Physiology Companion
Reader
Purpose: I have given you this reader to help you to
take notes while in class. It is your responsibility to
fill in the blanks in the reader, and use this as a guide
while outside of class. Space has been provided on
each page for you to make notes. Study this guide
well, as it will be MY BLUEPRINT for your exams.
In other words, it is what I take test questions from.
Do not lose this guide, as it will not be replaced. Keep
this guide in a separate binder.
Table of Contents
1. The Scientific Method:
a. Lecture guide
b. Class summary Template
c. Concept Map Template
2. Reciprocal Reading
a. Lecture Guide
b. Reading Strategies Note Page
3. Chemistry
a. Lecture Guide(s)
i. Periodic Table
ii. Atoms and Elements
iii. Compounds and Mixtures
iv. Organic Chemistry
4. Cellular Biology
a. City Cell Lecture Guide
b. Homework
c. Beach Ball/Fat Buts
d. Transport – Osmosis, Diffusion, and Active Transport – Lecture Guide
e. Lab Handout
5. Tissues
a. Lecture Guide
6. Exam Blueprint
a. Study Guide
b. Practical Guide
7. Muscles
a. Lecture Guide
b. Mink Dissection Guide
c. Handouts
8. Exam Blueprint
a. Study Guide
Lesson One: Scientific Method
Background Information: In science, we use a method to “do” science. This
method is used to solve everyday problems, like how many calories are in a
McDonald’s hamburger, and cancer research. This method, called –
surprisingly enough – the scientific method, helps to make sure that all
scientists practice science in the same way. This helps lower confusion and
make the results more accurate and correct. In this lecture we look at the
way scientists …and now you… will practice the art of science. As we go
through the lecture, write down notes in the space provided. Then at the end
of the lecture, you will write down a summary, and a concept map.
Your Goals*:
-Demonstrate an understanding of the scientific method
-Be able to list the steps of the scientific method
-Be able to identify a step in the process
-Know the difference between theory and a law
*Remember this is what I take your test from!*
Class Summary Template: After EVERY class, you are to
answer these questions in your notebook. You should
have each page dated. I will grade your notebook, for
sentence structure, accuracy, and completeness of the
information. Notebooks will be stamped every day for
completed work!
In class today, we learned about:
The main topic was:
The main point was:
Key concepts were:
Questions/difficult concepts
Key Words/Concept Map
Lesson Two: Reciprocal Reading
In today’s lesson, we learned about strategies to increase our reading success.
Reciprocal reading is one such strategy. It uses such things as questioning,
clarifying, summarizing, and drawing pictures to improve reading. Sometimes
it is not just a matter of reading more, but reading better. I believe that
reciprocal reading will do this for you and increase your understanding of both
reading, and physiology. During our reading strategy, we learned about
homeostasis. This is an important concept in physiology, as it forms the basis
of most biological functioning. There are two types of regulation – positive
feedback and negative feedback. Negative feedback works like a thermostat
(heater in your house). Lets take body temperature as an example. When you
get too cold, a message is sent to your brain telling your brain that you are
cold. Then, the brain sends a signal to the heat producing organs to increase
the heat. This continues until a signal is sent back to the brain saying that
your are too hot. The brain sends another signal back telling the heat
producing organs to stop. So basically negative feedback works by shutting
off the stimulus. Positive feedback – seen in childbirth – increases the
original signal. So the wider the cervix – what the baby goes through – the
more chemical signals there are to tell the brain to make the cervix wider.
Make sense?
Your Goals:

Be able to demonstrate an understanding of how reciprocal reading
works.

Be able to question, clarify, and summarize a reading passage if given
one.

Be able to help others in your group (you will be given a group quiz on
this assignment)

Know the basic idea of homeostasis – including positive and negative
feedback loops
Lesson Three – Anatomical Terms
Background Information: This lesson is designed to introduce you to the way
in which physiologists talk about the human body. We learned specific terms
that describe the human body.
Purpose: To become familiar with the technical terms of physiology. In the
upcoming classes, especially we when start our dissection of the mink, we will
use these terms to describe what we are seeing. We therefore, need to have
these terms learned as soon as possible!
Your
-
goals:
Be able to describe the human body in physiological terms.
Be able to label a drawing with directional terms.
Be able to label a drawing with planes terms
Know the difference between directional terms and the planes of the
body.
- Know when to use directional terms verses planes terms.
Lesson Four – Quiz on Anatomical Terms/Scientific
Method, and Beginning Chemistry
Part One - Quiz
Study for quiz – use this review for the quiz. I will use this sheet as a blueprint for the
quiz. If you know the information on this quiz – you will ace the quiz! Study well!
Scientific Method
-
-
Know the steps of the scientific method
o Observation – Know that our observation involves our senses, and leads to a
question about what we are seeing/hearing/tasting/feeling etc.
o Hypothesis – Know that it is an if/than statement that is based on our
observations or facts. Know that it is often an explanation or a solution to a
problem.
o Experimentation – Know that in science we use variables
 A variable is something that changes in an experiment
 Know an example of a variable.
 Know the difference between an independent vs. dependent variable.
o Conclusion: Know that this is the summary of the experiment. The
experimenter either accepts the hypothesis (they were right) or rejects it
(they were wrong)
Be able to identify, if given a problem, what part of the scientific method is at work.
Know the difference between a theory and a law, and know an example of each.
Anatomical Terms
- Be able to label a drawing with the correct anatomical term.
- Be able to determine whether a term is a directional term or a plane.
*The quiz will be a combination of multiple choice, true/false, and labeling*
Part Two – Beginning Chemistry
Background – This lesson is an introduction to chemistry. We will be focusing
on the periodic table, and the elements that are used primarily in the
biological sciences. Particular attention will be paid to the trends of the
periodic table, as opposed to memorizing the table (as this would be an useless
task!)
Your Goals:
- Be able to demonstrate an understanding of the trends in the periodic
table.
- Be able to demonstrate an understanding of the most used elements in
biology. (CHOPKINS café Mighty Good Salt)
Lesson Five - Elements, Atoms, and Molecules
Background – All physiology students must know the basics of chemistry.
Most of this will be a review for you – as you should have had this in other
biology/science classes. In the last lesson, we learned about the periodic
table of elements. In this lesson, we will build on that knowledge. We will
learn about individual atoms, their parts, and how these atoms are combined in
the biological sciences. You should memorize the 13 elements that are most
common in biology. Remember the mnemonic CHOPKINS CaFe mighty good
salt - (Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, Phosphorous, Potassium, Iodine, Sulfur,
Calcium, Iron, Magnesium (mighty good) Salt – NaCl.) These elements form
the basis of all life – and indeed, most body functions.
An atom is one individual particle of an element. Think of it this way…an
element is like the type of cookie called chocolate chip. One chocolate cookie
is an atom, of the element chocolate chip. Make sense?
Now atoms are composed of two main parts – the nucleus and the electron
cloud. In the nucleus – there lives the protons (positive charge) and the
neutron – which has no charge (neutral). The electrons – which are the
negative particle- circle around the outside in the electron cloud. *see the
lecture guide notes*
A molecule is a collection of elements that makes something different than
the original element. It can be two atoms of the same element, or multiple
atoms of different elements. So it can either be one chocolate cookie, or a
chocolate cookie + peanut butter cookie that has combined.
Your Goals:
-
You should be able to diagram an atom – labeling the charges
You should memorize the biological elements
You should have an understanding of the difference between an atom
and an element.
You should demonstrate an understanding that multiple atoms combine
together to make a molecule.
Elements – Atoms – Molecules Worksheet
Name ______________________________________________ Date ________________
Background: During this exercise we will learn about the differences between elements,
atoms, and molecules. Look in your lecture notes for the definition of these three things,
and then answer the questions.
Introduction to Atomic Particles
The physicist Nils Bohr developed a model of the atom that looked like the picture below.
Part of
Atom
Count
protons
neutrons
electrons
nucleus
total
total
charge
part of the nucleus
Parts of the Atom
Part of Atom
Overall
Charge
Atomic
Weight (u)
nucleus
0 (neutral)
depends on
atom
Description
proton
neutron
electron
What is this element? (Count the number of electrons, find the same number of protons on
the periodic table to identify the element)
Part Two: Molecules
Background: Basically a molecule is a collection of atoms that share their electrons.
This means that when atoms come together, they share their parts. Kind of like sisters that
share their toys. Now, there are two basic types of molecules. Covalent molecules are two
non-metals – like hydrogen and oxygen. Ionic molecules are a metal with a non metal. In
general, they don’t share their electrons equally – why might that be?
This is an example of equal sharing – or covalent bonding.
Covalent: A Grade 3 has a chocolate bar and she can share it with as
many students as she wants.
Ionic bonding: In the playground at recess, a Grade 3 kid has a chocolate bar. A Grade 8
student takes the chocolate bar from the Grade 3 student and the Grade 3 follows the Grade
8 around for the rest of the recess, trying to get some of it back. This is analogous to a BIG
Cl atom taking a LITTLE Na’s electron to make NaCl.
Now when the sharing occurs, a molecule has been formed.
What is the definition of an atom_________________________________________
What is the definition of a molecule ______________________________________
What are the two types of molecules? __________________________ and
________________________
Name ONE example of equal sharing from REAL life
_________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
Name ONE example of UNEQUAL sharing from real life
_________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
In the next set of questions, you need to decide whether or not the items listed are examples
of an element, atom, or molecule. Place an E for Element, an A for atom, or M for
molecule in the blanks next to the spaces.
H ___________________
Cl2 ___________________
H20__________________
Be___________________
C_____________________ He __________________
PH5 _________________
NaCl __________________ MgS2_________________
P ____________________
CaCl2__________________ Li ___________________
H2 ___________________
CH4 ___________________ O2 ___________________
Now for EXTRA CREDIT – (5 pts) – Decide which molecule(s) are ionic or covalent by
placing a C (covalent) or I (ionic) in the spaces provided.
Comic Book Assignment
Purpose
Today we learned about atoms, elements and the periodic table. As you are aware, by now, certain elements are used
more in life, than other elements on the periodic table. These elements, namely, carbon, nitrogen, hydrogen, sulfur,
magnesium, potassium, sodium, chloride, iron, iodine, calcium, phosphorus, and oxygen, are referred to as the
elements of life. To emphasize, and become familiar with these elements, you will do a creative writing assignment
using the periodic table, the elements of life, and your imagination.
Directions:
You are a comic book writer, writing a new comic book. The new comic book setting is Chopkins café.
 Choose one element from the elements of life – Carbon, Nitrogen, Hydrogen, Sulfur, Magnesium, Potassium,
sodium, chlorine, iron, iodine, calcium, phosphorous, and oxygen.
 The non-metals (east coast elements) are bad characters.
 The metals (west coast elements) are good characters.
 Write one paragraph describing your character – The character must have a superpower based on the elements
behavior. The paragraph must also have the element’s atomic number, atomic weight, period, and group
number. The paragraph must describe your character’s behavior and background.
 Draw at least a three-squared comic strip story using the character you have created. The setting is Chopkins
CaFé. Interaction with other characters – i.e. other elements – is a requirement.
 The more creative – the higher the score – See RUBRIC!
Comic Book Assignment Rubric
Criteria
Completeness
Creativeness
Grammar/spelling
4
One paragraph that
describes character
background and
incorporates atomic
weight, number,
group and period
number. Comic
strip displays a
small story
Character’s history
and superpower are
original and
inventive.
Character’s
superpower is based
on element’s
behavior. Story has
a beginning, middle
and an end.
3
Both Paragraph and
Comic strip is
included, but key
parts of the
assignment are left
out.
2
Only One part of
the assignment is
complete, i.e.
paragraph or comic
strip, however, key
parts of the
assignment are
included
1
Only One part of
the assignment is
complete, and key
elements are NOT
included
Character’s history
and super power is
based on element’s
behavior, however,
story is based on
previous comic
books (the hulk,
Spiderman, etc)
Character’s story is
inventive, however,
superpower not
based on element’s
behavior. Story
does not have a
beginning, middle,
and end.
2 points – all
correct
1 point – only 2
grammatical
mistakes
0 points if more
than two mistakes
Character’s story is
not inventive or
creative, rather it is
based on other
comics. Further,
story doesn’t have a
beginning, middle,
or end, and the
superpower is not
based on property
of element.
0 points for more
than two mistakes.
Lesson Six – Combining Compounds
Background – In order to understand how organic chemicals are made, an
understanding of how elements are combined is important. In our class, you
will generally not be doing chemistry; however, you do need to be able to
identify certain biological compounds that are important to living things. For
example, ammonia – NH3, is an important compound used in making urine.
Additionally, in the next lesson – organic chemistry – we will be learning about
amino acids – the basic building blocks of life. In order to learn how these are
put together, we need to learn how basic compounds are made.
A compound is made when two or more elements are combined, which makes
something different. For example, water is made of hydrogen and oxygen.
Both hydrogen and oxygen are gases in elemental form. However when
combined, they make water – SOMETHING COMPLETELY DIFFERENT!
Lewis Dot Structures are one way for students to visualize electrons and
combine basic compounds. We will practice doing this in class.
Mixtures occur when different compounds are mixed, but DO NOT CHANGE
CHEMICALLY!!! For example, salad is an example of a mixture. Even though
the ingredients are MIXED together, the carrots remain carrots, the lettuce
remains lettuce etc. Furthermore, all of these items can be separated.
Another example would be chocolate chip cookies. The chocolate chips can
still be separated from the cookie dough. Make sense?
Your
-
Goals
Learn what the difference is between compounds and mixtures
Learn how to draw Lewis Dot Structures
Learn how to combine compounds using Lewis Dot Structures
Combining Compounds
Name _______________________________________ Date ___________________
Directions: Using the Periodic Table of Elements and the information given in class, you and your partner
please fill out the worksheet.
Step One: Drawing Lewis Dot Structures
Background: In order to learn how to combine compounds, you have to learn how to draw the Lewis Dot
Structures.
How to do it: Look at the periodic table columns (remember which direction that is?) Now, find the element
in question. Count the number of columns (disregarding the mid west elements) from the left side of the
periodic table. The number of columns gives you the number of electrons that will bond.
Let’s practice doing this.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Find Lithium – Li on the periodic table.
What column is Lithium in? __________________________________________
Now how many TOTAL electrons does lithium have?______________________
How many bonding electrons does lithium have? _________________________
Now draw the Lewis Dot Structure like we did in class (YOU CAN DO IT!)
Lets try another one!
6. Find Carbon – C on the periodic table.
7. What column is Carbon in? __________________________________________
8. Now how many TOTAL electrons does Carbon have?______________________
9. How many bonding electrons does Carbon have? _________________________
10. Now draw the Lewis Dot Structure like we did in class (YOU CAN DO IT!)
What is the relationship between the column number and the number of bonding electrons?
________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
Now, let’s try some on your own. On a separate piece of paper, draw Lewis
1. Ca
2. Be
3. Cl
4. P
5. N
6. Xe
7. O
8. S
9. Al
10. Br
Step Two – Combining the Lewis Dot Structures
Now that you have the hang of how to draw Lewis Dot Structures, let us try our hand at combining the
structures. Remember from lecture, to make elements happy, they need to have eight electrons. Therefore,
we have to combine the elements in such a way that they share electrons so that BOTH elements have eight
electrons. For example:
Lets say that we want to combine Sodium and Chloride – to make SALT – NaCl.
How many bonding electrons does sodium have? ____________________
How many bonding electrons does Chloride have? ___________________
Na +
Cl
Na
Cl
The sodium and the chloride “Share” the electrons. Because they are sharing, the sodium is happy (the
sodium shares the seven from the chloride) and the chloride is sharing sodium’s one electron. Therefore they
are very happy.
Here is another example: Draw the correct structure for carbon. Use the questions as a guide.
How many bonding electrons does Carbon have? __________________________
How many bonding electrons does Hydrogen have? ________________________
How might we make carbon happy using only hydrogen atoms? _______________________ (Remember the
number that carbon needs to be happy?
H
C
Now, what would happen if there were more than two elements? How do you decide which is the central
atom? The answer is that you “play” around with the compound until ALL atoms have eight electrons
(through sharing). Here is an example of a one such compound. Remember, all the atoms must be happy, if
they don’t have eight, they are unhappy elements!
AlH5 This compound has one aluminum atom and 5 hydrogen atoms. Therefore, we have 5 hydrogen atoms
with one electron each, to one aluminum atom with 3 bonding electrons. How will we arrange this so that
every atom is happy? Draw this below.
Step Three – Combining Compounds – Homework Assignment
Combine the following compounds. Show the Lewis Dot Structures. The central atom, in a triplet or more, is
usually the atom with the LEAST amount of bonding electrons.
Compound
Valence Electrons for
Each Element and Total
Central Atom (if
present)
Cl =
Cl2
none
Total =
O2
B=
BCl3
Cl =
B
Total =
SiCl4
Si
NH3
PH5
SF6
P
Lewis Structure
Lesson Six – Organic Chemistry – The building blocks of life
Background – So far we have we have learned about atoms, elements, molecules and
compounds. You may be asking what all of this has to do with physiology. It’s a good
question…we learned this material so that we could understand how to put together amino
acids, and eventually proteins.
Amino acids are the building blocks of life. Your body is a collection of amino acids, put
together to make proteins. – YOU ARE A COLLECTION OF PROTEINS! – This is the reason
why we are learning chemistry. Amino acids are made of repeating chains of carbon and
hydrogen. (More on this later).
Your




Goals
Know the parts of an amino acid
Be able to identify the parts of an amino acid when given a formula
Know how amino acids lead to a protein
Be able to write the structural formula from the written formula
Formation of Simple Organic Compounds – The Heterotroph
Hypothesis
Name _______________________________________ Date ______________________
Background: You know from your evolution studies from last year, that today’s complex life forms came
from other simpler organisms. Where did all of the compounds that made up those simpler life forms come
from – how were they made? Well, in order to answer that question, we need to go back to last years studies
on evolution.
Many chemical compounds, other than water, are needed for life to exist. The most important of these
are the ORGANIC compounds. A good way to remember the parts of these compounds are called CHON –
Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, and Nitrogen. Sometimes they also contain Phosphorous and Sulfur. Several
years ago, scientists proposed a theory – called the Heterotroph Hypothesis to explain where early compounds
came from. This theory states that early energy sources – such as UV radiation from the sun, electrical energy
from lightening, heat from volcanoes, and radiation from rocks – could have broken apart gas molecules in the
atmosphere. Once broken apart, it settled down in the earth’s seas where eventually organic compounds were
formed.
Today and tomorrow, we will learn some of the organic compounds that are important to running the
human body. The most important of these are the amino acids. These compounds form the BASIS OF ALL
LIFE ON EARTH…YOU ARE A COLLECTION OF AMINO ACIDS. Amino acids come together to form
proteins, the basic structural unit of all cells. Therefore it is important to understand how they are put
together.
Part One: Learning about Amino Acids
Amino acids are the ___________ _______________ of all life on earth. They are molecules that have the
same basic parts. They are composed of 4 main elements. A good way to remember them is CHON. This
stands for ___________________________, ____________________________,
________________________,________________________________________.
What is another name applied to all amino acids? _________________________________________
How many TOTAL amino acids are found – naturally occurring – in all living organisms on earth? ________
Part Two: The Basic Parts
When many amino acids are joined together they make proteins. Proteins are the basis for all cellular
function. Without proteins, there would be no cells, no blood, and no life – period. Therefore, we are going
to learn the basic structure, how to draw, and how to read basic amino acid formulas. Don’t worry – you can
and will learn how to do this, although you might be confused at first. However, with a bit of practice and
help you will become an organic chemistry super star!!
All Amino Acids have the same basic structure. They have 4 main parts. Draw the STRUCTURAL formulas
below. The first three boxes are structures that ALL amino acids share!
Base Group
-CH
Amine Group
NH2
Acid Group
COOH
R-Group
The part that
is different
Part Four: Drawing the Formulas
Step One – Know how many bonds each element needs to be happy. MEMORIZE THESE RULES!
Element
Bonds needed to be a Happy Atom
Carbon
Four Bonds – 4 electrons, shares 4 *
Hydrogen
One bond to be happy – One electron, shares 7
Oxygen
Two bonds to be happy – 6 electrons, shares 2
Nitrogen
Three Bonds to be happy 5 electrons, shares 3
* Bonding Electrons*
Step Two: Know how to read the formulas
Muie Importante – READ THE FORMULAS FROM RIGHT TO LEFT (backwards)
Example: CH3CH3CH2NH2COOH
Read This Way
To help identify the groups….(Start on the right hand side of the formula and move left)
- Put a BLOCK ……………………Around the Organic Acid Group
- Put a OVERLINE………………..Over the Amine Group
- Put a UNDERLINE ……………..Under the Base Group
- Put a CIRCLE……………………Around the R Group
Amino Acid
Molecular Formula
Glycine (Gly)……………………………
CH2NH2COOH
Alanine (Ala)……………………………
CH3CHNH2COOH
Lysine (Lys)
H2NCH2CH2CH2CHNH2COOH
Valine (Val)
CH3CH3CHCHNH2COOH
Leucine (Leu)
CH3CH3CHCH2CHNH2COOH
Glutamine (Gln)
H2NCOCH2CH2CHNH2COOH
Isoleucine (Ileu)
CH3CH2CHCH3CHNH2COOH
Serine (Ser)
HOCH2CHNH2COOH
Aspartic Acid (Asp)
HOCCH2CHNH2COOH
Aspargine
H2NCOCH2CH2CHNH2COOH
Step Four – Lets try drawing STRUCTURAL Formulas…you can do it! (On the Board)
1. Draw the Organic Acid Group – COOH Like this:
2. Then draw the BASE group – (in the molecular formula, the amine group comes first, however, the amine
group hangs off of the base group) like this:
3. Then draw the amine group hanging off of the base group like this:
4. Then draw the R-group – You must figure out a way to arrange the atoms so that all of the elements are
happy. This is the only thing that changes in the amino acid. Draw the formulas like so:
Alanine - CH3CHNH2COOH
Lysine
Glycine – CH2NH2COOH
Aspargine
Valine
Leucine
Glutamine
Isoleucine
Serine
Aspartic Acid
Part Five – Joining Amino Acids Together – Dehydration Synthesis
You did great! Now we will try our hand at joining together amino acids. Why is this important? Proteins
are made of multiple amino acids that are joined together. For example, hemoglobin – a huge protein, is made
of 576 amino acids joined together. A protein can be anywhere between 50 to 3000 amino acids “big.”
The joining of amino acids together or peptides occurs in a process called DEHYDRATION SYNTHESIS.
This happens when small molecules make bigger ones when water is removed.
When two “peptides” join in Dehydration Synthesis the steps are as follows:
A. One of the hydrogen atoms from the amino group of the first amino acid comes off.
B. The OH group from the COOH part comes off. The H and the OH hook up and make a baby –
water (HOH – or H2O)
C. Now, the two amino acids are rebounding, and they need new partners. Therefore, the make a
new bond. Look at the love story below:
H20
Notice how the OH and the H make a new water bond. Then the two “empty” spots hook together to make a
new bond. This is called a peptide bond.
When two amino acids are made it is called ______________________________
Then three amino acids are made it is called ______________________________
When more than three are made it is called ______________________________
MASSIVE POLYPEPTIDES ARE CALLED PROTEINS!!!!!!!!
One the following pages, draw dipeptides, tripeptides, and polypeptides asked for.
1. First draw the amino acids requested.
2. Locate the OH group of the FIRST COOH group on the first amino acid – Circle it.
3. Locate the H group closest to the COOH group on the second amino acid – Circle it.
4. Show the joining of the water by drawing an arrow coming from each (like in the picture).
5. Redraw the amino acids side by side – like in the picture. With a RED pencil, make a new bond
between the C of the COOH group and the N of the NH group. This is the peptide bond.
6. IMPORTANT – ALL of the molecules are done in EXACTLY THE SAME WAY!!!
Dipeptide – Alanine and Glycine
Dipeptide – Lysine and Aspargine
Construct a Dipeptide – Valine and Glycine:
Construct a Tripeptide – Valine & Lysine & Leucine
Construct a Polypeptide – Glycine, Lysine, Alanine, and Glutamine
Now construct your own polypeptide using any of the Amino Acids found on pages 3 & 4 of this handout.
Your polypeptide must be drawn on binder paper/ typing paper (attach) and must be larger than 5 peptides.
!
EXTRA CREDIT
In this assignment you have the opportunity to get 50 extra credit points. Your task, should you choose to
accept it is to make a massive polypeptide – otherwise known as a protein. You must choose ONE protein
from the ones listed below. You will get a piece of heavy weight poster board and IN PEN draw all of the
amino acids in the protein. You will be graded on the following rubric. To find the proteins, you may look on
line
1. Structure is correct and complete
a. All amino acid structures are drawn correctly.
b. Peptide bonds are drawn correctly; bond is indicated in red pen and is circled.
2. Heavy Weight poster board is used, and is big enough to fit the protein
3. Neatness – Drawings are neat
a. There is no cross outs, eraser marks, etc.
b. Structures are drawn in pen/or markers.
Proteins to choose from:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Hemoglobin
Ferrodoxin
Chlorophyll A
Chrlorphyll B
Study Guide For Chemistry Mini Unit
Elements, Atoms, and Molecules
 Know the difference between the three items.
 Be able to identify the Atomic Number, Atomic Weight, and Column number on the periodic
table.
 Be able to diagram a typical atom
o Know protons, neutrons, and electrons, their locations and their charges
o Be able to, when given, count the number of electrons/electrons and identify which
element it is.
 Be able to draw a Lewis Dot Structure
 Be able to combine Lewis Dot Structures
 Be able to determine whether the example is a covalent or an ionic bond.
 Know the difference between a compound and a mixture.
Lesson Seven: Cellular Biology
Background: Finally, we actually get to biology. Last year, you had some introduction to the
cell. This lesson will further that lesson, reminding you of what you learned last year. In this
lesson, we will use the example of a city to learn the various parts of the cell. Hopefully, this
will be mostly review, however, if it isn’t please don’t hesitate to come to me for a further
tutorial. This lesson really is the basis for the rest of the course. During this year we will
learn about different types of cells that make the body work. Therefore, it is important to
learn about the basic cell, so that when we talk about different cell types, you will have some
idea of what we are talking about.
Introduction:
The cell is the basic structural unit of all life on earth. There was this dude – a long time ago
– who first saw the cells in a wine cork. He did this by building the first microscope. He
looked at cork under the microscope, and saw what looked like little cells – as in prison cells –
thus the term. His name was von Leeuwenhoek.
All cells have the same basic formula. They differ in some structural details and they have
widely different functions. For example, look at the pictures below, they are all cells, but
have different shapes, different functions…however, they all have the same basic stuff
INSIDE!
Typical Cell
Neural Cell
Muscle Cell
We will be using an analogy – or an example – to talk about the parts of the cell. We will call
this the city-cell analogy.
Your
-
Goals:
Be able to list the parts of a typical cell.
Be able to list the functions of those parts.
Demonstrate an understanding of how those parts work together to make a whole.
Demonstrate an understanding of how cells are the basis of all life on earth.
This is a picture that you will be given on the exam – be able to label this picture
using the terms we learned about in class.
City/Cell Handout
Name ____________________________________________
Partner’s Name ________________________
Directions: As we go through this exercise, label the city and the cell with the proper names, and in their proper location.
The City
The Cell
Cellular Model Homework
Name ______________________________________________ Date ____________________________
We will be making cellular models using Jell-O. You will be responsible for making your model (just don’t
eat it first okay). You are responsible for answering the following questions.
1. We poured the Jell-O into a bowl. What might the bowl represent? Why – Give TWO reasons.
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
2. The Jell-O itself represented a crucial part of the cell. What substance does the Jell-O represent?
__________________________________________________________________________________
3.
Why is this substance crucial to the cell’s functioning?
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
4. We put a gumball in the center of the Jell-O mold – what does this represent? __________________
5. Going back to our city cell analogy – What does the mayor of the city do? ______________________
Therefore, what does the nucleus of the cell do? ___________________________________________
Recall last year’s biology studies…think back to your final….what might the nucleus contain that
would give directions – like the mayor of the city – to the cell?________________________________
6. We used a Fruit Roll ups to represent what cell structure __________________________________
7. What does this structure do in our city? ________________________________________________
8. What does this structure do in the cell? _________________________________________________
9. What does the sprinkles represent in the cell _____________________________________________
10. What do the sprinkles do in the cell? _________________________________________________
11. We used hot tamales (the candy) to represent what cellular structure __________________________
12. What do the tamales do in the cell? _________________________________________________
13. What cellular structure don’t we represent in this model? ___________________________________
14. What candy might we use to represent this structure? ______________________________________
15. In the space below, propose another model, using food that might help other students learn this model.
Write down each material and what that material will represent. On the next class meeting, make an
example model and bring it to class.
Lesson 8 – The Cell Membrane
Background – This lesson goes a bit deeper than the last lesson, on cellular biology. A very
important part of the cellular functioning is the cell membrane. Remember what the cell
membrane was from the cell model that we made? That model was flawed as it did not take
into account the fluid, semi-permeable nature of the cell membrane. What does this mean?
Fluidity – the ability to move around and be flexible – helps the cell move around, and not be
so rigid that it breaks. Think of it this way, a parent who is too strict to their son/daughter
will soon break the spirit of the child. However, if in some ways, the parents were flexible,
then the son/daughter turns out okay. Now, let’s think of the cell. If the cells are locked so
tightly, they would break upon any kind of pressure. You wouldn’t be able to walk around.
The term Semi-permeable means that the cell membrane allows some things in/out, but not
other substances in/out of the cell. Why is this important? Think of it this way…what would
happen if the cell allowed everything into the cell? Let’s say a person touches something very
toxic (poisonous) to the cell. Now your hand is made of cells. If the cell allowed everything to
get in, the cells in your hand would die…now let’s think about what would happen if you took a
drug….same thing would happen, and you would most likely be very sick.
Think it about another way, what would happen if the cell allowed everything OUT of the cell?
Then the cytosol would leak right out of the cell. Not GOOD!
Therefore it is VERY IMPORTANT to have a MEMBRANE that only allows certain things in
and out. How is this accomplished? – The lipid bilayer – from lecture – Beach balls and Fat
Butts.
Look at this. – The beach ball is HYDROPHILIC – Water loving, and the FAT BUTT is water
hating. The Tail keeps out water, and other water loving substances. The beach ball keeps
the fluid inside the cell, because water can’t pass through it.
BEACH
BALL
Hydr
ophili
Butt
c Fat
Hydrophobic
As we go through the lecture – pay particular attention
to the way structure and function relate to each other
Your Goals:
- Diagram/Label the basic structure of the lipid bilayer
- Demonstrate an understanding of how the lipid bilayer is SELECTIVELY PERMEABLE
Fat Butts and Beach Balls Homework
Name ____________________________________ Date ________________________
Directions: Think about the activity that we did in class today. Answer the following thought questions.
Selective Permeability
What factors affect the permeability of a cell membrane?
A.
B.
C.
D.
If the membrane is selectively permeable, can you think of ways in which substances may be able to get
through?
What are the components of the cell membrane that act as gatekeepers – or guards to allow entry into the cell?
Why might gatekeeper molecules be important?
What are; Hey Here I am molecules?
Why might these molecules be important when you get sick – say with chicken pox?
When we did our exercise, why were you asked to “wiggle” why is the “wiggling” in the cell important?
What was the significance of the balls that were thrown at you during the activity?
Lesson Nine – Gate-keeping – Diffusion, Osmosis, and
Active/Passive Transport.
Background – Yesterday we learned about the structure and the function of cell membrane.
We learned the cell membrane is SELECTIVELY PERMEABLE. Now, we know that certain
molecules must get into the cell, and likewise, certain molecules must get out of the cell. How
is this accomplished? Well, we learned yesterday that there were proteins in the cell
membrane that are called gate keeper molecules. We also know that in some cases, certain
molecules are able to get into the cell without any help (remember why?). Today we are going
to learn about 3 very important processes that help get the substances in and out of the cell.
These processes, diffusion, osmosis and transport allow substances in and out of the cell.
They are also very important to the functioning of the rest of the body, because they allow
for the smooth running of the body.
Your Goals:
-
-
You should be able to demonstrate an understanding of diffusion and be able to
recognize the process when given a problem/example.
You should be able to demonstrate an understanding of osmosis.
o You should be able to predict what would happen in the cell, given different
solutions.
o You should be able to explain, on the molecular level, why osmosis happens.
You should be able to demonstrate an understanding of how active and passive transport
works
o You should be able to explain how active/passive transport is related to molecular
size and polarity.
Osmosis Lab
Introduction: The human body is about as salty as seawater. If we take seawater as an example of a solution,
the salt is called the solute and the water is the solvent. Osmosis is the movement of water across a membrane
from an area of lower solute concentration to an area of higher solute concentration. Cells tend to lose water
(their solvent) in hypertonic environments (where there are more solutes outside than inside the cell) and gain
water in hypotonic environments (where there are fewer solutes outside than inside the cell). When solute
concentrations are the same on both sides of the cell, there is no net water movement, and the cell is said to be
in an isotonic environment. In this lab we will test samples of potato tissue to see how much water they
absorb or release in salt solutions of varying concentrations. This gives us an indirect way to measure the
osmotic concentration within living cells.
Materials:

electronic balance (0.01 mg range)

6 dishes or pans

potatoes (1 or 2 per class)

single edged razor or knife

paper towels

watch or clock

table salt, tap water

6 beakers (250 ml or larger)
Methods:
1) Pre-mix 6 beakers of salt solutions (0.0001%, 0.001%, 0.01%, 0.1%, 1%, 10%) in water (pre-done)
2) Prepare six potato slices that are the same thickness (approximately 5 mm cubes) and blot them dry on a
paper towel (pre-done)
3) Mass (weigh) each to the nearest 0.1 grams, keeping them separate, and record as initial mass.
4) Fill each pan with one of the 6 stock solutions, keeping track of which is which!
5) Leave one of the potato slices in each of the salt solutions overnight so that they may gain (or lose) water
by osmosis. (Keep them all in the salt water the same amount of time-leaving them overnight is likely to give
the best results).
6) Remove the slices, blot them dry on a paper towel, carefully re-weigh them and record in the data table as
final mass.
Results:
1) Record your actual results below:
Table 1
Sample 1
Sample 2
Sample 3
Sample 4
Sample 5
Sample 6
% Salt
Initial Mass
Final Mass
Mass Change
2) On the reverse, prepare a graph showing change in mass as a function of % salt. Note that the graph is log
scaled (each salt concentration is 10 times the previous one) on the x-axis. The y-axis has a zero line half way
up, indicating whether the samples lost or gained weight. You will have to scale the y-axis according to your
greatest and smallest changes in mass.
3) When completed, use a ruler to draw a straight line of best fit through your six data points. Where the line
of best fit crosses the horizontal zero line, draw a vertical line down to the x-axis. This is the point at which
the potato is isotonic with its surroundings, and is the estimated salt concentration of the potato.
Figure 1: Change in mass of potato (g) as a function of salt concentration.
Questions:
1) Why did some potato samples gain water and others lose water? Was there any pattern?
2) When you drew the best fit line through your data and dropped the vertical line to the x-axis, what salt
concentration did you obtain (Estimate if it is between numbers)? What does this mean for the potato?
3) Why can’t we save water by using seawater to irrigate our crops?
4) What happens when a thirsty person drinks salt water to try to quench their thirst?
5) Why does salted popcorn dry your lips?
6) Challenge question: Saltwater fish are hypotonic to their surroundings while freshwater fish are hypertonic
to their surroundings. What must each fish do with fluids in order to compensate for the difference in salinity
between the body and the surrounding environment?
7) What is the difference between osmosis and diffusion?
8) In terms of the cell, what types of substances would diffuse, rather than going in by osmosis? (Think about
fat butts)
9) In terms of active transport, what types of substances would need to be actively transported?
10) What types of situations would active transport be important?
Study Guide - Cellular Biology
Cellular Structure
- You should know ALL the parts of the cell.
o Know how to label a diagram of the cell
o Know what each structures name is
o Know what each organelle does
Fat Butts and Beach Balls
- You should know the structure of the plasma membrane
- You should know what an integral protein is/what a peripheral protein is
- You should know what marker molecules are and what their function is
- You should know what the importance is of the fluid mosaic model
- You should be able to tell me what kinds of particles will be kept outside of the cell.
o EXTRA CREDIT – You should be able to discuss why taking lipophillic – (likes fat) drugs are
such a problem to the cell.
Diffusion, Osmosis, and Active Transport
- You should be able to define each term
- You should be able to tell me what factors diffusion relies on
- You should be able to tell me how diffusion works in the cell
- You should be able to determine which way the water goes depending on the solution
- You should tell me what factors are important in active transport
Lesson Ten – Tissues Epithelial, Connective, Muscle, and Neural
Tissue
Background – In the next week, we will be studying tissues. In physiology, and in fact, in most
biology, there are levels of organization. What does this term mean? Organization means
“how stuff is arranged,” where as the level refers to how small or complex the arrangement is.
In physiological terms, levels of organization refers to how complex, the item under study is.
For example, take what we have studied so far. We started out studying basic chemistry –
the smallest thing we could study. We really can not see electrons, protons, and neutrons
unless we use very sophisticated instruments. We then switched to cells. We can see cells
under the microscope, so we know much more about their structure and function then, say, the
atom. Now we are going up one level to tissues. Tissues can be defined as a collection of
cells that have similar structures and function. They are like a team that works together
towards a common goal. Here is a flow chart of the levels of organization that we will be
studying in our class. Write in the definition of each term next to the box.
Atoms
Cells
Tissue
s
Organs
System
s
Person
s
Why are the levels important? The levels give you a way to understand the item under study in
context. It allows you to visualize the smallness or the largeness of the item. Therefore, I
would like you to MEMORIZE the levels.
Over the next few days, we will spend our time looking at the various types of tissues in
the body. We will start with epithelial tissue and end our study of tissues on neural tissue
(brain), with some of these we will go into much more detail later in the course. Let the next
few days serve as an introduction. You will be required to memorize both the structure and
the function of each tissue type. You will also be required to be able to identify the tissue
type by sight, and perhaps by feel. Therefore you should plan on making drawings of the
tissues in question. You will also have a group quiz (to be explained later) on identification. As
tissues are the basis of all the organs and systems in the body, you would do well to really
have a good understanding of the tissues in question.
Your Goals For All Tissue Types:
 Demonstrate an understanding of the levels of structure and function in physiology
 Demonstrate an understanding of the various structural features of epithelial tissue
 Identify, visually and by feel, the 4 main types of epithelial tissue
 Demonstrate an understanding of the various functions of epithelial tissue
 Demonstrate an understanding of the relationship between structure and function of
these tissues.
Human Anatomy & Physiology
______________________________
Name
Tissue Review Worksheet
A. Epithelial Tissue. Fill in the table with the appropriate information.
Tissue Type
Simple Squamous
Stratified Squamous
Simple Cuboidal
Locations in the Body
Functions
Unique Features
Stratified Cuboidal
Simple Columnar
Stratified Columnar
Pseudostratified Columnar
Transitional
B. Connective Tissue: Fill in the table with the appropriate information.
Tissue Type
Locations in the Body
Functions
Unique Features
Bone
Hyaline Cartilage
Fibrocartilage
Elastic Cartilage
Dense Connective Tissue
Adipose
C. Muscle Tissue: Fill the table with the appropriate information.
No. of Nuclei/Cell
Voluntary?
Muscle Type
Smooth
Smooth
Striations?
Locations
D. Go to EACH of the stations, Using colored pencils, make a sketch of each specimen. Label each drawing on the line
with the correct name.
Here is the list of tissues to know for the practical exam.
You must be able to identify them by picture, and know
their general function and location in the body.
Epithelial Tissue –
- -Simple and Stratified Squamous
- -Simple and Stratified Cuboidal
- Simple and Stratified Columnar
- -Pseudostratified
Connective Tissues
- Dense connective Tissue
- Adipose Tissue
- Hyaline Cartilage
- Elastic Cartilage
- Fibro Cartilage
- Bone
- Blood (Plasma)
Nervous Tissue
Muscle – Smooth and Skeletal Muscle
All About Epithelium
Name _______________________________________________ Date _____________________________
Purpose:
This worksheet will help you cement the ideas presented in class. Along with the worksheet, we will build
models of some of the tissues that we will learn about. Your objectives are as follows:
You Should Be Able To
- Know the major characteristics of epithelial tissue.
- Know the major functions of epithelial tissue.
- Know how epithelial tissues are classified.
- Be able to identify tissues visually, and tactilely (we will be building models)
Part One – Fill in the blanks as you read:
Tissues are a collection of _______________________ that have similar structure and
_____________________. Epithelial tissues are one example of these. Generally, epithelial tissues are
classified on the basis of ______________________________ and
__________________________________. Therefore, there are several types of epithelial tissue. There are
two basic classifications of epithelial tissues. When there is only one layer of epithelial tissue, it is called
_____________________________. Likewise, if there are two layers it is referred to as
_______________________________. Similarly, the cell shape also determines the type of epithelial tissue.
There are three basic cellular shapes. The first is flat and is called ________________________. The second
type has equal height and width. When this occurs, it is called ____________________________________.
Lastly, when a cell is taller than it is fat, it is called ____________________________________. Therefore,
an epithelial tissue’s name is a combination of the number of cell layers, and the shape of the cell.
Part Two: Individual Tissues
As a general rule, most epithelium tissue functions to line other tissues. They also help with secretion and
protection. Therefore it is important to know where the epithelium tissue is located; as it helps you
understand the function. In the drawing on the next page, match the epithelial tissue with the body parts.
Note, not all cell types are seen in the drawings!
Choose From:
Stratified Cuboidal
Simple Squamous
Simple Columnar
Stratified Squamous
Stratified Columnar
Simple Cuboidal
Pseudostratified
Part Three – Match the tissue type with the function and location in the body.
Function
Tissue Type
A. Found in lungs, helps protects against bacteria
________________ Simple Squamous
and other particles.
B. Found in Male Urethra, secretes and protects.
________________ Stratified Squamous
C. Found on the outer layer of the skin, protects
________________ Simple Cuboidal
against bacterial invasion.
D. Found in Female reproductive organs, moves egg ________________ Stratified Cuboidal
along.
E. Found in mammary glands, function is secretion.
________________ Simple Columnar
F. Lines the lungs, participates in gas exchange.
________________ Stratified Columnar
G. Found in glands, functions in secretion.
________________ Pseudostratified
Connective Tissues
Name ______________________________________________ Date _________________________
Purpose: To become more familiar with connective tissues, their classification, and their functions within the
body.
Your goals –
- Be able to tell me the various types of connective tissues in the body.
- Be able to tell me how connective tissues are classified.
- Be able to tell me the functions of some of the connective tissues in the body.
- Be to identify the various connective tissues in the body.
Part One – As you read, fill in the blanks
Connective tissue performs very important functions in the body. It helps to ____________________ the
body when standing. It also helps to bind _____________________ to keep them in place. The connective
tissue is separated by an _____________________________ __________________________ composed of
organic ground substances that contains fibers and varies in consistency from solid to semi fluid. Ground
substance is kind of like filler that has organic molecules and fibers running through it. Connective tissue is
classified on the basis of the type and structure of the matrix.
There are three types of fibers in the matrix. The first is _____________________, which are white
and give the tissue flexibility and strength. The second type of fiber is yellow, called ________________,
gives the fibers a lot of elasticity. Finally, _____________ ___________________ are thin, highly branched
fibers which form a support network.
Connective tissue includes loose (areolar) connective tissue which lies between organs, binding them
and keeping them ____________________. Dense connective tissue has a matrix that contains whit
collagenous fibers. Dense connective tissue is seen in _____________________ and _________________
which connects muscle to muscle and bone to bone. Other connective tissue includes _____________ and
__________________________.
Part Two - Matching – Match the name of the connective tissue with its function or location
Location/Function
Tissue Type
A. Connects Bone to Bone
_____________________ Adipose Tissue
B. Stores Fat
_____________________ Loose connective Tissue
C. Helps to bind organs to organs
_____________________ Dense Regular Tissue
D. Found in the skeleton
_____________________ Blood
E. Found circulating around the body
_____________________ Bone
Part Two – Label the pictures with the correct name, and give one location in the body.
Name ___________________________
Location _________________________
Function _________________________
Name ___________________________
Location _________________________
Function _________________________
Name ___________________________
Location _________________________
Function _________________________
Name ___________________________
Location _________________________
Function _________________________
Name ___________________________
Location _________________________
Function _________________________
All About Cartilage
Purpose:
This worksheet will help you cement the ideas presented in class. Along with the worksheet, you will be
drawing models of these tissue types. Although Cartilage is a type of connective tissue, we will separate them
into two different categories so that it is easier to learn them. But understand that it is a connective tissue.
Your Goals
You Should Be Able To:
- Tell me the difference between the three types of connective tissue.
- Tell me where each of these tissues are located.
- Tell me how cartilage is classified.
- Tell me about the general structural features of cartilage.
Part One – Fill in the blanks below
Cartilage has a specific type of cell, called a _______________________ which has a very important
house. The important part of the cartilage structure is that the lacunae are separated by a matrix that is solid,
yet __________________. This is important as cartilage allows for flexibility and movement. (What would
happen if it was only solid and not flexible?) Another feature of cartilage is that is not supplied with blood
vessels.
There are three different types of cartilage. The first, ___________________ cartilage is the most
common type of cartilage. The matrix is composed of fine collagen fibers, giving the tissue a white, waxy
appearance. This type of cartilage is found in the ___________________________, the
________________________ and the _____________________________. Another interesting factoid is that
the infant skeleton is made up of hyaline cartilage.
The second type of cartilage is _________________________ cartilage. As its name implies, this
type of cartilage is very elastic and flexible. It is found in the ______________________ ______________.
The third type of cartilage, called ____________________________ cartilage, has a matrix containing strong
collagen fibers. This is some of the most important cartilage in the body, as it acts like a shock absorber, and
if found in the joints. Ask Mrs. Terry what happens when this type of cartilage is worn away!
Test Blue Print for Tissues
Levels of Organization
- You should be able to tell me what the various levels of organization are.
- You should able to point out where we are at (tissue level) in relation to the entire scheme.
- You should be able to discuss another example of levels of organization from real life.
Tissue Classification
- You should be able to tell me how epithelial, connective, muscle, and neural tissues are classified.
Epithelial Tissue
- You should know the basic classification scheme (shape and number of layers)
- You should know the following tissues types. You should know their basic structure, the location of
EACH type, and the general function of EACH type of tissue.
 Simple Squamous
 Stratified Squamous
 Simple Cuboidal
 Stratified Cuboidal
 Simple Columnar
 Pseudostratified Columnar
You should also be able to identify these tissues when given a picture during both your group quiz, and
practical exam.
Connective Tissue
- You should be able to discuss the classification scheme (based on fibers- collagenous, elastic, reticular
fibers and matrix)
- You should know the following tissues. You should know their basic structure, the location of EACH
type and the general function of EACH type of tissue
 Loose connective tissue (areolar)
 Adipose Tissue
 Dense Connective tissue – Regular (ligaments and tendons)
 Blood (You don’t need to know structure yet)
 Bone (You don’t need to know structure yet)
Cartilage
- You should know that cartilage is a type of connective tissue, which we just choose to separate it to
help with memorization.
- You should know that cartilage is named based on the type of fibers in the matrix.
- You should know the following tissues. You should know their basic structure, the location of EACH
type and the general function of EACH type of tissue.
 Hyaline cartilage
 Elastic cartilage
 Fibrocartilage
Lesson 11 – Muscles – Microscopic Anatomy
Background – Muscles are the first major unit that we will be learning. Muscles are one of the
most important organ systems in the body. There are 3 types of muscles in the body –
Skeletal, Smooth, and Cardiac. Each type has different functions, and is a bit different in
structure. For example,
 Skeletal Muscle –
o Consists of long fibers that are composed of actin and myosin (large
protein molecules). This lends a striated appearance to the muscle. This
type of muscle is voluntary
o Functions include:
 Support – opposes gravity, allowing us to stand upright.
 Movement – limbs, eyes, facial movements.
 Body Temperature – A chemical called ATP (Adenosine Tri
Phosphate) is the energy mondy of the cell. It is an energy molecule
that allows all cellular functions to occur. Muscles use ATP to
contract. When ATP is used (or broken apart) heat is released. As
Skeletal
a result, your body keeps a constant temperature. This is one of the
Muscle
reasons why you shiver when you are cold. The muscles are
contracting to raise your body temperature.
 Moving the blood and other fluids – Muscles allow for the smooth
running of blood through out the body. This is especially true for
the vein system, which is by itself very weak.
 Protection of internal organs – Muscles keep joints safe, they also
help keep the internal organs safe from injury and harm.
 Smooth Muscle –
o Unstriated in appearance and spindle shape. Lines hollow organs, such
as the intestines in your gut. This type of muscle is involuntary –
meaning you don’t have think about it to work. You don’t have control of
Smooth
these types of muscle.
Muscle
o Functions – To move food through the digestive tract.

Cardiac Muscle
Cardiac Muscle –
o Forms in the wall of the heart. Has a very different structure than the
other two muscle types. The structure of cardiac muscle allows for the
contraction of the heart. For example, individual muscle fibers are
highly branched, allowing for the contraction of muscle tissue to push
the blood through the body. We will learn more specifics in the next
block when we get to the cardiac unit.
In this unit, we will be doing a variety of activities that will help reinforce both the structure
and the function of the muscular tissue. On the first day, we will be making models of an
individual muscle cell. The muscle cell is a somewhat complicated cell. Recall from our cell
unit, when we talked about how the cell we learned about was a model cell, and that cells in the
body have some different structures. A muscle cell is one such example. Even the names of
some of the structures are changed to recognize the various different functions in the muscle
cell. These cells are bit complicated, which is why we are building models. Below you will find
a flow chart of the various levels of organization in the cell.
Muscle Cell –
Cell
membrane –
Called a
Sarcolemma
Nucleus – Has multiple
nucleuses in the cell.
Sarcoplasmic
Reticulum – Like
ER Has TTubules
Inside all of these are fibers
– Called Myofibrils
Fibers are made of
Actin and Myosin
molecules
Myofibrils lead to
contraction!
The Sarcoplasmic reticulum, the T-Tubules, the myofibrils are all located in the Sarcoplasma.
In our model cell, this was called the Cytosol. The Sarcoplasma serves the same function;
however, we just call it by a different name. See the lecture notes for more information on
specific structures.
You, in this unit, will be required to learn and be able to identify various muscles in the human
body, as well as in the mink. We will be doing mink dissection this year, and muscles will be the
first step in our dissection.
Handout One – Making a Muscle Model
Name______________________________________________ Date ________________________________
Background – The structure of a muscle cell is a bit different than our model cell. It is a bit more
complicated. That is why we will be building a model of the typical skeletal muscle cell. I believe that
making the model will give you both a better appreciation of the complexity of the muscle cell, as well as help
you to visualize a typical cell.
Purpose: To understand the structure and function of the typical skeletal muscle cell.
Objectives – You should be able to
- Draw the structure of a muscle cell, labeling the parts
- Demonstrate an understanding of the functions of the organelles in a muscle cell.
- Demonstrate an understanding of the functions of a muscle cell.
Part One: Pick up the materials
Obtain the following:
6 pipe cleaners
1 black marker
1 square of netting
1 square of saran wrap
Part Two – Constructing your model
1. Color 4 of the pipe cleaners in light and dark bands like the picture below:
2. Bundle the 4 pipe cleaners together, with 2 horizontal pipe cleaners. Follow the picture below:
4 pipe
Cleaners
5 pipe Cleaner
6th Pipe Cleaner (leave white)
3. Wrap the square of netting around the whole thing. Take thread and go under one of the muscle fibers, and
then tie a knot in above the netting to attach the netting to the model. Look at the picture below.
Netting
4. Finally, wrap the square of saran wrap around the whole thing.
Part Three – Answer the questions below:
1. What is the name of the gate keeper in typical cell? _______________________________________
2. What is the name of the cell membrane in the muscle cell? _________________________________,
What is its function? _______________________________________________________________.
3. What material was used in our model to represent this structure? _____________________________.
Why do you think we used the colored saran wrap?
____________________________________________________________________________________.
4. The Cytosol in our typical cell contained water and other nutrients. The muscle cell is no different. It
does, however, have a different name. The name for the Cytosol in the muscle cell is ________________.
5. In our typical cell, there is only one nucleus. However, in the muscle cell there are many. The name for
this is ________________________ ______________________. We did not choose to put the nucleuses on
our cell model. Name something that you could use on your model to represent this feature of the muscle cell.
________________________________________________________________________________________
6. The next item we placed on our cell was the netting. What cellular organelle does this part represent?
______________________________________________________________________________________
7. A unique feature of the Sarcoplasmic Reticulum is the T-Tubule. How did we show the T-Tubule in our
model? ________________________________________________________________________________
8. The function of the T-Tubule is to spread _________________ throughout the muscle cell. This substance
goes through the T-Tubules into the cell.
9. Inside the Sarcoplasmic Reticulum, one finds _______________________. We used pipe cleaners to
illustrate these long cylindrical items.
10. The fibers are made up of 2 different protein molecules. This shows up quite clearly when looking at
pictures of the tissues. The structure and arraignment of these fibers lead to a unique banding pattern called
__________________________________. The dark pattern – or the heavy chain – is made up of
_________________. The other band - or the light chain (as in weight) – is composed of _______________
molecules. These are situated in such a way that they pull together so that contraction occurs.
11. We marked the pipe cleaners with markers. What do these band patterns represent? _________________
12. What structure is missing with respect to the pipe cleaners (Hint zones ) __________________________
13. What does this structure allow for? ________________________________________________________
14. What other cellular organelles do we not show – think back to our typical cell?
________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
15. Why would it be important to have lots of mitochondria?
________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
Lysosomes? ___________________________________________________________________
16. On the back of this page, write a short essay describing the structure of muscle cells in your own words.
Also describe how you might build a model cell using different materials.
17. For extra credit, build your model and bring it into class – 10 pts
Lesson 12 – The Neuromuscular Junction
Background: A nerve is a type of tissue that allows information to go from your brain to the
body part in question. Recall from the tissue unit, a nerve cell has a particular function – look
at the picture below:
Now, imagine that the nerve cell is connected to a muscle cell. It would look something like this:
Neuromuscular
Junction
The Nerve impulse is the signal that the brain sends to the muscle. The signal moves
the way down to the muscle through a series of nerves – called afferent nerves – to the
muscle. The nerve cell ends in the terminal end of the nerve. This area is called the
Synaptic cleft. The synaptic cleft is simply the SPACE between the muscle cell and
nerve. It is into this space that information is passed between the brain
(via the nerve) to the muscle.
Look at the picture of the cleft below:
Synaptic Cleft
All signals from the brain come in the form of proteins. In this case, there is a special kind of
protein, called a neurotransmitter. The term, so you can remember it can be broken down like:
neuro meaning brain and transmitter – meaning to transmit information, the brain tells
something to do something. In the case of muscles, the type of neurotransmitter that is used
is acetylcholine. Acetylcholine goes across the gap – or synaptic cleft- through diffusion,
telling the Sarcoplasmic reticulum to release calcium into the T-tubules.
Your Goals –
Demonstrate an understanding of:
 The structure and Function of the neuromuscular junction.
Lesson 12 – Muscles Part 3 - Microscopic Physiology
Background – Now that we have covered the anatomy of the muscle cell, we need to turn our
attention to how muscle cells work together to both to contract and to eventually make
limbs/body parts move. Muscle fiber contraction (make shorter) is a complex series of steps,
involving Calcium, ATP, Tropomyosin, and Troponin. Let us first review the structure of myosin
and Actin molecules in relation to these molecules.
Heavy Chain – Myosin molecules; looks like a golf club with 2 heads on it.
Light Chain – Actin molecules: looks like a double strand of pearls. Actin chain has the
Troponin and tropomyosin molecules on it.
Calcium – Released by the Sarcoplasmic Reticulum – The calcium goes through the T-Tubules, and ends up
at the Actin molecule. There, the calcium binds to the Troponin molecules, changing its shape. Tropomyosin
is then pulled away from the spot that myosin binds to the Actin molecule (this is called a binding site).
Myosin then binds to the Actin molecule at this binding site, forming what is called a cross bridge. Then, the
myosin head pulls the Actin molecule along, forming a contraction. Now, where does ATP come in?
Remember that ATP is the “DOLLAR” of the cell. It is the molecule that pays for all the work done in the
cell. So, what does ATP do in this reaction? It allows the myosin head to move the Actin molecule. Without
ATP, no work could be done. Here is this concept graphically.
Lesson 13 – Muscles Part 3 – Contraction in the body
Background – Now that we know what happens on a cellular level, we now need to investigate
how each of the cells work together to make a coordinated muscle contraction. The first
thing that we need to know is how the neuromuscular junction is connected to a series of
muscle fibers. A motor unit is defined as the nerve and all the muscle fibers that the nerve
supplies. It looks like this:
Not part of this motor
unit. In the body, this
fiber would be
connected to another
nerve.
Notice that not all the fibers in this picture are connected to the nerve. Those fibers are
not part of THIS motor unit. What is the significance of the motor unit? Well, the motor
unit allows for smooth, sustained contraction in a group of muscles.
Your Goals for this section:
-
Demonstrate an understanding that a motor unit is the nerve and all the muscle
fibers that the nerve supplies
Demonstrate an understanding of how the muscles work in the body –
o Know what a myogram is
o Know the all or none principle
o Know what summation, tetony, and recruitment is
o Know what a fast twitch and slow twitch muscle is
o Know what type of muscle is used in different activities
What happens in the body?
In the body, muscles follow a general rule – the ALL OR NOTHING principle. This means that
the muscle either contracts or not. There is no half contraction. We can measure the way
muscles contract by using a myogram. A myogram shows what is going on in a muscle. It
measures the STRENGHT of contraction over time. What the myogram shows is that there is
a certain THRESHOLD for contraction. Again, this means that there is a point where
contraction will happen. If the stimulation (i.e., the nerve impulse) is not strong enough,
nothing will happen. Here is a picture of this principle.
How to read this myogram:
Latent period – time between the
stimulation and when something
happens.
Contraction period – The myosin
head is moving the actin –
contraction is occurring.
Relaxation period – The muscle is
relaxing.
This myogram is for an INDIVIDUAL stimulation. What happens when the muscle is sent
multiple signals? In the first case, the muscle is allowed to recover – in other words, there is
enough time between signals. The myogram looks like this:
But what happens when there is not enough time to recover? The muscle goes through what is
called SUMMATION. The each contraction builds on the next contraction. The result is a
bigger contraction. Its kind of like having a bad day, where each bad thing build on the next,
until you go home and explode (not speaking from personal experience of course!). The
myogram looks like this:
Bigger Contractions are
Possible!
We all know that we are capable of prolonged contraction – you are able to lift this guide
after all. Predict what happens to the force of contraction when signals come so close
together that there is not time for the muscle to relax. You are correct; the result is a
prolonged contraction. This condition is called tetony. Graphically, it looks like this:
Prolonged contraction
Now, anyone who lifts weights will tell you that no muscle can stay contracted for ever. This
is a good thing, other wise you would be stiff as a board! Eventually, the muscle poops out and
can not contract again until CALCIUM AND ATP builds up enough in your body. Tetony
happens all the time in the body. It is how you move your legs, stand upright, and allows you to
defy gravity. It gives your muscles tone – meaning your muscles have strength while resting.
Why don’t your muscle groups poop out? Because of a concept called recruitment. In other
words – the stronger the signal, the more MOTOR UNITS work together to make a muscle
group contraction. While some muscles are working, other muscles are pooping out. You just
don’t realize this is going on.
Fast Twitch VS Slow Twitch Muscles.
There are two different types of muscle groups in the body – these are slow twitch and
fast twitch muscles.
Slow Twitch Muscles – slower to contract, but are capable of prolonged contraction.
These muscles rely on oxygen to work. These are used by swimmers, golfers, walkers,
etc.
Fast Twitch Muscles – fast bursts of power. They don’t use oxygen (they are
anaerobic). They are primarily used by athletes who are power lifting, sprinting, etc.
Muscles to Know for Practical
Below is a list of muscles that you need to know for your practical. This list does not include
the muscles of the mink, which you will also be required to know. You will be required to know
the location of the muscle, as well as the function of the muscle. Fill out the worksheet during
the time given in class. This will be turned in on the day of the practical.
Muscles of the Head:
1. Frontalis
2. Temporalis
3. Masseter
4. Zygomaticus
Muscles of the trunk
1. Sternocleidomastoid
2. Trapezius
3. Deltoid
4. Pectoralis major
5. Pectoralis minor
6. The Intercostal
muscles
7. Obliques
8. Rectus Abdominus
10. Latissimus Dorsi
11. Rotator Cuffs
Arm Muscles
1. Biceps brachii
2. Brachialis
3. Triceps
Leg Muscles
1. Gluteous maximus,
medius, and minimus
2. Sartorius
3. Quadriceps
4. Hamstrings
5. Adductors
6. Gastrocnemius
Muscle Group
Muscles of the Head
1. Frontalis
2. Temporalis
3. Masseter
4. Zygomaticus
Muscles of the trunk
1. Sternocleidomastoid
2. Trapezius
3. Deltoid
4. Pectoralis major
5. Pectoralis minor
6. The Intercostal
muscles
7. Obliques
8. Rectus Abdominus
Origin
Insertion
Location
Function
9. Transverse
Abdominus
10. Latissimus Dorsi
11. Rotator Cuffs
Muscles of the Arms
1. Biceps brachii
2. Brachialis
3. Triceps
Leg Muscles
1. Gluteous maximus,
medius, and minimus
2. Sartorius
3. Quadriceps
4. Hamstrings
5. Adductors
6. Gastrocnemius
Muscles in Motion lab Exercise
Name ______________________________ Date _________________________
Background: So far we have learned about muscle structure, function, and even muscle groups
(hopefully you are working hard to memorize the muscle group). Today, we will do a lab which
will demonstrate to you how muscles work together to achieve goals. Also, we will build muscle
models that will show you how muscles contract to move objects.
Your Goals:
You should demonstrate an understanding of the following:
- Different muscles are used to perform different body motions.
- Understand how the muscle contracts to move muscles
- Understand the difference between synergist, primary, and antagonist muscles
- Demonstrate an understanding of tetony and eventually poop out of muscles
- Understand the principles of fast twitch and slow twitch muscles
Muscle Model –
Background – We will make muscle model of the arm. This is done to illustrate that a muscle
can’t push – rather it can only contract.
1. Cut 2 cardboard strips 2 inches by 6 inches.
2. Also obtain: 2 paper fasteners, tape, a hole puncher, a red balloon and a blue balloon.
Follow the directions to put it together.
1. Punch a hole in each cardboard strip, about 1.5 inches from the end, and in both ends of
each balloon.
2. Tape the two strips together end to end so that the holes are about 3 inches apart. The
strips will bend like a joint on the taped side. (One strip represents the upper arm; the
other represents the lower arm; the joint represents the elbow.)
3. With a paper fastener, attach the two balloons to opposite sides of the “upper arm,” with
the red balloon on the taped side. Attach the other end of each balloon to the “lower arm”
in the same way.
Bend the “arm” at the “elbow,” noticing what happens to the balloons. The red balloon will
become shorter, or “contract,” while the blue one will stretch out, or “relax”
Answer the questions:
1. We went over synergist/antagonist relationships – define each term.
2. In the biceps and triceps relationship – which is the synergist, and which is the antagonist?
Movement and Motion Experiment
Step One: Making a Hypothesis
Obtain a 5lbs weight/ lab group from your teacher. In your group, make a prediction as to
whether or not you feel your bicep brachii is stronger than your triceps brachii. Write your
hypothesis below:
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
Now write why you feel this is the case:
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
Step Two: Testing our Hypothesis
Standing with your back against a wall, hold the dumbbell in your dominant hand, letting the
dumbbell hang at your side with your arm fully extended downward. Raise the dumbbell by
bending your arm from the elbow toward your face as far as you can. Lower the dumbbell by
fully extending the arm downward. Repeat the exercise until you feel tired. Group members
should record the number of repetitions for each student.
Next: Test the Triceps
Standing with your back against a wall, hold the dumbbell in your dominant hand, letting the
dumbbell hang at your side with your arm fully extended downward. Bend your arm at the
elbow, bringing the dumbbell up toward your face and holding the dumbbell next to your ear on
the same side of the body. Rotate your wrist so your palm is facing away from you. Now push
the dumbbell straight up into the air until the arm is fully extended; then return the dumbbell
so that it is next to your ear again. Repeat the exercise until you feel tired. Group members
should record the number of repetitions for each student.
Results of Your Experiment
Group Member
Name:
Number of Repetitions before Tiring
Biceps
Triceps
Data Table 1: Results of Bicep/Triceps Tests
Next Predict whether or not the hamstrings verse the quadriceps are stronger.
Make a hypothesis as to whether or not the hamstrings or the quads are stronger.
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
Now write why you feel this is the case:
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
Testing your hypothesis
Each member of your group should do squats. *The teacher will show you the PROPER way of
doing a squat. Record the number of squats you did before tiring.
Next, stand next the wall, while holding onto the wall, do leg lifts *the teacher will show you
what to do*. Record your results as before.
Group Member
Number of Repetitions before Tiring
Name:
Squats
Leg Lifts
Data Table 2 – Results of Squats/Leg Lift Test
Analyzing the Data
On a separate piece of paper, record the other group’s data. Make an average of data
category – so an average for biceps, triceps, squats and leg lifts.
Answer the following questions
1. Do you see a difference between biceps and triceps strength repetition average?
2. Why do you think there would be a difference?
3. How about between squats and leg lifts?
4. Why might there not be a difference between squats and leg lifts? (Hint – are the quads
isolated in a squat?)
5. What might make a muscle stronger than another?
Test Blue Print For Muscles
General Knowledge
- Know what the 3 types of muscles are – Skeletal, Cardiac, and Smooth muscles
- Know the general characteristic are of all three types
- Know what the outer cartilage lining is – Epimysium, perimysium, and Endomysium
Skeletal Muscle
- Know what the functions of skeletal muscle are
- Know the gross anatomy – striated tissue
- Know these terms, and be able to label a typical muscle cell with the correct terms, also be able
to tell me the functions of each term.
o Sarcolemma
o Sarcoplasma
o Sarcoplasmic Reticulum
o Multinucleated
o T-Tubule
o Myofibril
o Myofilaments
 Actin and myosin
 Troponin and Tropomyosin
- Be able to tell me how a muscle contraction occurs
o The roles of Calcium, ATP, Actin, Myosin, Troponin, and Tropomyosin
o The sequence of contraction – Sliding Filament Theory
- Be able to describe contraction in the body
o Be able to define summation, tetony, recruitment
o Be able to describe what a myogram looks like in each case.
o Be able to describe why these terms are important to the coordinated muscle
contraction.
- Know the difference and definition of Fast Twitch and Slow Twitch muscles
- Be able to define synergist, primary mover, antaogonists
Muscle Practical
- Be able to name the location, insertion/origins, and functions of each of the muscles on your
muscle list.
Mink Practical
- A detailed list of muscles in the mink that you will be required to know will be given to you at
a later date.
Final Exam Test Blue Print
Scientific Method
- Know the steps of the scientific method
- Be able to make up a simple experiment based on information.
- Be able to name what step of the method you are at when given information.
Anatomical Terms
- Be able to label a diagram using anatomical terms
Chemistry
- Be able to define the differences between an atom, element, and molecules
- Be able to label a diagram of an atom – labeling the charges
- Be able to combine a simple compound using lewis dot structures
- Be able to name the biological elements
- Be able to define a protein, and be able to give me very general information about amino acids
- Be able to put together a simple amino acid – being able to read both the structural and the
molecular formula.
Cell
- Be able to label a typical cell, being able to tell me the function of the parts of the cell.
Diffusion, Osmosis, and Active Transport
 You should be able to define each term
 You should be able to tell me how diffusion works in the cell
 You should be able to determine which way the water goes depending on the solution
 You should tell me what factors are important in active transport
Tissues
Epithelial Tissue
- You should know the following tissues types. You should know their basic structure, the location of
EACH type, and the general function of EACH type of tissue.
 Simple Squamous
 Stratified Squamous
 Simple Cuboidal
 Stratified Cuboidal
 Simple Columnar
 Pseudostratified Columnar
Connective Tissue
- You should know the following tissues. You should know their basic structure, the location of EACH
type and the general function of EACH type of tissue
 Loose connective tissue (areolar)
 Adipose Tissue
 Dense Connective tissue – Regular (ligaments and tendons)
 Blood (You don’t need to know structure yet)
 Bone (You don’t need to know structure yet)
Cartilage
- You should know the following tissues. You should know their basic structure, the location of EACH
type and the general function of EACH type of tissue.
 Hyaline cartilage
 Elastic cartilage
 Fibrocartilage
Muscles – See Test Blue Print