Rigby
Intervention by Design
© 2008
Scientific
Research Base
Rigby An Imprint of HMH Supplemental Publishers
Rigby Intervention by Design
Scientific Research Base
Table of Contents
Page
Introduction
1
Strand 1: Teaching Reading
2
• Word-level skills: Phonemic awareness instruction
2
• Word-level skills: Phonics instruction
3
• Vocabulary development and word study
4
• Comprehension strategy instruction
6
• Fluency instruction
7
Strand 2: Using Effective Instructional Approaches
• Intervention
9
9
• Explicit instruction
11
• Scaffolding
12
• Modeling
14
• Multiple exposures
15
• Graphic organizers
15
• Predictable routines
17
• Collaborative learning
17
• Engaged learning
18
Strand 3: Using Effective Texts
20
• Leveled texts
20
• High-interest books
21
• Fiction and nonfiction/content-area texts
23
Strand 4: Meeting the Needs of All Students
24
• Differentiated instruction
24
• Struggling readers
25
• English language learners
26
Strand 5: Using Assessment Purposefully
28
• Diagnostic assessment
28
• On-going assessment
29
• Technology in assessment
30
Works Cited
32
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Introduction
On January 8, 2002, President George W. Bush signed into law the No Child Left Behind
Act of 2001. This law contains the most comprehensive reforms of the Elementary and
Secondary Education Act (ESEA) since it was enacted in 1965. One fundamental principle of the
law is that schools and teachers implement teaching methods that have been proven to work—
effective teaching methods that have been identified through sound research.
The purpose of this document is to demonstrate clearly and explicitly the scientific research upon
which Rigby Intervention by Design is based. The National Reading Panel (2000) identified five
pillars deemed essential for reading instruction: comprehension strategies, vocabulary, phonics,
phonemic awareness, and fluency. Rigby Intervention by Design provides comprehensive
instruction in all five pillars. This document is organized by five major instructional strands that
underpin the program: teaching reading, using effective instructional approaches, using effective
texts, meeting the needs of all students, and utilizing assessment effectively to guide instruction
for intervention. These strands represent key components of literacy instruction as identified by
research.
To show how the strands are connected to research and the contents of Rigby Intervention by
Design, we have organized this booklet by the following sections within each strand:
Defining the Strand
This section summarizes the terminology and findings of the research.
Excerpts from the Research that Guided the Development of Rigby Intervention by
Design
This section identifies subtopics within each strand and provides an excerpt from relevant
research on each subtopic within the strand that was fundamental to the manner in which
Rigby Intervention by Design was developed. The research includes experimental, quasiexperimental, longitudinal, and observational studies as well as research analysis and
reviews.
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From Research to Practice
This section explains how the research data is exemplified in Rigby Intervention by
Design. For each subtopic, you will find identifying page numbers of illustrative
examples of the research-based instructional methodology. Immediately following these
examples, you will find facsimiles of representative examples of this methodology from
the Program Overview, students’ and teacher’s materials, and/or supplementary
resources.
At the end of this booklet, you will find a list of all works cited here.
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What Does Scientifically Based Research Tell Us About
Teaching Reading?
Defining the Strand
Teaching Reading
The goals of reading instruction are to develop the students’ ability to read independently—to
analyze, synthesize, and evaluate a wide range of texts; to read for enjoyment as well as for
information; and to interpret and apply information from what they have read. In order to reach
these goals, students need to possess strong foundations in the building blocks of reading—
phonics and phonemic awareness. Readers reading below grade level need a curriculum that
provides instruction in strategies for comprehension, vocabulary development, and fluency.
Instruction in these five pillar of reading (phonemic awareness, phonics, vocabulary,
comprehension, and fluency) will provide struggling readers with the skills they need for
automatic access to printed texts.
Excerpts from the Research
Word-Level Skills: Phonemic Awareness Instruction
“According to NRP findings, it is likely that the inclusion of phonemic awareness training in
phonics instruction is a key component contributing to its effectiveness in teaching children to
read.” (National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, Report of the National
Reading Panel, 2000, p. 2-34)
“What seems most important with respect to timing [for phonological awareness instructional
intervention] is that intervention is provided before children lag too far behind their peers…and
that intervention relates to curricular demands or expectations.” (Schuele & Boudreau, 2008, p.
7)
“Phonological awareness plays an important role in literacy acquisition. Recent research shows
that it is a single, unified ability that manifests itself in a variety of phonological skills that
emerge in a predictable sequence. Along with genetics, intelligence, memory, and vocabulary,
experiences with oral and written language influence the rate at which individuals develop
phonological awareness and the levels they attain.” (Anthony & Francis, 2005, p. 258)
“The results of this study suggest that 1) learning PA [phonemic awareness] skills at the
beginning of 1st grade is early enough to support later reading development; 2) learning these
skills can occur in a short amount of time; and 3) learning these skills beyond a sufficient level
may not necessarily result in improved oral reading.” (Reading & VanDeuren, 2007, p. 282)
From Research to Practice
Phonemic awareness refers to students’ ability to focus on and manipulate the sounds in spoken
words. Isolating, identifying, blending, segmenting, and deleting phonemes are all activities that
can be used in teaching and assessing students’ phonemic awareness. Phonemic awareness is an
important element in the development of literacy; without the ability to hear the sounds in words,
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students cannot make the connection between these sounds and the written letters that represent
them.
Teachers using Rigby Intervention by Design have multiple tools that provide comprehensive
phonemic awareness instruction. Teaching Cards detail a phonemic awareness program that
starts with students listening to a Chant. The Chant previews the topic to be covered in that
lesson’s Leveled Reader. Teachers introduce the skill with visuals displayed by the Phonemic
Awareness Chart during instruction. Students follow the Chant along with the teacher who
highlights important phrases and pronunciations, laying the foundation for phonemic awareness
instruction. During Lesson 1, teachers model the specific skill and provide multiple examples
that allow students to practice. In Lesson 2, students have the opportunity to demonstrate
understanding of the skill by completing activities both as a class and in pairs utilizing the
Partner Picture Cards (see Program Overview, pp. 30-31).
For examples of phonemic awareness instruction from Rigby Intervention by Design, see the
following examples:
Phonemic Awareness
Word Awareness
Phoneme Blending
Phoneme Addition
Phoneme Matching
Phoneme Isolation
Word Rhyming
Primary Kit
Teaching Card 2
What Did My Kitten Do?
Teaching Card 23
Bucky, My Pup
Teaching Card 27
Count the Clouds
Teaching Card 9
Swim, Snack, and Skip
Teaching Card 14
I Will Ride My Bike
Teaching Card 7
Clap Your Hands
Intermediate Kit
Teaching Card 1
Fun in the Sun
Teaching Card 11
Good Rocks
Teaching Card 14
Earth’s Story
Teaching Card 6
Teacher, Please
Teaching Card 8
Unique Animals
Teaching Card 3
What Will I Be?
Excerpts from the Research
Word-Level Skills: Phonics Instruction
“The conclusion supported by these findings is that various types of systematic phonics
approaches are significantly more effective than non-phonics approaches in promoting
substantial growth in reading.” (National Institute of Child Health and Human Development,
Report of the National Reading Panel 2000, p. 2-93)
“The recognition of printed words depends on the ability to map speech sounds to letter
symbols—the alphabetic principle—and to recognize letter sequences accurately and quickly—
orthographic processing. The majority of poor readers who read below the 30th percentile in the
intermediate and upper grades need instruction in these basic skills.” (Moats, 2001, p. 37)
“We found that morphology [the study of the structure of words] was related to reading
comprehension . . . , and became more important as students grew older. Students with greater
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understanding of morphology also have higher reading comprehension scores when holding
constant their word reading fluency. . . . students’ understanding of morphology was a better
predictor of reading comprehension than their vocabulary level. In addition, we found that this
relationship was the same for Spanish-speaking ELLs [English language learners] as for native
English speakers in an urban setting.” (Kieffer & Lesaux, 2007, p. 138)
From Research to Practice
Students’ ability to comprehend is dependent on their ability to quickly and automatically decode
the words on the page. Without sufficient skills in phonics, students cannot achieve this goal.
Instruction in phonics has been shown to be effective with early, beginning readers as well as
with older, struggling readers and with English language learners.
In Rigby Intervention by Design, skills in phonics are taught to help students decode words
quickly and automatically so that the work of comprehension can occur. Teachers demonstrate
phonics and connect the phonics instruction with the phonemic awareness instruction, when
appropriate. With Rigby Intervention by Design, teachers have access to multiple teaching tools
that allows for deep phonics instruction (see Program Overview p. 17). Magnetic Boards and
Letter Titles display letters, digraphs, and word family trees providing a visual demonstration of
phonics being taught. Teachers also demonstrate letter-sound connections using Letter Cards,
which provide graphic examples that make sound decoding easier for students to grasp and
understand. Further understanding and deep processing of phonics occur as students have access
to the Word Family Picture Dictionary, utilizing rich graphics and colorful examples so
students gain a greater understanding of word families.
For additional examples of phonics instruction from Rigby Intervention by Design, see the
following examples:
Phonemic Instruction
Constant Sounds
Constant Blends
Short Vowel Sounds
Long Vowel Sounds
Word Families
Primary Kit
Teaching Card 6
A Duck Named Jack
Teaching Card 9
Swim, Snack, and Skip
Teaching Card 3
My Job
Teaching Card 14
I Will Ride My Bike
Teaching Card 19
My Book Is So Good
Intermediate Kit
Teaching Card 20
The Alphabet Tree
Teaching Card 12
My Plans
Teaching Card 1
Fun in the Sun
Teaching Card 5
Telephone Calls
Teaching Card 27
Caves
Excerpts from the Research
Vocabulary Development and Word Study
“Based on these trends in the data, the Panel offers the following implications for practice:
1. Vocabulary should be taught both directly and indirectly.
2. Repetition and multiple exposures to vocabulary items are important.
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3. Learning in rich contexts is valuable for vocabulary learning.
4. Vocabulary tasks should be restructured when necessary.
5. Vocabulary learning should entail active engagement in learning tasks . . .”
(National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, Report of the National Reading
Panel, 2000, p. 4-27)
“One of the strongest findings about vocabulary instruction, whether direct instruction or
learning words from context, is that multiple encounters are required before a word is really
known . . . Over the course of our vocabulary research, we compared a group of students who
had received rich instruction to two other groups of students: one group who had not been
instructed, and another group who had received traditional, definition-based instruction.
. . . the pattern of results was that students who received rich, frequent instruction did better on a
variety of measures.” (Beck, McKeown, & Kucan, 2002, p. 73; 77-78)
“Students who were pretaught unknown words were more likely to be reading at an instructional
level and demonstrated larger gains within the reading curriculum. . . . The current study found
positive results by preteaching unknown words across a 12-week time frame using instructional
materials from established reading curriculum.” (Burns, 2007, p. 308)
From Research to Practice
Students’ ability to communicate—to read and write—is dependent on having adequate
vocabulary; and because students in the classroom may vary greatly in their reading skills, no
single method of teaching vocabulary will be effective.
Rigby Intervention by Design provides students with numerous and varied opportunities to
develop vocabulary. In Rigby Intervention by Design, vocabulary is taught both directly and
indirectly, including contextual strategies, word study, and repeated exposures to words. During
Lesson 1, teachers’ present vocabulary words that students will be introduced to while reading
their Leveled Reader. Teachers define these vocabulary words for students and provide visual
examples to provide a richer context for students to understand the new vocabulary words (see
Program Overview, p. 22). Students are prompted by teachers to relate new vocabulary words to
their own personal experiences and background knowledge as they preview the text as a class.
Teachers can provide vocabulary instruction Using Words in Context with teachers writing
words on the Magnetic Board and having students relate the words to familiar questions and
prompts, providing additional opportunities to encode vocabulary into their own schemas (see
Program Overview, p. 23).
Deeper understanding of vocabulary occurs as teachers then instruct students to incorporate the
new vocabulary into a variety of different activities, both as a class and in student pairs (see
Program Overview, p. 23). Students then complete their own Vocabulary Journals
demonstrating true understanding of the new vocabulary words and the ability to use these words
in their own writing (see Program Overview, p. 81). Additional vocabulary development is
possible as teachers have the opportunity to assess students’ understanding of new vocabulary
words with worksheets in the Teaching Cards (see Program Overview, p. 39).
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Excerpts from the Research
Comprehension Strategy Instruction
“Effective comprehension strategy instruction is explicit, or direct. Research shows that explicit
teaching techniques are particularly effective for comprehension strategy instruction. In explicit
instruction, teachers tell readers why and when they should use strategies, what strategies to use,
and how to apply them. The steps of explicit instruction typically include direct explanation,
teacher modeling (‘thinking aloud’), guided practice, and application.
• Direct explanation. The teacher explains to students why the strategy helps comprehension
and when to apply the strategy.
• Modeling. The teacher models, or demonstrates, how to apply the strategy, usually by
‘thinking aloud’ while reading the text that the students are using.
• Guided practice. The teacher guides and assists students as they learn how and when to apply
the strategy.
• Application. The teacher helps students practice the strategy until they can apply it
independently.”
(Center for the Improvement of Early Reading, 2003, p. 53)
“Overall, teaching students the cognitive strategy of generating questions about the material they
had read resulted in gains in comprehension, as measured by tests given at the end of the
intervention.” (Rosenshine, Meister, & Chapman, 1996, p. 181)
“A series of dependent measures assessing students’ ability to recognize and produce explicit
and implicit main ideas at the paragraph and short passage levels indicated a powerful treatment
effect favoring the Strategy group over both the Basal and Control groups. These results are
interpreted as further support for the efficacy of a direct instruction paradigm for teaching
children reading comprehension skills.” (Baumann, 1984, p.93)
From Research To Practice
In addition to linguistic knowledge, students’ reading comprehension is dependent on
background knowledge, the ability to make inferences, and the ability to choose and use
appropriate strategies for decoding and comprehending. Rigby Intervention by Design
preteaches strategies and provides guided practice with strategies, applying them to different
selections. Following a gradual release model, students move from watching models that
teachers provide, to practicing with the support of the teacher, to practicing on their own.
See the following examples showing how Rigby Intervention by Design helps students use a
variety of comprehension strategies.
Comprehension
SynthesizeStrategy
Make Connections
Create Images
Infer
Ask Questions
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Teaching
Card
Primary
Kit64
What
is
it
Made
Teaching Card Of?
35
Teaching
Card 50
Going
on Vacation
Jack’s birthday
Teaching
Card 40
Teaching
Card
Up in the
Sky46
Around and around
Teaching CardKit
28
Intermediate
Food
from
the
World
Teaching Card 21
92
DadTeaching
and Dan Card
Go Fishing
Papua
New
Guinea
Teaching Card 58
Teaching
Card 69
Thomas Edison
Inside the Gate
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Determine Importance
Use Fix-Up Strategies
Monitor Understanding
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Teaching Card 79
Animal Bodies
Teaching Card 89
Food is fun
Teaching Card 54
At the toy store
Teaching Card 33
Ice on Earth
Teaching Card 75
The Changing Map
Teaching Card 52
Voting
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Excerpts from the Research
Fluency Instruction
“One of the major findings of the present study was that each of the three types of fluency—at
the word, syntactic, and passage levels—related individually to performance on a standardized
reading comprehension test in a sample of fifth graders heterogeneous in general reading ability.
In other words, the students who demonstrated the highest performances in reading
comprehension also displayed (a) fast recognition of isolated words; (b) adeptness in processing
phrases and sentences as syntactic units while engaged in oral and silent reading; and (c)
appropriate, consistent expression when reading stories and information text out loud. . . . The
present findings are consistent with automaticity theory’s assertion that fast, accurate word
recognition frees cognitive resources for reading comprehension” (Klauda & Guthrie, 2008, p.
23-24)
“ . . . research and theory suggest . . . The eight-step program for struggling readers should
include explicit and systematic instruction that
1. Builds the graphophonic foundations for fluency, including phonological awareness,
letter familiarity, and phonics.
2. Builds and extends vocabulary and oral language skills.
3. Provides expert instruction and practice in the recognition of high-frequency vocabulary.
4. Teaches common word parts and spelling patterns.
5. Teaches, models, and provides practice in the application of a decoding strategy.
6. Uses appropriate texts to coach strategic behaviors and to build reading speed.
7. Uses repeated reading procedures as an intervention approach for struggling readers.
8. Monitors fluency development through appropriate assessment procedures.”
(Chard, Pikulski, & McDonagh, 2006, p. 48-49)
“Readers Theater seems to offer teachers a way to incorporate repeated readings within a
meaningful and purposeful context. Creating opportunities for students to perform before an
audience requires multiple readings of the text in order to achieve the fluency needed for the
performance, and that practice works . . . [Readers Theater] provides a vehicle for direct
explanation, feedback, and effective modeling. Perhaps due to the interplay of these influences,
we found that Readers Theater promoted oral reading fluency . . . ” (Martinez, Roser, & Strecker,
1998, p. 333)
“The purpose of this study was to measure the effects of readers’ theater on the literacy needs of
low achieving readers. The results from this study indicated that the readers’ theater program had
a positive impact on reading attitudes and confidence level of the second and third grade
students. It was evident that the special education students also made progress toward increasing
their fluency scores.” (Corcoran , 2005, p. 110)
From Research to Practice
The ability to read fluently—to read smoothly, at a good pace, with expression, with appropriate
phrasing, and with understanding—reflects a reader’s ability to construct meaning from text.
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Fluency improves as automaticity—automatic and accurate word recognition—improves. Fluent
readers spend less energy decoding texts and therefore have more cognitive energy to focus on
vocabulary and comprehension.
Rigby Intervention by Design builds fluency by modeling fluent reading. During Lesson 1,
teachers model specific skills indicating how fluent readers approach texts and use particular
strategies that encourage deeper understanding of the text. Teachers then Break it Down!; using
an explicit
3-step instruction process to demonstrate how fluent readers review texts (see Program Overview
p. 24). [See Program Overview, page 51 for specific fluency skills taught in Rigby Intervention
by Design.] During the same lesson, teachers also highlight high-frequency words and instruct
students on how to identify these words, leading to further word recognition and making
students’ reading more fluent. For a list of high-frequency words taught in the Rigby
Intervention by Design, see Program Overview, pp. 52-53.
Understanding that fluency occurs as students have multiple opportunities to read books, Rigby
Intervention by Design lessons are designed to allow students to review texts multiple times.
Teachers preview books with students to familiarize them with the content of the book. Students
then have the opportunity to read books silently to themselves and out loud with the teacher
during both lessons. This guided reading allows teachers to ask questions and assess students’
reading comprehension and their fluency (see Program Overview, p. 27).
Fluency instruction occurs during Lesson 2 as students use Rigby Intervention Fluent
ReaderTM Software which improves fluent reading by giving students the opportunity to: (1)
read along with a fluent reader, (2) Record and listen to their own reading, and (3) self monitor
their own progress (see Program Overview, pp. 36-37).
For students who need additional fluency practice, teachers have the option of assigning
Reader’s Theater activities during both lessons (see Program Overview, pp. 25, 28-29),
providing students the opportunity to complete personally meaningful activities.
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What Does Scientifically Based Research Tell Us About
Effective Instructional Approaches?
Defining the Strand
Effective Instructional Approaches
Effective reading intervention programs use instructional approaches that have been proven
effective by research. A program that provides intervention for struggling readers will include
the following approaches:
• frequent, targeted intervention that responds to students’ needs;
• explicit instruction that guides learners;
• scaffolding that provides structured support into learning;
• modeling of process and product that guides learning;
• multiple exposures that ensure mastery;
• graphic organizers that connect ideas;
• predictable routines that facilitate classroom management;
• collaborative learning opportunities that engage students; and
• learning opportunities that engage learners and make learning active, not passive.
Excerpts from the Research
Intervention
“Response to Intervention (RtI) is the practice of providing high-quality instruction and
interventions matched to student need, monitoring progress frequently to make decisions about
changes in instruction or goals, and applying student response data to important educational
decisions. RtI should be applied to decisions in general, remedial, and special education, creating
a well-integrated system of instruction/intervention guided by student outcome data.” (National
Association of State Directors of Special Education, 2008, p. 1)
“The first step in the RtI process, or Tier I, is implementing a research-based core curriculum. . .
. We now know that explicit instruction in phonics, phonemic awareness, fluency, vocabulary,
and comprehension are essential aspects of a core curriculum, and including these components
leads to improved student learning.” (Griffiths, Parson, Burns, VanDerHeyden, & Tilly, 2007, p.
75)
“The general principle is to use the same continuum of strategies with the struggling readers
(including teacher read-alouds, sustained silent reading, shared reading, guided reading, guided
discussion . . . ), but to augment these strategies with intensive instruction on the specific skills
students need to succeed.” (Au, 2002, p. 399)
“Early intervention starts with classroom instruction that prevents reading difficulties by
integrating explicit instruction in phonemic awareness and the alphabetic code with reading for
meaning and opportunities to practice reading and writing, for all children. This same content is
the basis for small-group intervention for those at-risk for reading failure due to low phonemic
awareness, letter-sound knowledge, and word reading. The relative emphasis on phonological
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skills and connected text reading depends on the severity of impairment in phonemic awareness.
To reduce treatment resisters to a percentage as low as 2%, sufficient intensity and duration of
intervention, as well as instructional support, is required . . . ” (Foorman, Breier, & Fletcher,
2003, p. 631)
The 2004 reauthorization of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) called for
multiple levels of instruction to meet the needs of all children in regular classroom settings.
Response to Intervention (RtI) meets the requirements of this mandate. The process of using RtI
is the process of implementing high-quality, research-based instruction, regularly and
systematically assessing student progress, and adjusting instruction for each student as needed.
Within this structure, students who need intervention in specific areas receive instruction that
meets their needs. Students who need more intensive intervention are identified and they, too,
receive instruction and support that meets their needs. This type of intervention is the essential
“next step” in a data-based system.
From Research to Practice
Rigby Intervention by Design supports educators and schools in identifying students who need
intervention and in providing the targeted intervention they need (see Program Overview, pp. 1213; pp. 18-19). Specific intervention occurs as numerous program components in Rigby
Intervention by Design were designed to assist teachers in implementing intervention strategies,
including the varied Leveled Readers (see Program Overview, pp. 32-35), Graphic Organizers
(see Program Overview pp. 56-67), Phonemic Awareness Charts and Magnetic Board and
Letters Tiles (see Program Overview, pp. 30-31). To truly meet the needs of all students,
teachers use program components to create individualized instruction programs for each student.
Using Student Intervention Reports, teachers choose Leveled Readers at each student’s
reading level and can modify skills and strategies taught to each student through the multiple
Teaching Cards (see Program Overview, pp. 32-35). Every Teaching Card outlines specific
instruction in all five pillars and provides additional instruction in each pillar allowing teachers
the flexibility of supplementing instruction in keys areas (see Program Overview, pp. 22-25).
To ensure intervention strategies and components continually meet the needs of all students,
regular informal and formal assessments are incorporated into Rigby Intervention by Design. All
Teaching Cards contain prompts for teachers to monitor students’ understanding of key skills
and strategies. These prompts allow teachers to gauge student comprehension and provide
additional instruction when needed (see Program Overview pp. 22-23). Additional formal
assessments for comprehension, phonics, and vocabulary are included with Teaching Cards to
assess whether students need additional instruction in those areas (see Program Overview p. 29).
Students’ progress can be tracked utilizing the Data Management Tool included in the program,
providing further differentiation to target students’ needs in future lessons (see Program
Overview, p. 41).
Excerpts from the Research
Explicit Instruction
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“The idea behind explicit instruction of text comprehension was that comprehension could be
improved by teaching students to use specific cognitive strategies or to reason strategically when
they encountered barriers to comprehension in reading . . . Explicit or formal instruction of these
strategies is believed to lead to improvement in text understanding and information use.
Instruction in comprehension strategies is carried out by a classroom teacher who demonstrates,
models, or guides the reader in their acquisition and use. When these procedures are acquired,
the reader becomes independent of the teacher. Using them, the reader can effectively interact
with the text without assistance.” (National Institute of Child Health and Human Development,
Report of the National Reading Panel, 2000, p. 4-5)
“Content area teachers can make a difference in the school lives of adolescents when they
incorporate reading strategy minilessons into their instructional repertoire. Explicit instruction in
the development and use of reading strategies requires explanation, modeling, practice, and
application . . . ” (Vacca, 2002, p. 194)
“Results of this study showed significant differences between the explicit strategy group and the
comparison group on the two transfer measures. Students who were taught the explicit strategy
demonstrated superior performance . . . ” (Hollingsworth & Woodward, 1993, p. 452)
“The impact of two reading interventions on the motivational and affective characteristics of
upper elementary and middle school students with RD [reading disabilities] was examined. The
two interventions were compared to determine whether a comprehension strategy intervention
that was explicit and self-regulatory would produce larger increases in reading-specific selfefficacy, attributions, and positive affect . . . than a comprehension strategy that was less explicit
in nature. . . . [The] study showed that students in the Explicit Comprehension intervention made
significantly larger gains in their reading comprehension skills . . . ” (Nelson & MansetWilliamson, 2006, p. 223)
From Research to Practice
Asking students to read a text and/or explaining to students what is happening in a text may help
students learn from that particular text, but these activities do not teach students how to read and
comprehend on their own. To be effective, comprehension instruction must show students,
directly and explicitly, how to comprehend a text: Reading instruction is more effective when
explicit instruction is combined with strategy instruction.
Rigby Intervention by Design provides explicit instruction of numerous strategies that students
can use independently to understand texts. Such strategies enable both struggling/dependent
readers and independent readers to read and understand texts that are difficult for them. Included
in each Teaching Card are specific lesson objectives and goals with suggested scripts teachers
can use to directly explain these concepts and model strategies.
During Lesson 1, deep instruction occurs in which explicit instruction strategies are used during
core instruction in all five pillars (see Program Overview, pp. 22-25). During Phonemic
Awareness and Phonics instruction, teachers model specific skills being addressed and provide
students with the opportunity to apply similar skills. Core instruction for vocabulary occurs when
teachers present new words to be learned, define and explain this new vocabulary, and provide
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visual examples of said words for richer vocabulary comprehension. After presenting these
skills, teachers provide specific examples of how to use comprehension strategies using the
Leveled Readers. Demonstrating these comprehension strategies, teachers use a Breaking it
Down! explicit instruction strategy in which teachers model the strategy then demonstrate how
they use the strategy by (1) identifying how to use the strategy, (2) using the strategy, and then
(3) applying the strategy for further comprehension of the text (see Program Overview, p. 25).
For instances of Explicit Instruction in Rigby Intervention by Design see the following
examples:
Explicit Instruction
Phonemic Awareness
Phonics
Vocabulary
Comprehension Strategies
Fluency
Primary Kit
Teaching Card 16
I Saw a Mole (p. 2)
Teaching Card 44
Party Hats (p. 3)
Teaching Card 80
My Zoo Album (p. 3)
Teaching Card 61
Time for play (p. 5)
Teaching Card 93
Feeding the lambs (p. 6)
Intermediate Kit
Teaching Card 15
Don’t Get Lost (p. 2)
Teaching Card 65
Natural Partners (p. 3)
Teaching Card 93
Nico’s List (p. 3)
Teaching Card 56
Families Get Together (p. 5)
Teaching Card 85
Dirt on My Shoe (p. 6)
Excerpts from the Research
Scaffolding
“Furthermore, the finding that the teachers of the two classes that demonstrated greater reading
comprehension gains implemented a greater number and variety of scaffolds during the lessons
aligns with other research demonstrating that this is a characteristic of effective
teachers . . . ” (Lutz, Guthrie, & Davis, 2006, p. 33 )
“When a text is immediately accessible to students, students comprehend equally well given
open and directed text mediation. However, when a text is more challenging, students’
comprehension and attitudes toward the literature and instruction benefit from increased text
mediation.” (Clark & Graves, 2008, p. 27)
“Results showed that children in the books with oral reading and comprehension scaffolding
condition scored significantly higher on the ITBS posttest than children in the control condition.
In addition, children in the two scaffolding conditions combined scored higher on the ITBS
posttest than children in the control and books only conditions combined.” (Kim & White, 2008,
p. 310)
“The students’ engagement in complex processes is made possible by providing them with a
variety of supports [e.g., well-structured assignments, models and examples, strategic sequencing
of activities, peer-response groups] and gradually withdrawing the supports as students appear to
become more fluent in their use.” (Hillocks, 1993, p. 255)
Intervention by Design
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Research Base
From Research to Practice
An instructional model that provides scaffolding to students includes the following features:
logical structure, selection and sequencing of models and examples to reveal essential
characteristics, progression from easier to more difficult content and from easier to more difficult
tasks, additional information/elaboration as needed, peer-mediated instruction, and materials that
guide students, such as key words, think sheets, and graphic organizers. The final feature of
scaffolding is independence—scaffolding is removed and students apply what they have learned
in a new situation.
In Rigby Intervention by Design, reading comprehension strategies are taught using a gradual
release model. During Lesson 1, teachers first model the strategy so students can witness how to
apply the strategy while reading a text. After modeling the strategy, teachers explicitly describe
the process involved in identifying the strategy, using the strategy, and finally applying the
strategy (see Program Overview, p. 24). By having teachers systematically model and then teach
the strategy, students become more familiar with the strategy and have multiple opportunities to
understand how to utilize the strategy when reading a text. The teacher begins to have students
display understanding of the strategy by completing Graphic Organizers for Comprehension
Strategies. These worksheets offer a visual display that aids students in learning how to apply
comprehension strategies (see Program Overview, pp. 56-67). Having students complete these
graphic organizers allows students to identify how to use comprehension strategies while
allowing teachers to guide use of the strategy. Once the class has worked together to complete
these organizers, students are asked to complete similar graphic organizers using the
comprehension strategy on their own.
For examples of scaffolding in Rigby Intervention by Design see the following examples:
Comprehension Strategy
Make Connections
Infer
Synthesize
Ask Questions
Determine Importance
Monitor Understanding
Primary Kit
Comprehension Bridge for
Intervention (p. K-9)
Comprehension Bridge for
Intervention (p. 1-6)
Comprehension Bridge for
Intervention (p. 1-13)
Comprehension Bridge for
Intervention (p. 2-3)
Comprehension Bridge for
Intervention (p. K-10)
Comprehension Bridge for
Intervention (p. 2-8)
Intermediate Kit
Comprehension Bridge for
Intervention (p. 3-9)
Comprehension Bridge for
Intervention (p. 5-2)
Comprehension Bridge for
Intervention (p. 5-14)
Comprehension Bridge for
Intervention (p. 4-8)
Comprehension Bridge for
Intervention (p. 3-16)
Comprehension Bridge for
Intervention (p. 4-7)
Excerpts from the Research
Modeling
“Students with LD [learning disabilities], however, often need explicit teaching of both
prerequisite skills and the key concepts of content areas. Explicit teaching – clear teaching of
Intervention by Design
15
Research Base
important skills, information and appropriate strategies – involves showing, telling, using thinkaloud protocols and self talk, as well as modeling and demonstrating by both teacher and peers
so that a systematic and structured approach to teaching the desired content leads students toward
mastery and success.” (Graham, Pegg, & Alder, 2007, p. 223)
“The research on comprehension strategy teaching provides powerful evidence that most
struggling readers (and many not-so-struggling readers) benefit enormously when we can
construct lessons that help make the comprehension processes visible . . . students need
demonstrations of effective strategy
use . . .” (Allington, 2001, p. 98)
“Teachers should also demonstrate how to apply each strategy successfully—what it is, how it is
carried out, and when and why it should be used . . . Instead of just talking about a strategy,
teachers need to illustrate the processes they use by thinking aloud, or modeling mental processes,
while they read.” (Fielding & Pearson, 1994, p. 65)
From Research to Practice
Students benefit from seeing and studying models of the product, behavior, or process they are
trying to emulate. Effective teachers model and explain effective reading behaviors and
processes (strategies), in addition to providing models of desired products. Rigby Intervention by
Design provides teachers with suggestions and scripts for modeling effective processes and gives
students countless opportunities to see effective reading strategies as well as to see products
demonstrated and modeled.
For instances of modeling in Rigby Intervention by Design, see the following examples:
Comprehension Strategy
Make Connections
Infer
Synthesize
Ask Questions
Determine Importance
Monitor Understanding
Intervention by Design
Primary Kit
Teaching Card 80
My Zoo Album (p. 5)
Teaching Card 71
Animals on Our Farm (p. 5)
Teaching Card 74
The beach house (p. 5)
Teaching Card 49
My Tower (p. 5)
Teaching Card 103
Taking Care of Ourselves (p. 5)
Teaching Card 49
Let’s pretend (p. 5)
Intermediate Kit
Teaching Card 24
At the Store (p. 5)
Teaching Card 83
Clothes Then and Now (p. 5)
Teaching Card 78
Vega Bay (p. 5)
Teaching Card 42
Skeletons (p. 5)
Teaching Card 33
Ice on Earth (p. 5)
Teaching Card 25
Animal Groups (p. 5)
16
Research Base
Excerpts from the Research
Multiple Exposures
“The review of previous material helps prepare students for new learning and creates an initial
sense of self-efficacy for learning. Students are apt to believe that if they understand prerequisite
material, they will be able to learn the new material. Presenting new material, especially in small
steps, allows them to be successful, and successful performances constitute an important means
for sustaining student motivation . . . ” (Schunk, Pintrich, & Meece, 2008, p. 305)
“Results of this investigation showed transitional readers’ rate, accuracy, comprehension, and
prosodic reading (reading in meaningful phrases) with practiced and unpracticed passages were
significantly improved by repeated reading regardless of the training procedure employed . . .
The major conclusion of this study was that repeated reading ‘worked.’ Students learned to read
a passage faster, more accurately, and with more understanding . . . ” (Dowhower, 1987, p. 402)
From Research to Practice
As noted above, the final feature in an effectively scaffolded curriculum is that the students are
able to apply what they have learned independently in new situations or contexts. Repeated
opportunities to practice skills and engage with content ensure that students master and retain
what they have learned. For students in need of intervention, it is essential that the focus of the
intervention aligns with the goals for instruction and provide students with repeated opportunities
to develop skills that align with grade-specific classroom expectations.
Rigby Intervention by Design provides these multiple exposures to skills and content as students
return to skills and reading comprehension over the course of two lessons. During Lesson 1,
teachers provide deep instruction as teachers provide explicit instruction in all five pillars of
reading literacy (See Program Overview, pp. 22-25). During this lesson, students have the
opportunity to begin applying these skills in guided activities as students begin to offer their own
examples and relate skills and strategies to their own personal experiences. In Lesson 2, deep
practice takes place in which the skills and strategies introduced in the first lesson are revisited as
students take more ownership in using the strategies in their own work (see Program Overview,
pp. 26-29). Students encounter unique learning experiences during Lesson 2 where students
complete hands-on activities utilizing the skills and strategies in new meaningful learning
opportunities. These learning experiences provide additional exposure and use of strategies in a
cooperative and supportive environment; students work together and with the teacher to
complete exercises and demonstrate mastery of all literacy skills.
Excerpts from the Research
Graphic Organizers
“Graphic organizers can:
• help students focus on text structure as they read;
• provide students with tools they can use to examine and visually represent relationships in a
text; and
• help students write well-organized summaries of a text.”
Intervention by Design
17
Research Base
(Center for the Improvement of Early Reading, 2003, p. 51)
“Previous research studies examining the effects of graphic organizers on reading
comprehension for students with learning disabilities (LD) are
reviewed . . . Using graphic organizers (i.e., semantic organizers, framed outlines, cognitive
maps with and without a mnemonic) was associated with improved reading comprehension
overall for students with LD.” (Kim, Vaughn, Wanzek, & Wei, 2004, p. 105)
“The main effect of graphic organizers appears to be on the improvement of the reader’s memory
for the content that has been read. . . . Teaching students to organize the ideas that they are
reading about in a systematic, visual graph benefits the ability of the students to remember what
they
read . . . ”(National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, 2000,
p. 4-45)
From Research to Practice
Another effective instructional approach is the use of graphic organizers and visuals as a
teaching aid. Information is often presented to students visually, through the illustrations in
stories that they read and through the maps, charts, and time lines in informational texts that they
read. These, and other graphic organizers, assist students in understanding content by combining
words and images to show the relationships between and among ideas. Research suggests that
graphic organizers are effective in helping students understand and make connections between
ideas. Rigby Intervention by Design incorporates graphic organizers in a scaffolded process that
provides students with visual models they can use to later apply strategies on their own (see
Program Overview, p. 27).
For examples of how graphic organizers are used in Rigby Intervention by Design, see the
following pages:
Comprehension Strategy
Make Connections
Infer
Synthesize
Ask Questions
Determine Importance
Monitor Understanding
Intervention by Design
Primary Kit
Comprehension Bridge for
Intervention (p. 2-1)
Comprehension Bridge for
Intervention (p. K-11)
Comprehension Bridge for
Intervention (p. 1-5)
Comprehension Bridge for
Intervention (p. 2-3)
Comprehension Bridge for
Intervention (p. 1-4)
Comprehension Bridge for
Intervention (p. K-8)
Intermediate Kit
Comprehension Bridge for
Intervention (p. 4-9)
Comprehension Bridge for
Intervention (p. 3-3)
Comprehension Bridge for
Intervention (p. 3-12)
Comprehension Bridge for
Intervention (p. 5-3).
Comprehension Bridge for
Intervention (p. 4-10)
Comprehension Bridge for
Intervention (p. 5-13)
18
Research Base
Excerpts from the Research
Predictable Routines
“Children develop a sense of security when the events of the school day revolve around a
sequence of anticipated activities . . . There are any number of ways to organize the activities and
instruction of the school day. However, it is important that children experience a variety of
interactive settings in the whole class, in small groups, and [as] individuals each day. Groups
should be flexible, meet the needs of the students, and involve the ‘best practices’ of literacy
instruction.” (Reutzel, 2003, p. 258)
“Routines and arrangements, then, are things that the teacher does to make it more likely that the
rules can and will be followed. We can think of these teacher-based pieces as the structures of
effective instruction (grouping, curricula, interaction, etc.). When considered as instruction,
consistency is a crucial component.” (Scott, Park, Swain-Bradway, & Landers, 2007, p. 227)
Intervention by Design
19
Research Base
From Research to Practice
Providing predictable routines for students sets the stage for increased learning and achievement.
Students behave better, and therefore learn better, when they can predict the instructional
routines in a classroom. Rigby Intervention by Design provides suggestions for creating
predictable instructional routines. Predictability in the classroom facilitates learning for all
students. Although lessons include new skills and comprehension strategies, each lesson
proceeds in a structured manner that allows students to anticipate learning experiences. Each
lesson begins by first engaging in phonemic awareness and phonics instruction (see Program
Overview, pp. 22, 26, 30-31) during which students are introduced to the Leveled Reader.
These engaging exercises ease students into systematic instruction which builds on their prior
knowledge from previous lessons to provide a comfortable learning environment. Students
proceed from phonics instruction to vocabulary development and then reading comprehension
and fluency practice in a knowledgeable sequence that allows students to use skills acquired
earlier in the lesson to exercises and activities completed later in each lesson (see Program
Overview, pp. 24 -25). The predictable pace and structure of each lesson in Rigby Intervention
by Design makes students struggling with reading literacy comfortable as they build confidence
and strengthen their reading ability in a knowable sequence.
Excerpts from the Research
Collaborative Learning
“Cooperative learning methods are instructional techniques in which students work in small
groups to help one another master academic content or carry out group projects . . . Motivational
theories emphasize the idea that in groups working toward a common goal, students support one
another’s academic efforts, because each group member’s success helps the group to succeed.
Cognitive theories emphasize opportunities for collaborating students to model higher order
solutions for one another, and to provide immediate, context-appropriate explanations and
feedback to one another.” (Slavin, 2002, p. 115)
“Over 323 studies have been conducted over the past 90 years comparing the relative impact of
cooperative, competitive, and individualistic learning situations on achievement. On the basis of
this research, it may be concluded that generally achievement is higher in cooperative situations
than in competitive or individualistic ones and that cooperative efforts result in more frequent
use of higher-level reasoning strategies, more frequent process gain and collective induction, and
higher performance on subsequent tests taken individually . . . ” (Johnson & Johnson, 1990, p.
33)
“Having peers instruct or interact over the use of reading strategies leads to an increase in the
learning of strategies, promotes intellectual discussion, and increases reading comprehension.”
(National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, Report of the National Reading
Panel, 2000, p. 45)
From Research to Practice
Effective instruction involves a combination of whole group, small group, and independent
activities. Research attests to the benefits of having students learn together in collaborative and
Intervention by Design
20
Research Base
cooperative groups. Students who participate in flexible groups in which they depend on their
group members and feel accountable to the group’s performance appear to learn more
effectively. Students using Rigby Intervention by Design engage in multiple collaborative
learning experiences with the teacher and one another. During phonics instruction, students have
the opportunity to interact with the teacher during Discuss and Share exercises in which students
describe to the teacher and the entire class answers to worksheets and activities completed alone
(see Program Overview, p. 26). Discuss and Share learning exercises can also occur during
vocabulary instruction as students again describe answers to vocabulary assessments in front of
their fellow students (see Program Overview, p. 27). Further collaborative learning occurs in
Rigby Intervention by Design as students work together during Turn and Talks—students
interact in pairs to learn how to apply reading comprehension strategies (See Program Overview,
p. 24). These Turn and Talks provide the opportunity for students with different backgrounds to
interact with each other as they learn to use their own personal experiences to further their
understanding of a text. Students also work together to improve their reading fluency with
Partner Practice in which students read to each other and model fluency skills (see Program
Overview, p. 25). These built-in practice sessions give students additional fluency practice, also
allowing them to learn from each other in a non-threatening manner.
Excerpts from the Research
Engaged Learning
“The suggestion is that teachers organize their classrooms to allow students to experience agency
in their own learning, often by providing them with some choice and control, as well as tasks that
require them to be active rather than passive learners.” (Schunk, Pintrich, & Meece, 2008, p.
327)
“The results of these two studies show that providing students with a goal of learning to solve
problems enhances their self-efficacy, skill, motivation, and task goal orientation and that these
achievement outcomes are also promoted by allowing students to valuate their performance
capabilities or progress in skill acquisition.” (Schunk, 1996, p. 377)
“Reading motivation is context-sensitive, and intrinsic motivation is likely to increase when the
classroom context is providing support for children’s choices, collaborations, interaction with
challenging texts, and hands-on activities connected to literacy (Guthrie & Humenick, 2004).”
(Guthrie, Hoa, Wigfield, Tonks, & Perencevich, 2006, p. 19)
From Research to Practice
Instruction that involves students as active participants, rather than as passive recipients of
knowledge, encourages greater involvement and retention of skills and knowledge. Research in
cognition and the human brain supports the value of active learning—students learn best when
they make connections between ideas and apply those ideas to real situations. Taking part in
active conversations about new learning forces students to articulate and evaluate their ideas and
responses to information.
The Rigby Intervention by Design program fosters engaged learning by incorporating many
active exercises and personally relevant activities that encourage deep processing and
Intervention by Design
21
Research Base
understanding of skills and strategies. Students use Hands-On Phonics instruction during Lesson
1 in which students manipulate Letter Tiles while they practice pronouncing phrases and words
(see Program Overview, p. 22). Having students use auditory and kinesthetic channels gives
students multiple opportunities to encode and process the skills being learned in an active
manner. Teachers using Rigby Intervention by Design regularly prompt students to relate
concepts and strategies being taught to their own personal experiences. During vocabulary
instruction students have the option of processing new vocabulary by Using Words in Context—
working as a class to understand new vocabulary by relating the words to familiar questions and
prompts. These activities provide additional opportunities to encode vocabulary into their own
schemas (see Program Overview, p. 23). Repeated Turn and Talks are active exercises in which
students share their own knowledge and application of reading strategies in pairs (see Program
Overview, p. 23 & 24). Making multiple connections to their own experiences and the
experiences of their partners, Turn and Talks provide multiple encounters with reading strategies
and ample opportunity for students to connect learning strategies and skills in each lesson and
across all lessons.
Intervention by Design
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Research Base
What Does Scientifically Based Research Tell Us About
Using Engaging Texts?
Defining the Strand
Using Engaging Texts
To motivate students who have fallen behind in their literacy skills, the use of engaging,
appropriate texts is essential. Texts that are too difficult will prove frustrating; texts that are
inappropriate or uninteresting for students will disengage them from the comprehension process.
An effective instructional program will match readers to engaging and age-appropriate texts that
are written at the appropriate level for challenge without frustration. In addition, an effective
program will provide a wide variety of genres of texts to broaden students’ abilities to enjoy,
comprehend, and respond to both fictional and nonfictional texts.
Excerpts from the Research
Leveled Texts
“Data from the current study provide preliminary evidence that students’ instructional levels be
identified and targeted for reading activities in school . . . they do suggest that matching
curricular materials and student skill could improve short-term student outcomes.” (Treptow,
Burns, & McComas, 2007, p. 165)
“ . . . the findings of this study suggest that texts that have been crafted to incorporate multiple
text- and word-level scaffolds can support the transition into independent word solving and
passage reading, especially for children who are challenged in learning to read.” (Menon &
Hiebert , 2005, p.37)
“[I]t seems prudent to follow the consensus of professional opinion that books for early reading
instruction should be leveled, and leveled along the curricular dimensions of the instructional
emphasis the books are expected to support.” (Cunningham, Spadorcia, Erickson, Koppenhaver,
Sturm, & Yoder, 2005, p. 426)
Intervention by Design
23
Research Base
From Research to Practice
Leveled texts provide the scaffolding struggling readers need to achieve step-by-step success and
build their confidence. The texts used in Rigby Intervention by Design were leveled with
consideration for the needs of the types of learners for whom this program was developed. Books
included in the Primary Kit were designed for students at grades K-2 with Rigby READS
instructional reading Levels A-I and were selected from the regarded PM Series of books (see
Program Overview, pp.32-33). These texts were specifically chosen as they engage students and
focus on the development of basic reading skills. Included in the Intermediate Kit are a range of
books created for students at grades 3-5 reading at a Rigby READS instructional Levels D-P (see
Program Overview, pp. 34-35). Teachers have the ability to choose texts at the appropriate
instructional reading levels as students progress through Rigby Intervention by Design with the
understanding that students at all reading levels need to be challenged but do not want to be
overwhelmed with texts that are too difficult.
For Titles of Leveled Readers at varying instructional levels in Rigby Intervention by Design,
see the following examples:
Reading Level
Level A
Primary Kit
Book 40 Up in the Sky
Intermediate Kit
--
Level B
Book 44 Party Hats
--
Level C
Book 52 Let’s Pretend
--
Level D
Book 60 Speedy Bee
Book 26 Move It!
Level E
Book 65 Jumbo
Book 29 The Mess
Level F
Book 73 The Scary Masks
Book 39 Magic Tricks
Level G
Book 83 Houses and Homes
Book 47 Bertha
Level H
Book 93 Feeding the lambs
Book 55 The Game
Level I
Book 99 Swoop!
Book 65 Natural Partners
Level J
--
Book 72 Helping Out
Level K
--
Book 80 Animal Travelers
Level L
--
Book 91 Locust Plague
Level M
--
Book 93 Nico’s Lost
Level N
--
Book 101 Bruno’s Tea
Level O
--
Book 109 Danny’s Dream
Level P
--
Book 117 Not Again
Intervention by Design
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Research Base
Excerpts from the Research
High-Interest Books
“With respect to the relation between personal interest and text learning, 22 relevant studies were
identified. An average correlation of .27 (p < .01) between personal interest and text learning was
found. In addition, the findings suggested that the positive relation between interest and text
learning was independent of the following factors: text length, nature of text (narrative vs.
expository), method of learning text (e.g., recognition vs. recall), age (or grade level), reading
ability, prior knowledge, and text difficulty. That is to say, for example, that interest is
significantly related to learning for both short and long text, narratives and expository text,
younger and older students, and students with high or low reading ability.” (Schiefele, 1999, p.
265)
“For interest, it was quite apparent from students’ responses that interest and positive affect for
reading invariably were associated with high cognitive recall and comprehension of text. Thus,
when students were interested they were highly cognitively engaged . . . ” (Guthrie, Hoa,
Wigfield, Tonks, Humenick, & Littles, p. 306)
“Properties of texts increase interest. When a topic is rated as interesting (Schiefele, 1999), when
the format is appealing to students (Schraw, Bruning, & Svoboda, 1995), and when materials are
relevant to students’ purpose in knowledge-development activities (Schraw & Dennison, 1994),
interest and motivation increase.” (Guthrie, Wigfield, Humenick, Perencevich, Taboada, &
Barbosa, 2006, p. 233)
“The text you choose, then, must engage readers and at the same time provide opportunities to
extend their reading ability. You must simultaneously consider:
• Readers’ present strategies.
• Readers’ interests and background knowledge.
• Text complexity in relation to readers’ current skills.
• The language of the text in relation to readers’ experience.
• The content of the text in relation to readers’ background knowledge.
• The representation of gender, racial, ethnic, and socioeconomic groups in positive ways . . . ”
(Fountas & Pinnell, 2001, p. 223)
From Research to Practice
Struggling and reluctant readers need texts that engage their interest and motivate them to
continue. Fiction with interesting characters, exciting plots, and familiar themes will engage
these readers, as will well-written nonfiction texts on topics of interest to students. Rigby
Intervention by Design provides students with texts that are written at their reading level and on
topics and themes that are engaging for students at these grade levels.
For examples of how the Rigby Intervention by Design program provides high-interest books to
students, see the following:
High-Interest Topics
Intervention by Design
Primary Kit
Intermediate Kit
25
Research Base
Adventure Stories
Foreign Lands
Animals
Sports
Natural Wonders
Intervention by Design
The Secret Cave
Book 100
Going on Vacation
Book 35
Big and Little
Book 42
The big hit
Book 58
Stars in the Sky
Book 96
Buzz and Zip Get Lost
Book 46
Food from the World
Book 28
Animal Travelers
Book 80
Energy in Sports
Book 57
Caves
Book 27
26
Research Base
Excerpts from the Research
Fiction and Nonfiction/Content-Area Texts
“The findings of these studies suggest that young children can learn about and from expository
text and that exposure to expository text results in fast-developing knowledge of expository text
structure and book language. In addition, it appears that inclusion of such texts in literature-based
instruction may be well-advised.” (Morrow & Gambrell, 2003, p. 354)
“The use of texts on multiple levels and of different genres can allow all students to do the
engaged reading our principles call for. If multiple texts are used, students need to be supported
in learning how to read across multiple texts.” (Ogle & Blachowicz, 2002, p. 270)
“Because the structures found in content-area textbooks differ substantially from those in
narrative texts, strategies students may have learned to implement with narrative prose do not
necessarily transfer. For numerous reasons, expository text structures are more challenging for
students than narrative structures . . . Williams (2005) conducted a series of intervention studies
and concluded that at-risk children . . . can achieve gains in comprehension, including the ability
to transfer what they have learned to novel texts, when they are given highly structured and
explicit instruction that focuses on text structure.” (Klingner, Vaughn, & Boardman, 2007, pp.
87-88)
RIGBY INTERVENTION BY DESIGN FROM RESEARCH TO PRACTICE
Research suggests that the approaches students take to reading and comprehending fiction and
nonfiction texts differ and that students need experiences with and instruction in reading both
kinds of texts. A majority of reading that students will do in school in the upper grades and in the
world of work is nonfiction. In an effective literacy program, students need exposure to both
high-quality fiction and well-written nonfiction texts.
For examples of how Rigby Intervention by Design provides access to both fiction and
nonfiction texts, see the following:
Text Genre
Narrative Nonfiction
Expository Text
Realistic Fiction
Fantasy
Personal Experiences
Intervention by Design
Primary Kit
My Little Cat
Book 41
What Is It Made of?
Book 64
Bedtime
Book 51
Two little ducks get lost
Book 76
In our Classroom
Book 33
Intermediate Kit
I Remember When…
Book 36
Wind Power
Book 89
The Bully
Book 77
The Golden Touch
Book 61
Who are You?
Book 34
27
Research Base
What Does Scientifically Based Research Tell Us About
Meeting the Needs of All Students?
Defining the Strand
Meeting the Needs of All Students
Effective reading and language arts instruction successfully meets the needs of students with a
wide range of ability levels, backgrounds, and learning styles. Effective instruction will
differentiate to provide targeted, individualized instruction to meet students’ unique situations
and abilities. Effective curricular programs for intensive intervention will address the needs of
students who are native speakers struggling with reading and writing, as well those who are
English language learners. The No Child Left Behind Act is inclusive—Schools must reach all
learners and meet their learning needs.
Excerpts from the Research
Differentiated Instruction
“Differentiation seems a common-sense approach to addressing the needs of a wide variety of
learners, promoting equity and excellence and focusing on best-practice instruction in mixedability classrooms. This makes more sense than the timeworn method of aiming for students in
the middle and hoping for the best on those on the upper and lower extremes.” (Tomlinson,
2000, p. 5)
“[S]tudents not only have strengths in different types of intelligences, but they also vary in . . .
interest and learning profiles. Therefore, students should not be expected to learn using the same
content, processes, and products. Students in a mixed-ability classroom need opportunities to
work on different tasks rather than simply performing the same task at different levels.
Differentiated instruction includes different learning products to fit individual needs.”
(Baumgartner, Lipowski, & Christy, 2003, p. 18)
“Teacher responsiveness to individual student levels of readiness, interest, and learning profiles
mandates the use of a differentiated model of instruction.” (Kapusnick & Hauslein, 2001, p. 156)
Intervention by Design
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Research Base
From Research to Practice
Heterogenous classrooms contain students representing many different populations—including
struggling students, unmotivated students, students whose strength or preference is a particular
modality or intelligence, English-language learners, and students with a variety of learning
disabilities. Differentiating instruction for such a range of abilities and interests is complex and
can be extremely difficult. Rigby Intervention by Design can help teachers meet this challenge
effectively through the use of materials and technology specifically designed for individualized
differentiation (see Program Overview, pp. 6-7). The Rigby READs diagnostic assessments give
teachers the ability to assess students’ strengths and development areas in all five pillars of
reading literacy (see Program Overview, p. 20). Teachers use Student Reports to create
customized reading programs for each student to maximize students’ learning experiences.
Classroom Reports also generated by Rigby READs give teachers the ability to group students
with similar development areas in the same lesson to maximize classroom time (see Program
Overview,
p. 21).
Multiple instructional tools included in Rigby Intervention by Design give teachers the ability to
create customized lessons for all students. The multiple Leveled Readers and Teaching Cards
allow teachers to create a set of lessons that target students’ needs and provide flexibility so
teachers can move fluidly from lesson to lesson (see Program Overview, p. 16). Further
differentiation in Rigby Intervention by Design is made possible within each Teaching Card as
optional instruction time is allocated to phonics, vocabulary development, comprehension
strategies, and fluency. Teachers can assess students’ progress using additional formative
assessments included in the Teaching Cards (see Program Overview, p. 39). These assessments
guide instruction so teachers can choose to spend additional classroom time targeting specific
skills from these optional levels to assist students who are struggling to understand the skills and
concepts being taught. Rigby Intervention by Design was created to allow ultimate
differentiation; the program offers multiple pacing options to meet the needs of all students (see
Program Overview, pp. 42-43).
The Data Management Tools provided in Rigby Intervention by Design make differentiation
easy for teachers. Evaluation Reports generated by the program track students progress
indicating areas in which students are succeeding and identifying development areas (see
Program Overview, p. 41). By evaluating previous assessments, the Data Management Tool
makes it easy for teachers to recognize students’ strengths and problem areas and customize
future lessons to ensure students are receiving the appropriate instruction in all five pillars.
Excerpts from the Research
Struggling Readers
“Many students [who are struggling readers] only develop the strategies they need with much
instructional support. Traditional ‘assign and assess’ lessons (Read the chapter and answer the
questions at the end.) offer little useful assistance for these students. Instead of assign and assess
lessons these students need demonstrations of effective strategy use and lots of opportunities to
apply the demonstrated strategy over time.” (Allington, 2001, p. 98)
Intervention by Design
29
Research Base
“For struggling readers, diversity in instruction is essential. One reason is that these children are
not a homogenous population; they differ greatly in their needs and responses to reading
instruction of various sorts. Some need and benefit from traditional phonics. Some need and
benefit from a different form of word-recognition instruction. Some will only learn to read words
through instruction emphasizing sight words.” (Pressley, Gaskins, & Fingeret, 2006, p. 49)
From Research to Practice
Any reader can struggle with a particular text that is too complex or contains unknown
vocabulary. The struggling readers we worry about, however, are the ones who struggle with
almost any text, who lack strategies to use to help them make sense of the text. We sometimes
call these readers “dependent readers” because they lack the cognitive ability to read
independently, are not motivated by the text or by reading, do not know that they might enjoy
reading, and lack the ability or stamina to stick with reading that is difficult for them.
Rigby Intervention by Design was created to meet the targeted needs of these students. The
Leveled Readers used in the program were carefully chosen and matched to specific reading
levels so teachers could prepare detailed lessons for students at all reading levels (see Program
Overview, pp. 32-35). For all texts, each lesson is designed to aid struggling readers in all five
pillars of reading literacy. Prior to reading texts, teachers introduce unfamiliar vocabulary to
students to make them more comfortable with the text (see Program Overview, p. 22). In Rigby
Intervention by Design struggling readers are given explicit instruction in nine reading
comprehension strategies including many subskills and concepts essential for fluent reading and
understanding of written texts (See Program Overview, pp. 48-49). Teachers preview texts with
students as they get acquainted to the content of the text and then model effective reading
strategies providing students with specific examples of how to utilize these comprehension
strategies (see Program Overview, p. 24). Students are given a wealth of opportunities to practice
and apply the strategies over the course of two lessons as teachers first model strategies and then
use a gradual release model to provide students with multiple chances to apply strategies (see
Program Overview, pp. 22-28). Multiple assessments are also woven into the program allowing
students additional practice for particular reading skills including phonics, vocabulary, and
reading comprehension (see Program Overview, pp. 29, 39)
Excerpts from the Research
English Language Learners (ELL)
“The most promising instructional practices for language-minority students bear out this point:
Literacy programs that provide instructional support of oral language development in English,
aligned with high-quality literacy instruction, are the most successful.” (August & Shanahan,
2006, p. 4)
“Research indicates that the five core areas of instruction to promote reading development of
native English speakers, namely phonemic awareness, phonics, fluency, vocabulary, and
comprehension, similarly apply to reading instruction for ELLs [English Language Learners].
The first two areas are critical during the earliest stages of reading development. However, the
latter three are critical during all stages of reading development, and are especially important
Intervention by Design
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Research Base
during skilled reading and when students are expected to read to learn.” (Francis, Rivera, Lesaux,
Kieffer, & Rivera, 2006a, p. 15)
According to Vaughn, Mathes, Linan-Thompson, & Francis (2005), response to intervention
programs need to be altered to meet the needs of English Language Learners [ELL] with reading
difficulties. In a series of studies, these researchers identified multiple reading intervention
instructional components that lead to greater student achievement including word study and
phonics instruction. Further, their research indicated that response for intervention that
concentrates on word reading and comprehension strategies was also the most successful.
“In summary, ELL children from middle-class backgrounds showed similar growth and
achievement as native English speakers in word reading and phonological processing. ELL
children also tended to use the same strategies to decode unfamiliar words . . . Furthermore, the
same underlying skills and reading strategies were strongly related to reading acquisition in
English for children from both language groups.” (Chiappe & Siegel, 2006, p. 150)
From Research to Practice
Meeting the needs of English language learners in our classrooms is necessary in our global age.
Providing effective instruction in English while also continuing learning across the content areas
requires balance and focus. Rigby Intervention by Design concentrates on all five pillars of
reading instruction as research has demonstrated that ELLs need explicit instruction in all these
pillars—teacher’s model skills and strategies providing all students with tangible examples so
they can attain the necessary knowledge and understanding to become fluent readers. There are
multiple opportunities in Rigby Intervention by Design for teachers to guide student learning
and provide immediate feedback so ELLs receive the scaffolded instruction necessary for quick
assimilation of new skills and strategies. The differentiated instruction (see Program Overview,
p. 22-29) of the program allows teachers to meet the unique needs of each ELL student as these
students are not a heterogeneous population; teachers can alter lesson plans and spend additional
time on particular skills with ELLs when necessary.
Rigby Intervention by Design helps teachers reach English language learners (ELLs) with
targeted interventions through a variety of approaches. Understanding that ELLs need instruction
rich in phonemic awareness and oral language skills, Rigby Intervention by Design intently
focuses on developing language skills early in the program (see Program Overview, pp. 30-31).
Students watch teachers model phonics skills and listen to fluent readers recite basic texts using
Chants. Students then have the ability to repeat phonics skills and use multiple modalities
including visual aids, like the Phonemic Awareness Chart. The intent focuses on vocabulary
development, and word study is emphasized across both lessons as teachers use explicit teaching
strategies to communicate new vocabulary words to all students. During vocabulary instruction
teachers are provided with vocabulary instruction rubrics tailored for ELL students (see Program
Overview, p. 23). Teachers introduce new vocabulary words to ELLs during a Guided Preview
and are given prompts and examples they can use to help these students understand new
vocabulary and other unfamiliar terms.
The Leveled Readers included in Rigby Intervention by Design were carefully chosen to cover
topics and themes that appeal to students of all backgrounds. These colorful, high-interest texts
Intervention by Design
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Research Base
make reading more accessible for ELLs and engage students who may find it difficult to adapt to
an unfamiliar classroom environment and culture (see Program Overview, pp. 32-35). The
program incorporates multiple Leveled Readers at various instructional reading levels providing
extended practice and reading repetition, a hallmark of quality intervention instruction for ELLs.
Further support is available to ELLs as teachers can assign additional formal assessments found
at the end of Teaching Cards, to assess student progress and pinpoint areas in which students
need additional support (see Program Overview, p. 29).
Intervention by Design
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Research Base
What Does Scientifically Based Research Tell Us About
Assessment?
Defining the Strand
Assessment
The No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 has affected schools around the country. The federal
government has asked schools to report their success in terms of what each student achieves and
to use the knowledge gained from assessments “to craft lessons to make sure each student meets
or exceeds the standards.” (US Department of Education, Introduction: No Child Left Behind)
Research has shown that students’ achievement improves when they are assessed regularly and
the instruction they receive has been modified as a result to meet their specific individual needs.
The use of assessment information to drive instruction has been shown to have significant
positive effects on learning as it enables educators to focus instruction for intervention on
students’ targeted needs.
Excerpts from the Research
Diagnostic Assessment
“Diagnostic assessments help teachers plan instruction by providing in-depth information about
students’ skills and instructional needs. Unlike screening and progress monitoring, assessments
used for diagnostic purposes must do more than identify students who are at risk or who are not
making expected progress. Diagnostic assessments must measure a variety of literacy component
skills or abilities and must be directly useful in designing or planning subsequent instruction.”
(Coyne & Harn, 2006, p. 40)
“Consistent with the principle that new learning is shaped by prior knowledge and cultural
perspectives, classroom practices should include assessment of students’ relevant knowledge and
experience not only to inform teaching but also to draw students into the habit of reflecting on
their own knowledge resources.” (Shepard, 2001, p. 1091)
“Assessment and diagnosis of children with reading comprehension problems is the third
purpose . . . Assessment for this purpose often looks at a student’s reading performance from a
componential perspective. That is, in addition to a student’s performance on measures of oral or
silent reading comprehension, skills thought to underlie the ability to read are assessed. . . . The
Report of the National Reading Panel (2000) recommended that educators and clinicians assess
students’ alphabet knowledge, phonemic awareness skills, phonological processing, reading
vocabulary, and reading fluency.” (Snyder, Caccamise, & Wise, 2005, p. 37)
From Research to Practice
To provide differentiated instruction that is accurately matched with a student’s specific learning
needs, student knowledge and skills must be evaluated prior to instruction. A placement test or
diagnostic assessment can provide the information needed to ensure that instruction is targeted to
Intervention by Design
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Research Base
a student’s specific needs from day one. The Rigby Intervention by Design program provides a
diagnostic assessment for use with students at the start of the program; prior to entering the
program, students’ needs are assessed via the Rigby READs assessment. This assessment
identifies students’ current instructional reading levels and diagnoses students’ strengths and
development areas in the five pillars essential to reading literacy: phonemic awareness, phonics,
vocabulary, comprehension, and fluency. Student Intervention Reports summarize students’
current levels of understanding allowing teachers to customize instruction for every student
providing direct, specific intervention instruction to all students. For examples of how Rigby
Intervention by Design utilizes diagnostic assessments, see Program Overview pages 18-21.
For descriptions of the Rigby READs assessment, see the following:
Diagnostic Assessment
Primary Kit
Intermediate Kit
Reading Levels & Reading
Comprehension
Reads Teacher’s Manual
Grades 1, 2 (pp.9-19)
Reads Teacher’s Manuals
Grades 3, 4, 5 (pp.9-19)
Phonemic Awareness &
Phonics
Reads Teacher’s Manuals
Grades 1 ,2 (pp.20-25)
Reads Teacher’s Manuals
Grades 3, 4, 5 (pp.20-25)
Reads Teacher’s Manuals
Grades 1, 2 (pp.26-29)
Reads Teacher’s Manuals
Grades 1, 2 (pp.30-31)
Reads Teacher’s Manuals
Grades 3, 4, 5 (pp.26-29)
Reads Teacher’s Manuals
Grades 3, 4, 5 (pp.30-31)
Vocabulary
Fluency
Excerpts from the Research
Ongoing Assessment
“A key component within Response to Intervention (RtI) is the use of formative assessment.
Formative assessment refers to the collection of student performance data across time to inform
teaching and to allow teachers to alter instruction to improve learning. Formative assessment can
also be used to identify individuals in need of additional help and to pinpoint specific learning
gaps or deficits . . . The key to effectiveness of formative assessment is the degree to which
performance data are effectively linked to instructional changes in an iterative, continuous cycle
until learning is improved. Formative assessment data can ultimately be used to determine
whether a child’s RtI
was adequate. The use of formative assessment in and of itself has been shown to enhance
learning.” (Griffiths, Parson, Burns, VanDerHeyden, & Tilly, 2007,
p. 71)
“As instruction is occurring, teachers need information to evaluate whether their teaching
strategies are working. They also need information about the current understanding of individual
students and groups of students so they can identify the most appropriate next steps for
instruction. Moreover, students need feedback to monitor their own success in learning and to
know how to improve.” (National Research Council, 2001, pp. 225-226)
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Research Base
“For students who are successful at developing beginning reading skills, progress monitoring
assessments make certain that they are making anticipated gains; however, the progress of
students who are receiving intervention should be monitored more frequently (e.g., weekly).
“Teachers require ongoing feedback about these students’ progress because students need to
maintain a positive trajectory of growth to close the gap between their literacy skills and the
skills of their peers who are not at risk. Analyzing progress-monitoring data enables teachers to
be more responsive to student learning and to know when an instructional adjustment is
necessary so their instruction is more efficient and effective.” (Coyne & Harn, 2006, p. 38)
Intervention by Design
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Research Base
From Research to Practice
Assessment is not an end but rather a means to an end—improving instruction. Although largescale assessments provide some of the information needed to improve instruction, informal
assessments by teachers, diagnostic tests, ongoing assessments, and summative assessments
provide the detailed knowledge of student strengths and weaknesses needed to design
appropriate instruction. Effective assessment does not simply appear at the end of a unit of study
but continues throughout that unit, actively monitoring the student’s progress. Ongoing
assessment provides the student with feedback so that they can monitor their own success in
learning and know how to improve.
There are multiple informal and informal assessments incorporated into Rigby Intervention by
Design. Teaching Cards provide teachers with informal prompts that can be used to assess
students’ grasp of the skills being taught during each lesson. Scoring rubrics are also provided to
guide teachers’ instruction based on students’ current understanding (see Program Overview, p.
24-25). Comprehension Bridges also contain scripts for informal assessment to gauge students’
ability to understand and apply reading comprehension strategies. Scoring rubrics guide further
instruction to assist students who need additional support.
Formal assessments are included to regularly assess student progress in phonics, vocabulary
development, and reading comprehension (see Program Overview, pp. 38-39) for each Teaching
Card. Teachers have the flexibility to create and modify assessments using the Data
Management Tool. These detailed assessments allow teachers to target specific skills to
determine whether students need additional practice and instruction in one or all three pillars.
Additional formative assessments for optional instructional lessons are included in Teaching
Cards as practice worksheets (see Program Overview,
p. 29). These assessments give teachers immediate feedback regarding students’ understanding
of the additional lesson(s) and help teachers determine whether additional instruction in a
particular skill is required in future lessons.
Excerpts from the Research
Technology in Assessment
“Moreover, our study suggests that because educators had access to data and data analysis with
QSP [a web-based decision support tool], they were more motivated to use information about
their students and to provide interventions to meet the needs of at-risk students. . . . the results
from the study suggest that technology-supported data use has the potential to increase the
capacity of practitioners to use summative and formative assessments to identify needs and focus
instructional planning.” (Chen, Heritage, & Lee, 2005, p. 328)
“ . . . technology can facilitate the assessment of struggling readers. The portfolio serves as a
useful metaphor for describing possible applications, although electronic portfolios may
eventually bear little similarity to the print-based folders now constructed by many teachers. . . .
When sophisticated expert systems are used to interpret tracking data, useful profiles can be
generated on demand by teachers in the course of making instructional decisions . . . (McKenna,
Reinking, Labbo, & Kieffer, 1999, p. 120-121)
Intervention by Design
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Research Base
From Research to Practice
Classroom assessments are most useful when they align with curriculum and allow educators to
identify focused and specific areas of strength or for targeted instruction or intervention. The
ability to easily and quickly customize assessment to monitor student short-term and long-term
progress and determine placement is another strength of the Rigby Intervention by Design
program.
Once educators have administered customized assessments for students, the ability to quickly
and accurately record results and track student progress toward goals is essential for fully mining
that data for all of its educational possibilities (see Program Overview, pp. 38-41). The Data
Management Tools included in Rigby Intervention by Design provide quick and easy access to
student data. These powerful online tools enable teachers to create detailed Progress Reports
which track students’ skill development in all five pillars, as well as students’ current reading
level. By tracking students over time, these Progress Reports provide snapshots of student
progress and highlight development areas (see Program Overview, p. 40). Teachers also have the
ability to create Evaluation Reports for each student to evaluate current strengths and
development areas across previous assessments. Teachers can then use these Evaluation
Reports to target specific needs and include additional instruction and further assessment to
ensure students are improving in all reading literacy skills. The Data Management Tool
indicates current student levels and suggests areas in which students may proceed to new reading
levels and new areas of instruction on which the teacher should focus (see Program Overview, p.
41).
Intervention by Design
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Research Base
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