Electrical Energy in Africa: The Status of Interconnections
Famous O. Igbinovia and Prof. Ing. Josef Tlusty, CSc
Czech Technical University in Prague
Faculty of Electrical Engineering
Department of Electrical Power Engineering
Technicka 2, 166 27 Praha 6, Prague, Czech Republic.
(igbinfam@fel.cvut.cz, famousigbinovia@yahoo.co.uk) (tlusty@fel.cvut.cz)
Abstract:
Electrical grid interconnections that now exist as national, regional and transcontinental power
systems began many years ago as single systems. But as power systems expand, interconnections
among neighbouring systems became increasingly common. Today, advance countries are enjoying
the benefits of grid interconnectivity and African countries, blessed with enormous natural resources
should not be left out. This paper examines the evolution of interconnected power systems, and the
benefits of interconnected grid system. It highlights the status of regional electricity projects,
interconnections and the rate of electrification in the continent. Lastly, recommendations were made
on how to promote regional electrical energy projects and interconnections in Africa - the second
most populous and world’s second largest continent.
Keywords: Electrical Energy, Electrical Power systems, Regional Power Systems, Interconnected
Grid, Africa.
1. Introduction
Africa is the world's second largest continent. Covering an area of 11,668,599 sq miles. The continent
is bordered by the South Atlantic Ocean to the south west and the Mediterranean Sea to the north,
both the Suez Canal and the Red Sea along the Sinai Peninsula to the northeast, the Indian Ocean to
the east and southeast, and the Atlantic Ocean to the west. The African continent is famous for its
wildlife and rich natural resources. This bio-diverse land is home to the largest waterfall, desert, and
green canyon and longest river in the world. There are 54 countries and one “non-self governing
territory”, the Western Sahara, in Africa. The Western Sahara is a member state of the African Union
whose statehood is disputed by Morocco. South Sudan is the continent's newest country. Algeria is
the largest African country by land area, while Nigeria has the largest population (174 million) (Maps
of World. 2014; World Map. Africa (n.d); Thoughts of a Lapsed Physicist 2014). Africa Map is
shown in figure 1.
Africa is the second most populous continent with about 1.1 billion people or 16% of the world’s
population. The continent’s population will more than double to 2.3 billion people by 2050. Africa is
the world’s poorest and most underdeveloped continent with a continental Gross Domestic Product
(GDP) that accounts for just 2.4% of global GDP. Africa's GDP may drop to half its current value by
2040 due to the loss of energy supplies, as depicted in figure 2. Africa has approximately 30% of the
earth’s remaining mineral resources. The continent has the largest reserves of precious metals with
over 40% of the gold reserves, over 60% of the cobalt, and 90% of the platinum reserves. Over 1,270
large dams have been built along the continent’s many rivers. Africa has the most extensive biomass
burning in the world, yet only emits about 4% of the world’s total carbon dioxide emissions. (Boyes,
2013; Paul Chefurka, 2008).
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Figure 1; Africa Map (Maps of World, 2014).
Although the availability of natural resources is enviable, many African countries suffer from
famines, epidemics, civil wars and ethnic conflicts. Some nations have done well, but most others
remain extremely poor and some are even considered failed states. In Africa, power is inaccessible,
unaffordable, and unreliable for most people. This traps people in poverty – students find it difficult to
read after dark, clinics cannot refrigerate vaccines and businesses have shorter operating hours (Maps
of World, 2014; World Bank. Energy in Africa 2013). Africa is the warmest continent. The equator
runs through Africa about halfway between the northern-most and southern-most points. Over threequarters of Africa are in the tropics; only the upper part of the Sahara, the Mediterranean area, and the
southern tip of Africa, are outside of the tropics. Except for the peaks of high mountains, it never
freezes in these tropical regions. Because of being in the tropics, the snow line is much higher up than
it would be on a mountain of similar height in the temperate zone (Map of Africa n.d).
Africa is largely a continent of darkness by night (Felsenthal, 2013) as can be seen in the Composite
map of the world in figure 3. Shortage of electricity is a huge impediment to Africa’s development.
President Barack Obama, putting his mark on United States of America (U.S.A) aid to Africa,
announced a plan to boost access to electric power in the sub-Sahara and said America stands to
benefit if the continent reaches its full economic potential (Goldman et al, 2013). Indeed, the entire
2
human race stands to benefit. Hence, African leaders should come together and join Obama’s “Power
Africa” plan by looking at ways of possible interconnections of electricity network among her nations.
The African continent extends from about the Latitude 35 north of the equator to about the latitude 35
south of the equator. Whenever the electric power systems in Africa are interconnected, the resulting
system would enjoy the advantage of exchanging the winter season peak and the summer season peak
across the electricity networks. Africa also extends from east to west within four time zones, thus
would enjoy the diversity of the daily maximum demand whenever the power systems are
interconnected. (Abaza, 1994).
Figure 2: A graph of Africa's energy consumption and their resulting economic performance (Paul Chefurka 2008).
Figure 3; Composite Map of the World (Dunbar, 2013)
3
2. Evolution of Interconnected Electric Power Systems
Electric power systems have experienced continuous growth in all the three major sectors of the
power system namely, generation, transmission and distribution. Electricity cannot be stored
economically, but there has to be continuous balance between demand and supply (Kothari, 2012,).
Electrical grid is a network for delivering electricity (The Free Dictionary, 2014). Electricity grid
interconnections have played a key role in the history of electric power systems. Most national and
regional power systems that exist today began many decades ago as isolated systems, often as a single
generator in a large city. As power systems expanded out from their urban cores, interconnections
among neighbouring systems became increasingly common. Groups of utilities began to form power
pools, allowing them to trade electricity and share capacity reserves. As transmission technologies
improved, long distance interconnections developed, sometimes crossing national borders (Multi
Dimensional Issues in International Electric Power Grid Interconnections, n.d).
An interconnected electrical network is used for delivering electricity from suppliers to consumers. At
the beginning all electrical power stations were operated separately, supplying electrical energy only
to their own customers. But very soon the engineers realized that the integration of individual power
stations into an electrical power systems gives many advantages, technical (increase power supply
reliability) and economical (decrease costs of energy), and integration of systems became very rapid.
This was based on the progress in electric power transmission technology and parallel operation of
several power stations. For a successful power system transmission, it was very important to increase
the transmission voltage in gradual steps to a high value which now is at 750KV and more. This made
transcontinental power systems and long transmission lines possible (Danilevich Y. B et al, n.d).
One of the great engineering achievements of the last century has been the evolution of large
synchronous alternating current (AC) power grids, in which all the interconnected system maintain
the same precise electrical frequency. At the same time that synchronous AC networks have reached
the continental scale, the use of high voltage direct current (HVDC) interconnections is also rapidly
expanding as a result of technical progress over the last two decades. HVDC permits the
asynchronous interconnection of networks that operate at different frequencies, or are otherwise
incompatible, allowing them to exchange power without requiring the tight coordination of a
synchronous network (Multi Dimensional Issues in International Electric Power Grid
Interconnections, n.d).
3. Benefits of Interconnected Grid System
Interconnected grid systems has some limitations, these include; the problems of load and frequency
control, which are more difficult in large interconnected systems with many power stations scattered
over a wide area in comparison with a system having one or two generating stations (Sharma, 2011).
Interconnected power system, requires a high degree of technical compatibility and operational
coordination, which grows in cost, risks and complexity with the scale and inherent differences of the
systems involved. The difficulties of joint planning and operation of interconnected systems vary
widely as with marriages, from the institutional and administrative standpoint, coupled systems may
become a single entity, or they may keep entirely separate accounts. Institutional and administrative
features of power systems in different countries are likely to differ in many ways, and these
differences invariably affect the technical and operational dimensions of an interconnection. It can
lead to greater reliability risks, disturbances in one location are quickly felt in other locations, after
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interconnecting, a system that used to be isolated from disturbances in a neighbouring system is now
vulnerable to those disturbances. Long distance interconnections with long transmission lines have
potentially greater stability problems than is the case for shorter lines (Multi Dimensional Issues in
International Electric Power Grid Interconnections, n.d).
The benefits of grid interconnected system as indicated by (National grid, 2008; K10blogger, 2011;
Povh et al, n.d; and Multi Dimensional Issues in International Electric Power Grid Interconnections,
n.d). In their write-up are as follows;
 Exchange of peak loads: An important advantage of interconnected system is that the peak
load of the power station can be exchanged. If the load curve of a power station shows a peak
demand that is greater than the rated capacity of the plant, then the excess load can be shared
by other stations interconnected with it.
 Use of Older Plants: The interconnected system makes it possible to use the older and less
efficient plants to carry peak loads of short durations, although such plants may be inadequate
when used alone, yet they have sufficient capacity to carry short peaks of loads when
interconnected with other modern plants. Therefore, interconnected system gives a direct key
to the use of obsolete plants.
 Ensures economical operation: The interconnected system makes the operation of concerned
power stations quite economical. It is because sharing of load among the stations is arranged
in such a way that more efficient stations work continuously throughout the year at a high
load factor and the less efficient plants work for peak load hours only.
 Increase diversity factor: The load curves of different interconnected stations are generally
different. The result is that the maximum demand on the system is much reduced as compared
to the sum of individual maximum demands on different stations. In other words, the diversity
factor of the system is improved, thereby increasing the effective capacity of the system.
 Reduces plant reserve capacity: Every power station is required to have a standby unit for
emergencies. However, when several power stations are connected in parallel, the reserve
capacity of the system is much reduced. This increases the efficiency of the system.
 Increases reliability of supply: The interconnected system increases the reliability of supply.
If a major breakdown occurs in one station, continuity of supply can be maintained by other
healthy stations.
 Utilization of most favourable energy resources and flexibility of building new power plants
at favourable locations: Based on the contractual agreement between the partners in an
interconnected system. It will bring about the flexibility of constructing power plants in
favourable locations with regards to energy resources and hence, increase in total reliability of
the interconnected systems.
 Reduced investment in generating capacity: Individual systems can reduce their generating
capacity requirement, or postpone the need to add new capacity, if they are able to share the
generating resources of an interconnected system.
 Security of Supply: Security in this context means providing the demand customer with a
supply of electricity that is continuous (i.e. uninterrupted except in exceptional circumstances)
and is of the required quantity and of defined quality (e.g. in terms of voltage, waveform, and
frequency). This means that the transmission system, and for that matter the generation and
distribution systems, must be sufficiently robust to maintain supplies under conditions of
plant breakdown or weather induced failures for a wide range of demand conditions.
5
4. Status of Regional Electricity Projects, Interconnections and the Rate of Electrification in
Africa
There are primarily five power pools acting as specialized agencies of their respective Regional
Economic Communities (RECs): (i) the Central Africa Power Pool (CAPP) for the Economic
Commission for Central Africa States (ECCAS), (ii) the Comité Maghrébin de l’Electricité
(COMELEC) for the Union of Maghreb Arab (UMA), (iii) the Eastern Africa Power Pool (EAPP) for
Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa (COMESA), (iv) the Southern Africa Power Pool
(SAPP) for Southern African Development Community (SADC), and (v) the West Africa Power Pool
(WAPP) for Economic Commission for West African States (ECOWAS).
Installed capacity is 6073 Megawatts (MW) for CAPP (2009), 27 347 MW for COMELEC (2009),
28 374 MW for EAPP (2008), 49 877 MW for SAPP (2010) and 14 091 MW for WAPP (2010), the
years indicate the most recent year for which data is available for all countries of the power pool. The
installed capacity per thousand habitants is highest in North and South Africa in terms of Kilowatts
(kW) per thousand habitants: COMELEC (319), SAPP (311), followed by EAPP (74), WAPP (54)
and CAPP (49) (Infrastructure Consortium for Africa, 2011). Figure 4; Shows the Map of African
Electricity Grid, with the various Existing and Proposed power pool projects.
Figure 4; Map of African Electricity Grid, Showing the various Existing and Proposed Power Pool Projects, Source: Global
Energy Network Institute, (n.d).
6
As far as electricity mix is concerned, at Africa level, most of the existing capacity is thermal (75%)
due to the size of the COMELEC and SAPP systems, which are predominately thermal. Hydropower
is predominant in CAPP (86%). In EAPP and in WAPP, the present share of hydro is 24% and 30%,
respectively, but this share is expected to grow rapidly as ongoing and future generation investments
are mainly in hydropower projects (e.g. Ethiopia: Gibe III with 1870 MW). A summary of electrical
energy pool in Africa as can be seen in (Infrastructure Consortium for Africa, 2012) is as follows;








Access to electricity is still very low: 31% of the countries have an electrification rate below
or equal to 10%. Nearly 70% have an electrification rate below or equal to 30%.
The electricity consumption per capita is still very low: 54% of the countries have an average
consumption below 200kWh/capita, with only 18% having an average consumption over
1000 kWh/capita.
As far as power trade is concerned (mainly within power pools), electricity traded is still low
for CAPP (0.2% in 2009) and in EAPP (0.4% in 2008). It is relatively higher respectively in
COMELEC (6.2% in 2009), in SAPP (7.5% in 2010) and in WAPP (6.9% in 2010). SAPP is
at a more advanced stage with 28 bilateral contracts already signed between the member
countries and with an active role played by the Short Term Electricity Market (STEM) since
2001 and by the Day Ahead Market (DAM) since 2009. Further development of the regional
market is however constrained by the lack of generation capacity linked with congested and
insufficient interconnections capacity.
Institutional set up and market rules and regulations have already been implemented in SAPP,
are being implemented in WAPP and under design in EAPP. However, CAPP and
COMELEC have still to design and develop their power market institutions and rules.
As for regional projects, all power pools are experiencing concrete achievement in
implementing interconnection projects. Up-to-date regional master plans are available for all
power pools. Except for COMELEC, the four other power pools have formally adopted their
priority projects at the regional level and are mobilizing funding.
Given the level of investment required, private sector participation is requested with possible
public participation (under Public Private Partnership (PPP) set up). However, so far, the pace
of mobilizing funding is slow for various reasons and innovative approach is required for
mobilizing funding for regional projects.
For interconnection projects, some solutions are already initiated: as these projects are
benefiting to various countries, their funding could be developed through Specific Vehicle
Project (SVP) where the concerned utilities/players could contribute to the assets, provided
that proper wheeling charges are agreed upon. This solution is already considered in SAPP for
Zimbabwe-Zambia-Botswana-Namibia (ZIZABONA) interconnection project. It could be
also considered in other power pools such as EAPP for the interconnection of EthiopiaSudan-Egypt.
For Generation projects with regional dimension, they could be developed through a Public
Private Partnership/Independent Power Producers (PPP/IPP) arrangement with an innovative
approach, providing a minimum set of guarantee for investors and securing an acceptable
level of competition between the operators of the regional market. This could lead to the
following propositions: The regional market could constitute a sufficient guarantee for future
investments. An alternative option could have two main components: (i) the first component
could consist in establishing a Power Purchase Agreement (PPA) between the PPP/IPP and
the national Transmission System Operators (TSOs) through the power pool for part of the
generation output (for example, 50%). This would secure a minimum revenue guarantee for
7
the promoter, (ii) the second component would consist in establishing bilateral contracts or in
selling on the short-term market the rest of the generation output (remaining 50%). This
would secure a minimum level of competitiveness in the regional power market.
The installed capacity per thousand habitants by power pool is tabulated in table 1; the Common
Market for Eastern and Southern Africa (COMESA)-East African Community (EAC)-Southern
African Development Community (SADC) Tripartite projects is shown in figure 5; and figure 6;
While figure 7; Shows the Significant, Minimal and Planned electric power interconnections with
their direction of flow in the continent. The rate of electrification in Africa is lower than in any other
continent (Desertec-Africa. n.d), as presented in table 2; showing world rate of electrification.
Table 1; Installed Capacity per Thousand Habitants by Power Pool (Infrastructure Consortium for Africa, 2011).
Installed
Capacity
(MW)
Hydropower
Share (%)
Thermal Share
(%)
Populations
(Millions)
KW/1000
Habitants
CAPP
2009*
6 073
COMELEC
2009*
27 347
EAPP
2008*
28 374
SAPP
2010*
49 877
WAPP
2010*
14 091
86%
8%
24%
17%
30%
14%
91%
73%
83%
70%
123.9
85.6
385.6
160.5
260.6
49
319
74
311
54
*Base year: Most recent year for which data is available for all countries of the power pool.
Table 2; World rate of electrification (Desertec-Africa.
Africa
Developing Asia
Latin America
Middle East
Developing
countries
Transition
Economies and
OECD
World
Population
Population
with
electricity
Population
without
electricity
(Million)
(Million)
(Million)
n.d).
Electrificatio
n
rate
Urban
Electrificat
ion
rate
Rural
Electrificati
on
rate
(%)
(%)
(%)
891
3,418
449
186
4,943
337
2,488
404
145
3,374
554
930
45
41
1,569
37.8
72.8
90.0
78.1
68.3
67.9
86.4
98.0
86.7
85.2
19.0
85.1
65.6
61.8
56.4
1,501
1,501
8
99.5
100.0
98.1
6,452
4,875
1,577
75.6
90.4
61.7
8
Figure 5; (COMESA)- (EAC)- (SADC) Tripartite projects
Figure 6; Main Tripartite Power Grid of (COMESA)- (EAC)- (SADC), Supported by Trademark Southern Africa (TMSA).
Source: TMSA, (2012)
9
Figure 7; Map of Africa, showing Significant, Minimal and Planned interconnections, with their Direction of flow. Source:
Global Energy Network Institute (n.d)
From table 1; it can be seen that, some countries are holding a dominant position in total installed
capacity of their power pool: Algeria with 41% of COMELEC, Egypt with 78% of EAPP, Republic of
South Africa (RSA) with 82% of SAPP, and Nigeria with 60% of WAPP (Infrastructure Consortium
for Africa, 2011). From figure 4. And figure 5. We can see the current status and potentials of
interconnections of electrical power systems among African nations through regional collaboration.
To facilitate regional interconnection of electricity grids in Africa, African leaders have to set the ball
rolling. Africa has been called the last investment frontier. While the United States and Europe have
been struggling to recover from the economic downturn of 2008, the International Monetary Fund
reports that the economies in over 20 countries in sub-Saharan Africa have grown an average of
nearly 6 percent per year during the past five years. It is anticipated that these rates of growth will
continue for the foreseeable future (Krogh B. H. et al, 2012). This growth can only be sustained by the
availability and sustainability of electrical energy, as the whole world is looking up to Africa for the
overall socio-economic and technological transformation of the Human race. This can only be
achieved by the promotion of regional electrical projects and interconnections within the continent.
5. Recommendations for Promoting Regional Electrical Energy Projects and Interconnections
in Africa
1. Flexible Alternating Current Transmission Systems (FACTS) option should be considered as
complement to traditional transmission upgrade in Africa. FACTS, based on power electronics
devices have been developed to improve the performance of weak Alternating Current (AC) Systems
and enhance transmission capabilities over long AC lines. FACTS technologies allow for improved
10
transmission system operation with minimal infrastructure investment, environmental impact, and
implementation time compared to the construction of new transmission lines.
2. High Voltage Direct Current (HVDC) transmission technology, which allows the transport of bulk
power over long distances, with low losses. And used to interconnect asynchronous AC systems
having the same or different frequency should be considered as an alternative to power system
upgrades in Africa. The use of HVDC transmission technology is well known and has benefits in bulk
electricity delivery, long-distance transmission, asynchronous interconnections, transmission costs
and environment impacts.
3. Solar Radiation (SR) power conversion systems and Photovoltaic (PV) sources of Electrical energy
systems should be installed in areas with much sun-light, far away from the grid network, in-order to
make maximum use of energy from the sun which is in-abundance in Africa.
4. Solar aided power generation (SAPG) technology should be used in countries with significant fossil
fuel/non-renewable energy source base and good solar resource. The integration of solar thermal
collectors into conventional fossil plants, or SAPG, has proven a viable solution to address the
intermittency of power generation and combines the environmental benefits of solar power plants with
the efficiency and reliability of fossil power plants.
5. Concentrated Solar Power (CSP) stand-alone solar thermal plants should be installed most
especially in areas such as the Sahara desert and other desert areas in the continent. CSP technology
offers an ideal alternative strategy to meet electricity demand in a future of uncertain conventional
resources.
6. SR and PV plant manufacturers should research into ways of possible production of SR panels with
high solar radiation intensity and PV panels with high temperature efficiency, suitable for tropical
climate in order for the African continent to be able to maximize the use of the sun-light in her
locality for the production of electrical energy. Solar energy from the Sahara desert if properly
harnessed can be utilized in other continents, it is in line with this idea that the Trans Mediterranean
Renewable Energy Cooperation (TREC), also known as DESERTEC, has proposed developing largescale solar thermal plants in the North Africa section of the Sahara desert transmitting the power to
Europe through high-voltage direct current power lines.
7. Technical planning of African grid interconnection should be properly carried out, pooling of large
power generation stations, sharing of spinning reserve and use of most economic energy resources
taking into account ecological constraints such as nuclear power stations at special locations, hydro
energy from remote areas, solar energy from desert areas, biomass (fuel wood, animal waste, energy
crops and agricultural residue) plants at strategic locations and connection of large off-shore wind
farms.
8. An effective international legal framework governing the construction and operation of an
international electricity grid interconnection should be reached among African nations. The hosting of
an international grid interconnection requires that the countries involved enter into a number of
different types of legal agreements, such as; sitting of power line and related infrastructure, operation
of power line, power line security, interconnection environmental performance, liability for power
line failure or damage, power purchase and pricing and other issues of legal liability concerning grid
operation.
11
9. There should be training and retraining of personnel in modern Techniques of Power System
Operation and Control, Development of advanced power system analysis software and real-time
power system simulation, in order to have a reliable and efficient network. As the existing power
infrastructure is being upgraded and expanded for regional interconnection, power system personnel’s
should be trained and re-trained in-order for them to be knowledgeable in modern power systems
operation.
10. African leaders should show their political will to electrify the continent. There should be a
synergy between governments of African countries in the area of international grid interconnection
cooperation as this will bring about government-to- government cooperation in other areas, it will
improve energy security by reducing the likelihood of military action against each other by the nations
involved in the power trading, it encourages democratization, since grid interconnections help bring
stable electricity supplies to communities that previously had poor or no electricity, opportunities for
education and obtaining news are increased, which can in turn prepare more citizens to participate
meaningfully in democratic processes. It can also enhance political stability by offering opportunities
for employment.
11. Professional bodies affiliated to the World Federation of Engineering Organisations (WFEO)
should be consulted and carried along in engineering projects. Hence, engineering professionals
whose expertise is needed in the African electrical power interconnection project irrespective of race,
colour, tribe and political or religious affiliation should be consulted and engaged in the actualization
of the electricity power interconnection projects in Africa.
12. Research agencies, most especially in Africa such as; Universities, Polytechnics, and institutes
should be fully involved from the start to finish of interconnection projects in Africa in-order to have
an in-depth knowledge of the existing, planned and upgraded electrical power infrastructure for
possible expansion and interconnection. And development agencies both in Africa and beyond should
see to the implementation and actualization of blue prints from these research agencies.
6. Conclusion
African countries should work closely and cooperate in the overall planning, integration,
implementation and actualization of power systems interconnection projects in the continent. This is
imperative for the sustained development of countries in Africa as Electrical energy can be export
commodity to the industrialized nations from Africa. This will eventually bring about the socioeconomic and technological transformation of Africa and other continents.
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Acknowledgement
The authors kindly appreciate the financial support which was provided by the Internal Grant Agency
of the Czech Technical University in Prague, Faculty of Electrical Engineering in the grant
no.SGS14/188/OHK3/3T/13, under the project - Local Automation Based on WAMPaC systems.
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