Chloe Minson Summary Notes
CHAPTER 1
1.1 Introduction to the particulate
nature of matter and chemical
change
Changes of State
States of matter
- Everything is made up of matter. The
characteristics of matter are:
 Made up of particles – atoms,
molecules or ions
 Particles are in constant motion
 Occupies a volume in space
 Has a mass
Properties of three states of matter
Temperature
- The vibration and movement of particles
depend on temperature
- As temperature increases, KEavg
increases
- The SI unit for temperature is the kelvin
(K)
- Absolute zero is 0 on the kelvin scale (273° on Celsius scale), and is the
temperature at which all movement of
particles stops
- Temperature (K) = Temperature (°C) +
273.15
- Take water for example:
- As temperature increases, kinetic energy
in particles increase, causing change of
state
 Melting and boiling are
endothermic reactions – energy is
transferred from environment
- As temperature decreases, kinetic
energy decreases, causing reversal of
state
 Condensation and freezing are
exothermic reactions – energy is
transferred to environment
- There is no change in temperature while
melting, boiling, condensing or freezing,
- Energy is used to break/create attractive
forces so change of state can occur
- Changes of state can be described using
the following terms:
Chloe Minson Summary Notes
Classification of Matter
1.2 The mole concept
- Ion: A charged species
- Anion: Negatively charged ion
- Cation: Positively charged ion
Four types of chemical reactions
1. Synthesis
2. Decomposition
3. Single Displacement
- Particles are classified as either: Atoms,
ions, molecules or formula units
- To perform chemistry, moles of
substance are used, and this allows us to
make comparisons between chemical
species.
The Mole
- Avogadro’s constant NA = 6.02 x 1023
mol-1
- Mole: a fixed number of particles and
refers to the amount, n, of substance
- Molar mass: mass of 1 mole of a
substance (g mol-1)
- Number prefixes which are important to
know:
4. Double Displacement
a. Complete
Combustion
b. Incomplete
Combustion
State symbols
-
(s) – solid
(l) – liquid
(g) – gas
(aq) – aqueous
Mole Calculations
The Atom Economy
Relative atomic mass & molar mass
- Is a measure of the amount of starting
materials that become useful products.
- High atom economy means that less
waste is created and reaction has a high
efficiency
- Isotopes: Atoms of the same element
which have same number of protons
 Isotopes of an element have
different mass numbers
- Relative abundance: Measure of
percentage of isotopes present in element
Chloe Minson Summary Notes
- Relative atomic mass (Ar): weighted
average of the atomic masses of its
isotopes and their relative abundances
 Relative because compared to 1
atom of carbon-12 (12C) which is
12 units
- Relative molecular mass (Mr):
Combining individuals Ar values of atoms
in molecule or formula unit
Empirical and molecular formula
determination
- Empirical formula: simplest whole
number ratio of atoms or amount (in mol)
of each element present in a compound
- Molecular Formula: the actual number
of atoms or amount (in mol) of elements
in one structural unit or one mole of the
compound
1.3 Reacting masses and volumes
Stoichiometry
- Stoichiometry is the quantitative
method of examining the relative
amounts of reactants and products
 Changes in reaction conditions,
such as temperature and pressure
 Reverse reactions consuming
products in equilibrium systems
 Existence of side reactions due to
impurities
Molar volume of a gas
- Ideal gas is a gas which follows the
kinetic theory of gases. They are found in
systems with high temperature and low
pressure.
- Standard Temperature and Pressure
(STP): The conditions where temperature
is 273K and pressure is 100 kPa.
- At STP, the Molar Volume of an ideal
gas is 22.7 dm3 mol-1
- Avogadro’s Law: Equal volumes of any
gas measured at the same temperature
and pressure contain the same number of
molecules
 This can be applied to
stoichiometric relationships in
which the coefficients correspond
to the ratio of volumes of gases
The Gas Laws
1. Boyle’s Law
The limiting reagent
- Limiting reagent is completely
consumed during a reaction, the
remaining reactants are in excess
- The limiting reagent is what is used to
determine the amount of products
formed
Percentage Yield
- Percentage yield is used to determine
the efficiency of a reaction
- Some factors for where yield is lost
include:
 Loss of products from reaction
vessels
 Impurity of reactants
2. Charles’s Law
3. Gay-Lussac’s Law
4. Combined Gas Law
5. Ideal gas equation
Molar Concentration
Chloe Minson Summary Notes
Titrations
- Titration involves a standard solution of
known concentration which is added to a
solution of unknown concentration until
the chemical reaction is complete
CHAPTER 2
2.1 The nuclear atom
Atom
- Atoms consist of a three subatomic
particles:
 Proton
 Neutron
 Electron
- Atomic Number Z: number of protons in
the nucleus of an atom of an element.
- Mass Number A: number of protons +
number of neutrons
- Relative atomic mass Ar: Ratio of the
average mass of the atom to the unified
atomic mass unit
- Atomic Mass Units (AMU): 1/12th of the
mass of a carbon – 12 atom in its ground
state. This is used to express masses of
atomic particles.
 1 AMU = 1.6605402 x 10-27 kg
The mass spectrometer
The mass spectrometer is an instrument
used to determine the relative atomic
mass Ar of an element by using its
isotopes.
2.2 Electron configuration
Electromagnetic Spectrum (EMS)
- Visible light, radio waves, infrared waves
(IR), ultraviolet (UV), x-rays and gamma
rays are forms of electromagnetic
radiation
- c=vλ where λ is wavelength and v is
frequency and c is the speed of light (3.00
x 108)
Emission Spectra:
- When element in gaseous state is
subjected to high voltage under reduced
pressure, the gas will emit a certain light.
When passed through a prism, the
spectrum is not continuous but a black
background with certain line spectrums
Quantization of Energy
- The line spectrums in the line emission
have specific wave lengths λ. Each
wavelength corresponds to discrete
amount of energy. Quantization is based
on this idea that ER comes in discrete
packets or “quanta”
- A photon is a quantum of radiation and
its energy can be found by equation:
- where:
 h= Planck’s Constant = 6.63 x 1034 J s
 v= frequency of radiation
 c= speed of light = 3.00 x 108
- Energy of electron in a particular orbit is
fixed/quantized. The energy of the
Chloe Minson Summary Notes
electron in a particular orbit of a hydrogen
atom is given by expression:
- Where:
 RH = Rydberg constant = 2.18 x 1018 J
 n= principal quantum number,
with integers 1,2,3,4… depending
on the orbit the electron occupies
- When electron is in ground state is
excited, moves to higher excited state,
falls back to ground state and emits a
photon which is discrete amount of
energy. This photon corresponds to
particular λ
- The difference in energy between the
levels can be
- Atomic orbital is region in space where
there is high probability of finding an
electron.
- There are several types of atomic
orbitals, each has a unique shape and
associated energy.
S atomic orbital
- Spherically symmetrical
P atomic orbital
- Dumbbell shaped
- Three orientations of p atomic orbitals.
There are px, py, pz pointing in directions
along Cartesian axes
Energy Levels, sublevels, orbitals , and
electron spin
- Hydrogen emission spectrum consists of
a series of lines in visible region of
spectrum. This is called the balmer series.
- Important transitions include:
- The line spectrums get closer together
(converge) at higher energy levels
Quantum mechanical model of atom
- Schrödinger’s Equation integrates wave
and particle nature of electrons
- Solution to equation is mathematical
functions called wave functions ψ
- ψ2 represents probability of finding
electron in region of space and is called
probability density
- These multiple probability density
solutions are termed atomic orbitals
- As n increases, position of electron is
further from nucleus and the energies of
orbitals increase
- Each energy level can hold maximum
number of electrons given by 2n2
- Electron capacity for n=1 is 2, n=2 is 8, n
= 3 is 18. This is why we have two
elements in first row of periodic table, 8 in
second, etc.
- There are energy levels classified by
principle quantum number, n, 1,2,3,4,…
- Sub levels are classified by azimuthal
quantum number, l, s, p, d, f
- Orbitals which are the actual probability
density with electrons. Classified by
magnetic quantum number, ml. px, py, pz
are examples of 3 orbitals
- Orientation of electron is classified by
spin magnetic quantum number ms. There
is +1/2, -1/2. Both are arbitrary numbers
with no meaning.
Things to know:
1. Aufbau Principle: electrons fill
lowest-energy orbital first
2. Pauli exclusion principle: each
orbital can hold maximum of 2
electrons, each with opposite spin
Chloe Minson Summary Notes
3. Hunds rule: When filling
degenerate orbitals (orbitals of
equal energy), electron fill all
orbitals singly before occupying
them in pairs
4. Full electron configuration
5. Condensed electron configuration
6. Arrow in box orbital diagram