affairs, University of
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110. ^ Jump up to:a b "Twenty-second Amendment". Annenberg
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111. ^ Edmund Morris, Colonel Roosevelt (2011)
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1933–1964 (2013)
113. ^ Kasey S. Pipes, After the Fall: The Remarkable Comeback of
Richard Nixon (2019)
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Further reading

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
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Ayton, Mel Plotting to Kill the President: Assassination Attempts from
Washington to Hoover (Potomac Books, 2017), United States
Balogh, Brian and Bruce J. Schulman, eds. Recapturing the Oval Office:
New Historical Approaches to the American Presidency (Cornell University
Press, 2015), 311 pp.
Bumiller, Elisabeth (January 2009). "Inside the Presidency". National
Geographic. 215 (1): 130–149.
Couch, Ernie. Presidential Trivia. Rutledge Hill Press. March 1,
1996. ISBN 1-55853-412-1
Kernell, Samuel; Jacobson, Gary C. (1987). "Congress and the Presidency
as News in the Nineteenth Century" (PDF). Journal of Politics. 49 (4):
1016–1035. doi:10.2307/2130782.
Lang, J. Stephen. The Complete Book of Presidential Trivia. Pelican
Publishing. 2001. ISBN 1-56554-877-9
Graff, Henry F., ed. The Presidents: A Reference History (3rd ed.
2002) online, short scholarly biographies from George Washington to
William Clinton.
Greenberg, David. Republic of Spin: An Inside History of the American
Presidency (W. W. Norton & Company, 2015). xx, 540 pp. bibliography
Leo, Leonard—Taranto, James—Bennett, William J. Presidential
Leadership: Rating the Best and the Worst in the White House. Simon and
Schuster. 2004. ISBN 0-7432-5433-3
Sigelman, Lee; Bullock, David (1991). "Candidates, issues, horse races,
and hoopla: Presidential campaign coverage, 1888–1988" (PDF). American
Politics Quarterly. 19 (1): 5–32. doi:10.1177/1532673x9101900101.
Tebbel, John William, and Sarah Miles Watts. The Press and the
Presidency: From George Washington to Ronald Reagan (Oxford
University Press, 1985).
Presidential Studies Quarterly, published by Wiley, is a quarterly academic
journal on the presidency.
Primary sources

Waldman, Michael—Stephanopoulos, George. My Fellow Americans: The
Most Important Speeches of America's Presidents, from George
Washington to George W. Bush. Sourcebooks Trade. 2003. ISBN 1-40220027-7
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