NATOR-LONGBORIZU RURAL DEVELOPMENT PLAN
BASELINE CONDITIONS REPORT
PREPARED BY: MICHELLE SINTAA MORNA, JOE MULLIGAN AND CHELINA ODBERT ON BEHALF OF
KOUNKUEY DESIGN INITIATIVE
SEPTEMBER 2014
K
D
I
KOUNKUEY DESIGN INITIATIVE
1
FOREWORD
In January of 2014, Rotan Trust (RT) and Kounkuey Design Initiative (KDI)
formed a partnership to explore a model of sustainable development for the
rural villages of Longborizu and Nator in the Upper West region of Ghana.
The first phase of the project will be to develop a Nator-Longborizu Rural
Development Plan comprised of a baseline conditions assessment, a set of
recommendations for strategic interventions and a series of pilot projects as
first steps towards the longer term goals. By conducting a comprehensive
and participatory research process with the Longborizu community over a six
month period, KDI has created a detailed picture of the complex challenges
that face the community. The Needs Assessment Report represents the
compilation of this research. In the coming months the information gathered
herein will be used to develop a series of recommendations for strategic
investments across the sectors of agriculture, health, education, living
standards, community, income and employment and environment, for the
holistic development of the villages and beyond. Ultimately it is hoped that
the recommendations of the strategic plan can provide a roadmap towards a
model of climatic and culturally appropriate development for applications and
use in the wider region
2
NLRDP: NEEDS ASSESSMENT REPORT
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
REPORT BY:
INSTITUTIONAL PARTNERS:
Michelle Morna | Joe Mulligan | Chelina Odbert
Nadowli-Kaleo District Assembly | Ghana Education Services | Nadowli-Kaleo District
KDI STAFF AND CONTRIBUTORS:
Alexandra Dryer (Independent Agro-Ecology Consultant) | Jessie Heneghan (KDI-LA) | Osman
(Researcher) | Mujeeb Adams (Researcher) | Abass (Researcher) | Raymond Andivi Saaka
(Enumerator) | Aaron Seidu (Enumerator) | Dominic Dong-nuba (Enumerator)
COMMUNITY PARTNERS:
Longborizu Development Committee | Nator- Longborizu KG School Management Committee,
Nator-Longborizu KG School Parent-Teachers Association | Longborizu Water Committee
Longborizu Health Committee | Longborizu Young Men’s Association | Sunta Maale | Longborizu
Women’s Saving and Loaning Group
TECHNICAL PARTNERS:
Arup Cause (Arup UKMEA) – Louisa Brown | Vera Bukachi | Sandra Diaz | Tom Hallewell |
Hayley Gryc | Caroline Ray
ABBREVIATIONS
NLRDP
RT
KDI
UWR
N-L KG School
SMC
PTA
LDC
KG1
KG2
P1
CHPS Zone
JSS
SHS
GES
NRC School
GSOP
DACF
MoFA
BMI
GHS
DHD
OPD
NHS
LEAP
DCE
DDE
Nator Longborizu Rural Development Plan
Rotan Trust
Kounkuey Design Initiative
Upper West Region
Nator-Longborizu Kindergarten School
School Management Committee of Nator-Lonborizu Kindergarten School
Parent-Teachers Association of Nator-Lonborizu Kindergarten School
Longborizu Development Committee
Kindergarten Class 1 at Nator-Lonborizu Kindergarten School
Kindergarten Class 2 Nator-Lonborizu Kindergarten School
Primary Class 1
Community based Health and Planning Services Zone
Junior Secondary School
Senior High School
Ghana Education Services
Nator Roman-Catholic School
Ghana Social Opportunities Program
District Assembly Common Fund
Ministry of Food and Agriculture
Body Mass Index
Ghana Health Services
District Health Directorate
Out-Patient Department
National Health Scheme
Livelihood Empowerment Against Poverty
District Chief Executive
District Director of Education
CONTENTS
i
ii
iii
iV
project context
[p. 8]
baseline conditions
[p. 28]
next steps
[p. 110]
bibliography
[p. 114]
01 introduction
02 research methodology
03 assessment framework
04 community
05 household standards
06 agro economy
07 income and employment
08 health
09 education
10 environment
11 next steps
12 bibliography
CHAPTER I | PROJECT CONTEXT
01 INTRODUCTION
1.1
1.2
1.3
background to project
nlrdp intention and objectives
project context
01 INTRODUCTION
This section describes the project’s: background,
statement of intent, objectives of the project, and
research methodology. In addition, a contextual
brief goes through the historical, geographical,
climatic and societal circumstances of NatorLongborizu.
1.1 Background to Project
Longborizu is a small section of the Village of
Nator, with a population of 210 (as counted in
June 2014) and situated in Upper West Region
(UWR) of Ghana. Despite its humble, rural
circumstances, this small community has raised
many people who have gone on to accomplish
unexpected success. The family of Suglo and
Akua Morna, comprising thirteen children and
twenty-four grandchildren, have been particularly
successful.
In December 2011, Longborizu community held
a meeting to discuss collecting grass to thatch a
new kindergarten school they planned to build.
A young girl had been drowned attempting to
cross the Longbori river to reach the neighboring
school, something all students must do. Wanting
to avoid a similar tragedy, the community found
it crucial to build their own school.
The circumstances became an opportunity for the
Morna’s to build upon the work and coordination
that had already taken place among Longborizu
residents and give something back to their yiri
(home village). They offered to contribute longlasting materials and some technical expertise
to produce a larger and stronger school building.
The Nator-Longborizu Kindergarten School
began its first year in September of 2012. By
2013, it became necessary to start thinking of
extending the school to accommodate primary
classes. By this time, Rotan Trust (RT) had
been created by members of the Morna family to
support endeavours in Nator and the surrounds.
With more resources available, the extension of
the school could take place. The Morna’s saw
the extension as an opportunity not only for the
school to advance, but for it to be established as
centre of upliftment for all. They felt that the initial
investment could trigger a host of synergistic
developments.
A
Rotan Trust thus sought out a partnership with
Kounkuey Design initiative – an organisation
that has a unique approach to rural development
and could undertake a holistic scheme. KDI
specializes in the practices of architecture,
landscape architecture, engineering, and urban
planning and believes that participatory planning
and design are key to sustainable development.
By working collaboratively with communities
from conception through implementation, KDI
builds on their ideas, enhances them with
technical knowledge and design innovation, and
connects them to extant resources. In doing
so, KDI empowers communities to advocate
for themselves and address the major physical,
social, and economic challenges they face.
C
Given the fundamental importance of subsistence
farming in the community, a consulting Agro
Ecologist, Alexander Dryer, was involved early
on. Using a similarly consultative process,
Alexandra Dryer studies small-holder farmer
communities intimately, to understand the reality
of the farmers’ day-to-day existence. By teaching
key individuals in the community appropriate,
low-input, low-tech methods to make gradual,
sustainable improvements to their holdings
and by offering technical advice and training to
wider groups, she helps the community create a
better future in food security, health, nutrition and
financial prosperity.
Representatives of RT and KDI with Alexandra
Dryer conducted an initial fact-finding visit to
Longborizu in October of 2013. Through a
community-wide introductory workshop and
celebration, as well as two further community
meetings, the groups got to know community
members and dynamics of the village. Subsequent
meetings with Morna family members, local
NGOs, and social businesses gave the team
a wider contextual background from which to
propose a ten month preliminary research and
pilot period in order to create a comprehensive
Nator-Longborizu Rural Development Plan.
To support decision-making on engineering and
infrastructure options, an additional partner was
engaged – a team of engineers from Arup,
A Joe dances the Kore at a celebration during KDI and
RT’s initial visit. Credit: Chelina Odbert
8
NLRDP: NEEDS ASSESSMENT REPORT
B
D
01 INTRODUCTION: con’t
A
working on a pro-bono basis through the
company’s CAUSE Initiative to Support Global
Development. The team is made up of six
engineers with structural, water and sanitation,
and infrastructure backgrounds, as well as
international development experience. The Arup
Project Leader conducted a site visit in July of
2014 where she led two community workshops
and several physical surveys to inform the
infrastructure strategy.
With the multi-disciplinary team, a comprehensive
and well-considered proposal could be developed
to guide future investment.
1.2 NLRDP Project Intention and Objectives
The intention of NLRDP is to develop a Rural
Development Plan over an initial phase of ten
months starting in February of 2014, that defines
baseline information and needs and will provide
a basis for strategic investments across the
sectors of agriculture, health, education, living
standards, community, income and employment,
and environment to enable the holistic
development of the villages and vicinities.
A
The first six months has been devoted to a
participatory research process, from which KDI
has produced this Needs Assessment Report.
Through community consultations and mapping,
household surveys and immersion, KDI has
gleaned a full understanding of the complex
system of challenges and assets. KDI will use
the remaining four months of the initial phase
of the project to detail the Plan. It will identify
strategic interventions, timelines and milestones
for each of the sectors, considering multiple
year outlooks. Local indigenous knowledge will
be paired with regional expertise and external
inputs to ensure a grounded, innovative, and
implementable plan.
In the same initial phase KDI, in collaboration
with the community, have defined four pilot
projects that target some of the “low-hanging
fruit” and demonstrate some of the principles
elaborated in the report. These Pilots are the first
steps in developing the agriculture, infrastructure
and business sectors and will
A N-L KG School children in their new uniforms. Credit: Joe
Mulligan
b The tendaana of the school area welcomes KDI and RT to Longborizu. Credit: Joe Mulligan
KOUNKUEY DESIGN INITIATIVE
9
01 INTRODUCTION: con’t
provide a foundation from which to build up to
the aims of the Plan. The Morna family preidentified the further development of the school
as a priority and strategic steps have been taken
in this regard.
A bespoke sustainability index assists in
capturing the broad range of challenges, needs
and aspirations of the community as well as
evaluating change and impact of interventions
over time.
The Development Plan will inform subsequent
investments in Nator and provide a basis for
tracking progress in the village. Additionally, it
will be a document that can serve as a call to
action for potential donors and supporters of the
work.
THE OBJECTIVES OF NLRDP ARE TO:
1.
Improve living standards.
2.
Transform small-holder farms into
sustainable, low-input agricultural
systems that provide food security and
diverse nutrition and income
3.
Build capacity of community members
to innovate, lead, implement, manage,
and maintain appropriate projects
4.
Maintain indigenous cultural identity
while linking community to global
network
5.
Assist community to advocate for
government provided services
6.
Encourage equality of the
disadvantaged
10
7.
Increase access to education
8.
Create income-generating opportunities
NLRDP: NEEDS ASSESSMENT REPORT
1.1
FIGURE 1.1.1 NLRDP phase 1 Timeline
Baseline Conditions
Analysis
Pilots for "Next
Steps"
IMPLEMENTATON
Strategic
Reccomendations
2014
2015
J
F
M
A
M
J
J
A
S
O
N
D
01 INTRODUCTION: con’t
1.3 Project Context
Historical Context
Ghana is a burgeoning West African country with
a notable pre-colonial, colonial, and liberation
heritage. Nator-Longborizu lies in the watershed
of the Black Volta River, which demarcates the
northern tip of modern day Ghana and southern
edge of what is now Burkina Faso. In this area,
the Dagomba people established a state as
early as the 11th Century as a neighbour to the
better known, richer and more powerful Ashanti
Kingdom to the South. Unlike the Ashanti
people, the Dagomba welcomed Muslim scribes,
medicine men, and merchants into their realm.
This relationship began the characteristic Islamic
influence in the northern regions of Ghana that
exist to this day. By the mid-18th century, the
Ashanti Kingdom’s wars of expansion had
included the Dagomba State into their sphere
of influence along with other smaller states like
Maprosi and Gonja (Mclaughlin & Owusu-Ansah,
1994).
The first European colonialists to arrive on
what was then known as the Gold Coast were
the Portuguese in 1471. At first, the tribes of
the Gold Coast did not participate in the slave
trade but the territory was set up as a critical
port of exchange of gold, ivory, and slaves in the
Atlantic trading routes. The Portuguese position
in the Gold Coast remained secure for over a
century until Dutch colonists, representing the
Dutch West India Company seized the forts of
the southern coast (Mclaughlin & Owusu-Ansah,
1994).
At this stage, the tribes of the Gold Coast began
to play a more active role in West African slave
trade. The Gold Coast trading post changed
from a point of slave import and gold export to
a mini slave exportation point. Large southern
tribes, like the Ashanti, Akan and Fante that
had military strength and mineral wealth formed
advantageous alliances and traded slaves
captured in internal wars. The smaller, weaker
tribes of the north became easy targets for slave
raiding (Mclaughlin & Owusu-Ansah, 1994).
Elders of Nator recall stories of slave raiding told
to them by their grandparents to this day. Some
a
of the tensions between the north and south of
Ghana can be attributed to the history of slave
raiding.
The appearance of the British African Company
of Merchants in the early 18th century began a
shift of European control from the Portuguese to
the British. Inter-tribal conflicts inland continued
as the British gained control over all coastal
forts and solidified themselves as the dominant
European power in the Gold Coast. In 1807,
efforts to abolish the Atlantic Slave trade
began when Britain outlawed trade of slaves
by its citizens. The abolition, however, only saw
success in around 1860 because of continued
demand for plantation labour in Britain’s
American and Caribbean colonies (Mclaughlin &
Owusu-Ansah, 1994). Between 1824 and 1901,
the struggle between the Ashanti and the British
over the valued trading opportunities resulted
in four Asante-Anglo wars that culminated in
the defeat of the Ashanti. And by the early 20th
Century, the Dutch had completely withdrawn
and the British had made the Gold Coast a
protectorate.
A
b
The British Gold Coast gradually emerged
as a unified administrative colonial post with
centralized local services (Mclaughlin & OwusuAnsah, 1994). The colonial era has had a marked
effect on the current sociopolitical situation of
Ghana. In the northern part of Ghana, these
effects manifested in two significant ways:
First, a cost-effective approach of indirect
rule used selected local chiefs as an arm
of the British government. These aboriginal
government agents were often picked by British
administrators but with a poor understanding
of power structures within local societies. It
is an enduring fact, which can be seen in the
communities of Nator, that the authority in
decision-making lies not with the chiefs of the
villages – descendants of the chosen leaders of
the early 1900s – but with the tendaana of the
village, the group of male land owners (Dery,
2014). Traditionally, locals principally respect
individuals of age, wealth, and ability to bless or
curse the land.
A Picture: Dagomba household 1957. Caption: A typical
Dagomba household comprising husband, wife and three
children in Yendi, 1957. Credit: National Archives UK
B Triangular Atlantic slave trade route. Credit: Wikipedia
KOUNKUEY DESIGN INITIATIVE
11
01 INTRODUCTION: con’t
A
This British pattern of government – where
local village authorities are held responsible for
the general welfare and immediate needs of
individual localities, but take instructions from
district and regional supervisors, continues in
modern Ghana. It is believed by some that this
indirect link to the local people through less
respected individuals is a large cause of the lack
of communication between community members
and government representatives, as well as the
ineffectiveness of implementation of projects by
district assemblies and regional ministries.
Second, the instigation of taxes brought into
question a need for local people to begin
engaging with national currency. Initially, taxes
on land and animals yielded the government
minimal revenues since these sahelian desert
people owned very little. Thus, a “Head Tax” was
instituted that would tax each individual essentially
for existing. With a lack of currency to pay this
tax, northern farmers began to travel south in
search of seasonal work (Dery, 2014). Active
recruitment by colonial authorities for unskilled
labour for gold mining, cocoa farming, and timber
logging established the northern territories as the
long-standing source of labor in Ghana. Factors
like famine and post-independence state-owned
large-scale agriculture, supported the status quo
of northerner migration (Rademacher-Schulz and
Mahama, 2012, 27). In villages like Nator of the
Upper West Region, a twenty percent migration
rate of young, able-bodied society members
is not uncommon (Rademacher-Schulz and
Mahama, 2012, 90). Several societal issues
spin off of the gap caused by a lack of young
individuals in populations of Upper West villages
that are discussed over the course of this report.
After years of civil war, Ghana became the first
country in Africa to achieve independence in 1957.
Dr. Osagyefo Kwame Nkrumah led the republic
of Ghana as prime minister, implementing many
beneficial, socialist economic strategies, until
his death. Like many African countries, Ghana
suffered several military coups and regimes until
the country stabilized in 2000. Since then, the
country has
12
NLRDP: NEEDS ASSESSMENT REPORT
A
B
A Typical migration patterns of people of Nadowli district. Map
Credit: Center for International Earth Science Information
Network (CIESIN) at the Earth Institute of Columbia
University.
01 INTRODUCTION: con’t
grown to be one of the leading democracies in
Africa.
A
A
One of the most significant changes for the north
of Ghana in this period happened in 1983, when
Upper Region was split into an eastern and
a western side. Although the two regions are
geographically quite small, the administration
found it necessary that they have their own
administrative headquarters and capitals. This
act, it was hoped, would allow the two remote,
disconnected areas to draw larger amounts of
government and donor capital resources for
their much needed development. It is generally
agreed that this move has improved the rate of
development in the two regions. However, UWR
remains the least serviced and capitalized region
of Ghana (ACDEP, 2010).
A
It is significant to note that while Ghana is
seen as a stable democracy, tribalism has
been an unsolved problem that is most clearly
demonstrated in the fact that only two presidents
in the history of Ghanaian Republics have been
of northern ethnicity – Dr. Hilla Liman (1979-81)
and Dr. John Dramani Mahama (2012 – present).
As early as 1957, the issue of institutional,
ethnic politics was raised as a concern and the
Avoidance of Discrimination Act (C.A. 38) was
drawn up to counter it. Tribalism and ethnicity
have nevertheless found alternative routes of
entry into Ghanaian politics, especially with the
inception of multi-party democracy in the country
(Wumpini, 2012). Many people from UWR feel
that one of the major reasons why the north has
been left behind in the accelerated development
of the past two decades is because political
leaders of influence do not have vested interests
in the north. The current presidency of northerner,
Dr. Mahama is viewed by many as test that will
make or break this new effort for parties to put
forward northerner candidates.
B
Climate, Vegetation and Soil Context
The communities within the project area reside
at 10° 16’ 0” N 2° 39’ 0” W, in a semi-arid strip
of north western Ghana, an area sitting on the
border of the Guinean Savanna and the West
Sudanese Savanna. This region shares many
climatic characteristics with the better known
a Sahel Region Vegetation Growth Comparison of 2011 vs
2009 Seasons. Credit https://www.wfp.org/aid-professionals/
map-centre?page=23
KOUNKUEY DESIGN INITIATIVE
13
Æ the rainy season starts later (sh
Æ the rainy season is shorter and
periods of dry spells;
Æ extreme weather events increa
droughts);
Æ the climate has become less pre
Sahel, its neighbor to the North. The area has
a long, intensely hot and dry season, harmattan
winds, a short, intense rainy season, and overall
challenging agricultural conditions (RademacherSchulz and Mahama, 2012, 51).
26 Oct
300
1 Oct
250
6 Sep
12 Aug
200
18 Jul
150
29 May
23 Jun
4 May
100
A
14
NLRDP: NEEDS ASSESSMENT REPORT
1965
1970
1975
1980
1985
1990
1995
2000
2005
Year
cause of their prolonged absence fro
migration. Details on the results are
ents, 41.6 per cent perceived less he
35.8 per cent perceived an increase.
Figure 12: Onset of the wet season for the Wa station, Upper
West Region (1961–2010). Source: Synoptic Weather Station Wa.
The onset was calculated by Laux based on agro-meteorological
29,5
28,5
longer,
whereas
the rainy
season wa
of the
household
head.
addition, 42 participants perceived m
of the
year, especially
during
the pla
Respondents
of the
survey
did
perceptions
about
the
start
of
thepat
ra
between changing rainfall
28,0
5.3 Perceptions of rainfall variability and temperature
27,5
Research also focused on the participants’ perceptions of the
27,0
changing local climate and the resulting implications for people’s
26,5
livelihoods. Results from PRA sessions and from the household
in the household survey. Information
household (63 per cent), since
captured in PRA sessions and expert
survey show that their main perceptions of the changes in rainfall
include:
the survey do not reveal a correlatio
strong linkage when it comes
rainfall changes and the age of the h
Figure 14: Mean annual temperatures and linear trend from
1970–2010. Source: Synoptic Weather Station Wa, Upper West
Region (2011).
decline in crop yields, negativ
of the household (see Table 8
well (37 per cent), thus reduc
crisis when people sell livestoc
market. This decline in crop p
domestic consumption from b
2007
2003
2001
1999
1997
1995
1993
1991
1989
1987
1985
1983
1981
1978
1976
1974
1972
1970
Year
Mean
_ 56
Linear (Mean)
This research also focused on the effects of perceived changes in
rainfall patterns on the livelihood of local people, being primarily
subsistence farmers. Linkages between climate change and livelihood were explored, tackling economic activities in general, as
well as food production and water availability.
Table 8 illustrates the effects of rainfall variability on food production, the general economic situation of households and water
availability.
Project: Case Study Ghana, 63
DTheNator
village
is located(92inperNadowli-Kaleo
District
majority
of respondents
cent) indicated that
changof
Region.
The
village
sitsproduction,
along a main
ingUpper
rainfall West
patterns
have a big
effect
on food
their
main economic
activity.toLinked
to this,
89 per cent
of respondents
feeder
road linked
the main
regional
road,
running
reported that
changes
negatively
affectedcapital
the economic
between
theclimatic
regional
capital
and district
of
situation
of
households
in
general.
Survey
analysis
does not
reveal
Wa and Nadowli respectively. Source: Adapted
from
Nadowli-Kaleo DMTDP 2014-17p
Report No. 3 | November 2012
as they drink from the ponds
Tables 9 and 10 illustrate in de
rainfall on the economic situa
production. Ninety-two per ce
Where the Rain Falls Project − Case Study: Ghana
5.6 Impact of changing rainfall patterns on livelihood
Caption: Rainfall Index 1953-2011. Rainfall Index (RI)
measures the difference between a year’s rainfall sum
compared to the mean annual rainfall for the whole period
[1953-2011]. Source: Synoptic weather station, Wa, Upper
West. Rademacher-Schulz and Mahama, Where the Rain
Falls Project: Case Study Ghana, 51
C Diagram: wheretherainfalls temperature variation. Caption:
Mean annual temperatures and linear trend from 19702010. Source: Synoptic weather station, Wa, Upper West.
Rademacher-Schulz and Mahama, Where the Rain Falls
a correlation between the per
According
to most
respondents,
dry
changes
on the
economic situ
26,0
d
A more pronounced picture is given
nature of climatic changes.
2009
DC
criteria (Laux et al. 2008; Laux 2009).
29,0
Temperature (°C)
c
a Seasonal calendar of Takpo (neighbouring village to Nator)
Source: Where the Rain Falls Report: Case Study Ghana
(2012)
B Diagram: wheretherainfalls onset of wet season. Caption:
Onset of the wet season. Synoptic weather station, Wa, Upper
West (1961-2010). Source: Synoptic weather station, Wa,
Upper West. Rademacher-Schulz and Mahama, Where the
Rain Falls Project: Case Study Ghana, 56
c Diagram: wheretherainfalls rainfall index 1953-2011.
Results from the household survey d
the participants perceived changes in
period. Only 1.3 per cent of them di
The rest of the participants could no
Eighty-seven per cent of the respond
droughts or dry spells during the rain
observed more extreme weather eve
and heavy rainfall are not that unam
2010
Onset
3-year running mean
Mean
c
The annual rainfall is confined to six months,
usually spanning May to October, and is unevenly
distributed. Mean annual rainfall is about
1100mm, with intensity of rains peaking around
August. From October to March, there is virtually
no rain and this long dry season is accompanied
by North-Eastern Harmattan winds that carry
in red dust from the Sahara. The district has a
mean annual temperature of 32 degrees Celsius
and a mean monthly temperature ranging from
36 degrees Celsius in March to 27 degrees
Celsius in August.
The bio-region is characterized by shrubs and
grassland with scattered, medium-sized trees.
The soil type is laterite, sandy, and sandy loam
(savannah ochrosols). The soils are generally
poor in organic matter and nutrients and their
properties are depleted further as a result of the
absence of vegetative cover due to bush burning,
overgrazing, over cultivation, and erosion. In
addition, high temperatures, dry conditions, and
harmattan winds encourage bushfires (NadowliKaleo District Assembly, 2006). The soil has an
inhospitably-acidic pH of about 5.5. Between the
various difficult growing conditions outlined –
unpredictable, short rainy season, slight rainfall,
high temperatures, low soil fertility and forest
fires – the bio-region stands out as one of the
most challenging in the world for cultivation
purposes.
9 Apr
1960
Similar to the Sahel region, the Upper West
Region of Ghana has seen significant effects
of climate change over the past fifty years.
Statistical trends for the Nadowli District (taken
at the synoptic weather station, Wa, Upper West)
show the unpredictable variability of rainfall and
wet season onset, as well as the upward trend of
mean temperature.
Start day of wet season (calender day)
B
a
2005
01 INTRODUCTION: con’t
Start day of wet season (day of year)
This should be considered while interpreting Figure 12. A late –
sometimes extremely late – start does not mean that there was
no rain before; instead, it indicates in the respective year conditions for an early start of rain-fed agriculture were unfavourable.
cording to participants, food p
and make it difficult for them
In terms of food production, 9
ported a decline in crop produ
are minor.
Those respondents who have
said that changing rainfall pat
negatively. Many migrants sea
regions, and they perceived ch
areas as well.
Eighty-five per cent of the res
last 5 to 10 years, they were u
of their families throughout th
ing to them seems to be “get
ent PRA sessions affirm these
(including a teacher who main
of the community) created an
Where the Rain Falls Project − Case Study: Ghana
1.3 PROJECT CONTEXT
Societal Context
Nadowli-Kaleo District and Upper West region
are some of the lesser serviced and poorer
districts and regions of Ghana. Results of the
Ghana Demographic and Health Survey (2008)
and Multiple Indicator CLuster Survey (2011)
show how health nutrition, income, and access
to services, are under the Ghana average, and in
many cases the poorest in the country.
The population of Longborizu has remained
relatively similar in size over the past six years.
As measured in June 2014 it stands at 210 usual
residents. There are a disproportionately high
number of dependants in the village and the
population is in constant fluctuation as a result
of seasonal migration. The average age of the
residents is 30 and the average age of household
heads is 60. The population distribution is older
than the national average with 12% of the
population over 65, as compared to 4% in Ghana
(as measured in 2008).
The district of Nadowli-Kaleo is almost
entirely made up of the Dagaaba ethnic group
– descendants of the Dagomba state that
originally spanned across SE Burkina Faso and
NW Ghana. 100% of survey respondents in
Longborizo identify as Dagaaba. For hundreds
of years, the nomadic Fulani people have lived
alongside the Dagaaba, charged with tending
herds of cattle in place of the migrated young
men of the villages. The Fulani of the area tend
The most senior male of the household acts
as the head and has control over the most
valuable resource- the land. Power is ascribed
to men and the allocation of resources, status,
and duties is determined by factors of descent,
succession, and paternity. Access to land is
therefore mediated by men, and women do not
have direct access to land but can borrow land
to do independent farming (Rademacher-Schulz
and Mahama, 2012, 46).
Source: NLRDP HH Survey 2014
TRADITIONA
100
The religious make-up of Longborizu community
is mostly Christian (90%) of the Anglican, Baptist,
and Pentecostal/Charismatic denominations.
The rest of is made up of Muslims (3%) and
elders who adhere to the traditionalist religious
practices (7%). Although there are many
residents who actively practice Christianity,
and Islam – attending church and mosque
regularly – it is interesting to note that in matters
of superstition and local justice, most residents
regardless of stated religious affiliation readily
observe traditionalist practices, such as making
of sacrifices and using the land to swear oaths or
curse wrong-doers. In general, religious affiliation
appears not to affect relationships in the village.
The household structure tends to be based on
male headed units of extended families. Of the
33 households in Longborizo 26 are headed by
men. This proportion (79% male headed) is higher
then the national average (66%) and reflects
the patriarchal nature of the society. Average
household size (6.3 persons per household) is
also significantly higher than the average for
rural Ghana (4 persons) - see adjacent figures.
At the same time KDI has noted a general trend
away from larger households that contain up to
four generations of family members and towards
a nuclear household arrangement.
Sour
12%
65 and
over
53%
17 to 64
34%
16 and
UNDER
4%
80
60
54%
40
20
46%
54%
MALE
FEMALE
41%
0
FIGURE 1.3.3 AVERAGE HH SIZE
FIGURE 1.3.4 SEX OF HH HEAD
FIGURE 1.3.6 LON
Sources: 1. NLRDP HH Survey 2014
2. Ghana Demographic and Health Survey (2008)
Source: NLRDP HH Survey 2014
Sources: NLRDP H
7
21%
6.3
FEMALE
6
5
3.4
4
3
4.0
3.7
79%
MALE
2
1
FARM HOMEGARDEN
M
FIGURE 1.3.5
%H
76%
100%
0
GHANA AVERAGE
A
Sources: 1. NLRDP HH Survey 2014
2. Ghana Demographic and Health Survey (2008)
FIGURE 1.3.2 LONGBORIZO RESIDENT
POPULATION SEX RATIO (JUNE 2014)
GHANA AVERAGE
M
FIGURE 1.3.1 LB POPULATION DISTRIBUTION
RURAL GHANA
c
s
The project is located in the Upper West Region
of Ghana, within the Nadowli-Kaleo District
(populated by about 577,000 and 67,000 people
respectively) (Government of Ghana, 2014).
The small community of Longborizu, together
with eight other communities, forms the village
of Nator. Despite the fact that Nator is 2015
located
on
one
of
the
feeder
roads
to
the
main
regional
J
J
A
S
O
N
D
road that runs between the regional capital of
Wa and the district capital of Nadowli, Nator
village is the smallest and least serviced of its
three neighbours –Sankana, Goli and Takpo –
possibly because it was the last of the four to be
settled.
to live beside the Dagau villages in temporary
dwellings and move seasonally. While there
have been some rare cases of Fulani people
marrying into the Dagaaba clans, the roving
community are generally looked down upon. At
IMPLEMENTATON
times the relationship between the two groups
can be tense because of the impact of pastoral
lifestyle on sedentary farming.
URBAN GHANA
t
"
Project Location
LONGBORIZO
s
s
01 INTRODUCTION: con’t
LONGBORIZO
NLRDP phase 1 Timeline
Like the rest of UWR, the economy is mainly
KOUNKUEY DESIGN INITIATIVE
15
01 INTRODUCTION: con’t
TRIBUTION
2014
urvey (2008)
4%
4%
GHANA AVERAGE
1%
SIZE
2014
urvey (2008)
based
on subsistence
agriculture
and processed,
FIGURE
1.3.2 LONGBORIZO
RESIDENT
non-tree forest products. In 2010, 72 percent
SEX RATIODistrict
(JUNE 2014)
of POPULATION
the Nadowli-Kaleo
was engaged in
the agriculture
sector
while only
Source: NLRDP
HH Survey
2014 12.5 percent
and 15.5 percent were in involved industry and
commerce/service sectors respectively (Ministry
of Local Government and Rural Development,
2014, 45). There are no large plantation
holdings in the district and about 75 percent of
all district farmers use traditional cutlass and hoe
farming methods. The other 25 percent rely on
intermediate technology, using tractors, animal
drawn implements, and irrigation (Ministry of
Local 46%
Government and 54%
Rural Development,
2014, 64).
Favoured
crops
of the region are
MALE
FEMALE
local beans, ground nuts, tiger nuts, soybeans,
cassava, yam, maize, and sorghum.
The main economic trees found in the district
are Mango, Baobab, Shea Nut, Dawadawa
(African Locust Bean), African Teak, and Red
Mahogony. The processing of products like shea
butter, soap, and dawadawa (a local spice),
made from non-tree forest products, tends to be
administered by women and be labour intensive
without mechanisation. Additionally, women will
fell trees
to sell
FIGURE
1.3.4charcoal,
SEX OF HHfirewood,
HEAD or buildingtimber.Source:
In thisNLRDP
way, during
the
dry season, when
Survey 2014
food is less available,HHwomen
become the bread
winners of the household.
FIGURE 1.3.5 LONGBORIZO RESIDENT RELIGION
Source: NLRDP HH Survey 2014
TRADITIONAL
3.7
79%
GHANA AVERAGE
MALE
• Wider Community of Nator
The wider community of Nator are secondary
beneficiaries to the project in the initial phase.
Proximity and family ties between the nine
communities of Nator will undoubtedly cause
pilots directed at Longborizu to effect the wider
area of Nator.
CHRISTIAN
• Rotan Trust
Rotan Trust was created to support
development projects in Nator and its
surrounds. Trustees are all sons and daughters
of Longborizu who have achieved success
outside of the village.
FIGURE 1.3.6 LONGBORIZO AGrICULTURAL FOCUS
Sources: NLRDP HH Survey (2014) - Longborizo Section
FARM HOMEGARDEN
FEMALE
3%
90%
21%
100%
• Kounkuey Design Initiative
KDI is the project implementor organisation.
KDI: Ghana operates with one permanent
project leader living on site in Longborizu and
the Project Director and Executive Director
operating remotely as well as making site visits
at critical points in the process.
• Alexandra Dryer
Alex is an Agro Ecologist with extensive
experience who is a consultant to the project in
the Agriculture Sector.
% HH OWNING AV. SIZE/HH (ACRES)
76%
The key project stakeholders are introduced
here:
• Community of Longborizu
The community members of Longborizu are the
central beneficiaries in the initial phase of the
project. They are primary actors and focus of
study in the project.
MUSLIM
7%
Project Stakeholders
1
5
• Nadowli-Kaleo District Assembly
The local government authorities, including
NKDA, are supportive of NLRDP. The long
term goals of the project line up well with the
Nadowli-Kaleo Mid-Term Development Goals
(2014 -2017) for the area.
• Arup CAUSE team
Arup is a team of six consulting engineers from
the Arup firm. In UK, they serve as pro-bono
engineers for the project
16
NLRDP: NEEDS ASSESSMENT REPORT
A
BLANK PAGE
KOUNKUEY DESIGN INITIATIVE
17
02 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
01 introductions
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
immersion
participatory
consultations
household
surveys
pilots
02 research methodolody
To date, the research methodology is comprised
primarily of first-hand information gathering.
Through immersion of the project leader, Michelle
Morna, extensive participatory community
consultations, community mapping, and a survey
of 132 households, a broad range of relevant and
detailed information was gathered. Four ongoing
pilot projects not only encouraged commitment
and enthusiasm from participating community
members but also served as a testing ground for
various methods for future development work.
Finally, supporting data was gathered through
literature review, including national, regional,
and local government studies and reports.
2.1 Immersion
The project office is located within one of the
larger compounds in Longborizu. The project
leader currently lives in the compound and also
conducts project work, as well as hosts nighttime community meetings. Neighbours within
the compound are widows and young children.
During this homestay, invaluable learning has
been gained in household set up, everyday life
and duties, and gender issues.
A mapping of the wider area of Nator and its
services was conducted by taking walking tours
of the vicinity of Nator, visiting individual’s farms,
and visiting neighbouring schools, markets,
and clinics with community members. The
community members assisted the project leader
to understand the nuances of each location and
backstories, including the history of the facilities
in the various locations.
The project leader has also been able to form
an understanding of the indigenous culture
and religious practices by attending village
celebrations, festivals and funerals, as well as
by learning the fundamentals of the Dagaare
language.
An accompanied visit to each of the thirty-three
households of Longborizu allowed the project
leader to map the village as it stands as well
as learn how clan divides are manifested in the
community layout. Layout drawings were made
of each of the compounds and noted for disrepair
and good quality (available on request).
The Agro Ecological consultant completed a
thorough study over a two month period of
immersion during which she lived with project
leader. Casual farm walks and late night
conversations with individuals were critical to
informing the data collected through formal
surveys, focus groups and trainings.
At key moments in the process, KDI Executive
Director and Associate Director visited the village
and spent between ten and fourteen days on the
ground. The time was used to orientate the team
members, get to know the full cross-section
of village by spending time with community
members in one-on-one conversations and
larger meetings, form necessary community
groups and committees, and conduct household
surveys.
The Arup CAUSE Project leader visited
Longborizu for twelve days during which time,
community members led the team to visit local
river crossings, dams, rain water collection sites,
and boreholes. The strategies employed are
both low-tech, local innovations as well as large
scale, more resource-intensive techniques.
Being on the ground was key to weighing the
appropriateness of various options for the area
and sparking innovative ideas that can marry
local and international technologies.
2.2 Participatory Consultations
Community Mapping
and
KDI believes that the technical expertise that is
brought by the organisation can only be useful
if informed by the intimate local understanding
of the community and space where we are
working. It is of the utmost importance to
have participatory decision-making processes
throughout the project process – from identifying
needs, to formulating appropriate project ideas,
to designing, building, and then sustaining the
projects in the long term.
Participation of community members means not
only attending arranged gatherings but being
actively involved in physical activities, decision
making, and organizing discussions.
Date
Feb 25
Subject
General community meeting on RDP
Attendees
Michelle, General Longborizu Community
Mar 7
School development
Mar 15
School development
Mar 17
Mar 18
Mar 20
Ag. focus group
Ag. focus group
School development
Michelle, Afia Morna, Executive Committee of Nator-Longborizu (5
young male members), Madam Millie, Madam Mary (voluntary
teachers)
Michelle, Afia Morna, Executive Committee of Nator-Longborizu (4
young male members), Volunteer teachers (Madam Mary and Madam
Millie, Security guard, Mr. Ken Zore (Circuit Supervisor of area)
Mar 26
School Inaugauration
Mar 22
Mar 23
Meeting young girls (3-18) group
Meeting Savings and Loans Groups
Mar 24
Mar 24
Mar 31
Apr 4
Apr 4
Apr 5 - 24
Meeting Suntaa Maale (older
women's group)
Elder men's group
Young men's group and YA
Meeting young girls (14-21) group
Young men's group (6-21)
LDC nominations + farmer focus
groups feedback + ag. pilot proposal
School poster-making with children
School visioning session with children
School visioning session with SMC
Assets/ resource mapping with youth
LDC nominations with 6 groups
Apr 26
LDC opening meeting
Apr 25
Apr 29
Ag: Living Fence training
Ag: Compost training - Group 1
Apr 30
Ag: Compost training - Group 2
May 2
May 3
Ag: Contour planting training SMC - feedback on education pilot
proposal
LDC - By Laws and announcements
Infrastructure Workshop (access)
Infrastructure Workshop (physical)
Infrastructure Workshop
(solutions access)
Infrastructure Workshop
(solutions physical)
HH Survey Introduction
Mar 25
Mar 23
Mar 23
Mar 23
Mar 31
Jun 2
Jun 5
Jun 6
Jul 14
Jul 18
Jun 14
Jun 22
Jul 6
Community meeting with SMC and
PTA
SMC school bus meeting
Jul 15
FMNR meeting
Aug 6
!
Education target update
A
Michelle and Chelina, Afia Morna, Executive Committee of NatorLongborizu (3 young male members), Volunteer teachers, Canteen
staff, Mr. Kenzore (Circuit Supervisor of area)
Longborizu community, Michelle, Afia Morna, Patrick Morna, Felicia
Morna, Baba Morna. District Director of Education – Nadowli, District
Commissioner – Nadowli, Deputy District Director of Nadowli,
Assembleyman, Circuit supervisor of Nator.
Michelle and Chelina, 11 girls ages 3-18
Michelle, Chelina, WIDO Membership share – Younger group (13
women and 1 man)
Michelle, Chelina, Older women’s group: Suntaa Maale Group (14
women, 1 man)
Michelle, Chelina, Elders (8 men)
Michelle, Young Men (15 men) from Youth Association
Chelina, Young girls age 14 - 21 (17 girls)
Michelle, Young Boys (20 boys) ages 6 -21
Michelle, Alex, Longborizu community members (49 people)
Michelle, Chelina, Young people and children from Longborizu (+-30)
Michelle, NL School KD1 and KG2 class (37 students)
Michelle, School Management Committee members (8 members)
Michelle, Boys and Girls +13 years old (+-15 young people)
Michelle and various committees and community groups
Michelle, Development Committee members (12 members)
Michelle, Alex, Adult members of Longborizu communityy (+-30 people)
Michelle, Alex, Adult members of Longborizu communityy (8 men, 13
women)
Michelle, Alex, Adult members of Longborizu communityy (4 men, 8
women)
Michelle, Alex, FMNR Group (6 members)
Michelle, SMC and PTA members (6 men, 4 women)
Michelle, Joe, LDC members (+- 12 people)
Michelle, Joe, LDC members (+- 12 people)
Michelle, Joe, LDC members (+- 12 people)
Michelle, Louisa (Arup) and LDC members (+- 12 people)
Michelle, and LDC members (+- 12 people)
Michelle, Mujeeb, Osman and Abass (Survey team), LDC members (+14 people)
Michelle, 39 Community members - 8 of whom SMC/PTA members
Michelle, Louisa, and 8 SMC members
Michelle, Gabriel, Pirimaa, James, Isaac, Daniel, Yakubo, Samwini
(new member)
SMC and PTA members (+-20)
KOUNKUEY DESIGN INITIATIVE
19
02 research methodology: con’t
KDI makes a concerted effort to ensure that all
voices are heard, despite any social biases.
Between February and September of 2014,
KDI has led forty separate consultations with
Longborizu community using varying approaches.
All consultations were conducted in Dagaare with
help from any one of four community members
who have a strong understanding of English.
Minutes from all meetings, focus groups and
workshops can be found in the NLRDP Technical
Appendix.
Community Meetings
A total of twenty-one meetings were held, at times
with an open invitation to the entire community,
and at other times with specific social groups,
committees, associations, and saving and loaning
groups. In this way, voices of the full diversity of
stakeholders were given equal space to air their
opinions on relevant topics. This also allowed
KDI to become aware of the social groupings the
Longborizu residents naturally find themselves a
part of; children, childless boys (about 15 to 21
years old), childless girls (about 15 to 21 years
old), men of child bearing age, women of child
bearing age, women beyond child bearing age,
male elders (tendanaa – household heads) and
female elders (pogonaa – spouses and widows
of household heads). It was encouraging to find
that the community already had in operation
several committees to lead advocacy on issues
of the school, water (or borehole), and health.
Focus Groups
Two intensive focus groups were led by Alexandra
Dryer to delve into the details of farmer lives,
challenges, and successes. After consideration
it was decided that the two groups need not be
divided on gender lines. This decision proved
accommodating, as both gender groups entered
the discussion heartily. Aside from the empirical
data that was gleaned from participants,
observation of the focus groups gave a clearer
understanding of the gender divide in labour and
duties when it comes to farm work and income
generating activities.
20
NLRDP: NEEDS ASSESSMENT REPORT
A
Farmer Trainings
Following the focus groups, countless oneon-one conversations, farm tours, and
observation, Alexandra Dryer devised three
simple farmer trainings – one of which was
repeated by popular demand. All trainings
were designed to improve day-to-day labour
input and costs but could also stand as a
basis from which to conduct more complex
trainings in the future. While the compost
and living fence trainings were open to all
who wished to attend, a small Agriculture
Pilot Group was invited to the more complex,
contour training.
An unexpected positive outcome of the
trainings was the increase in participants’
engagement in the gatherings. Alex also
gained important knowledge of farmer’s level
of understanding of the natural processes of
the environment. Questions asked suggested
a thorough grasp of the new concepts being
taught. Follow-up in October of 2014 and in
2015 will monitor and support the full scaling
and take up of these concepts.
Community Workshops
C
d
B
c
Eight workshops have been conducted with
the SMC/PTA and the students of N-L KG
School, the adult farmers, and the LDC.
Workshops are activity focused and tend to
revolve around solution based discussions
as opposed to identifying challenges.
Often running four to five hours long, the
sessions are intensive and require focus and
dedication from the participants. The results
of these sessions have taken project and
pilot ideas leaps forward in every instance.
A Community meeting with Sunta Maale, a saving and loaning Consultant, Alexandra Dryer. Photo Credit: Michelle Sintaa
group of women beyond child bearing age. Photo Credit:
Chelina Odbert
B Farmer focus group one led by Ecological Agriculture
Morna
c Training the Agriculture Pilot Group to use a simple
A-frame to find contour lines and minimize water runoff.
Photo Credit: Michelle Sintaa Morna
02 research methodology: con’t
Longborizu Development Committee (LDC)
Early on, it became clear that the level of
consultations required to create a full picture of
the complex needs of the community was a large
demand to put on the wider community. Meetings
with smaller groups yielded better results in terms
of the amount of information covered, attendance
rate, and the willingness of participants to
engage in discussions and activities. Thus,
a development committee was formed by
nominating one representative and one second
deputy representative from each social grouping
and existing committee. The LDC was tasked
with attending bi-weekly workshops, taking
information back to their groups, and gathering
information from their groups. With the LDC,
KDI has been able to lead three organisational
meetings and four longer workshops that
recorded more detailed information on focused
topics of infrastructure. It is anticipated that
the LDC (if it proves to be supported and
representative)will be the central committee for
decision-making during implementation phases
and take on the responsibility of managing and
maintaining projects.
2.3 Household Surveys
b
A
Longborizu Development Committee
A
COMMITTEES
c
Water
Committee
School
Management
Committee
Health
Committee
Parent
Teacher’s
Association
KDI conducted a comprehensive household
survey of 134 households in June 2014. All 33
of the households in Longborizu were surveyed.
A further 46 and 50 households were surveyed
in the neighbouring communities of Banoare
and Naayiri respectively, and the remaining 33
households in neighbouring Duorin. All surveyed
communities are within Nator village. While
Banoare and Naayiri served as communities that
are similar to Longborizu and may feel effects
of early projects of NLRDP, Duorin lies apart,
lacking a vehicle road connection to the others.
Duorin thus acted as a control community that
will likely not experience any change resulting
from NLRDP interventions.
A standard sampling procedure was used to
identify households to be interviewed in all
villages aside from Longborizu. Compounds were
numbered on a map and community members
from the survey area would pick numbers out
of a hat until the desired number (20 percent
SOCIETAL GROUPS
Young
Women’s
S+L group
Young girls
(14-21)
Young
Men’s
Association
Middle-aged
women’s
S+L group
Chief and
elder men
Chieftess
and elder
women
Young boys
(14-21)
A LDC Group Diagram
KOUNKUEY DESIGN INITIATIVE
21
02 research methodology: con’t
A
A
b
above the required number of surveys) was
reached. Interviewers approached the houses in
the order that was chosen at random. Where a
building was under construction or empty, they
moved to the next compound on the list. Every
household in each of the chosen compounds
was interviewed.
The household survey sought to cover a broad
range of topics with specific depth in some
areas. The broad topics included demographic
information, household characteristics, daily
activities of community members, and services in
the vicinity. Agriculture, income and expenditure,
in addition to adult and child health and nutrition
were studied with greater detail. The survey was
produced with reference to standard surveying
techniques, and with specific reference to the
national Demographic and Health Survey for
Ghana (2008) and the Mutiple Indicator Cluster
Survey (2011). The survey also includes
questions that correlate to indicators from the
Multidimensional Poverty Index, and other
indicators deemed as important in the NLRDP
Sustainable Development Index.
A
B
c
For the full Household Survey and Survey
Summary, please see the NLRDP Technical
Appendix
2.4 Pilots
Four Pilot projects were identified by May of
2014 as first steps in the education, agriculture,
infrastructure and business sectors. These
pilots serve not only as a testing ground for
methodology of implementation, but as a
community motivator for people who have spent
many hours in consultative gatherings and oneon-one immersion activities with KDI and its
consultants. Projects chosen were decidedly
small in nature and quick to implement. By
choosing the “low-hanging fruit”, success could
be garnered while simultaneously devoting
enough time and resources to the research
aspects of the first phase.
More detail on the status of the pilots at the time
of writing and their role in supporting next steps
in the NLRDP is included in Chapter 3 of this
report.
22
NLRDP: NEEDS ASSESSMENT REPORT
A A total of 132 households were surveyed in NLRDP
Household Survey of June 2014 in four sections of Nator
Village, namely; Longborizu, Banoare, Naayiri and Dourin.
B Infrastructure Workshop One: The LDC maps and rates
pathways in the community. Photo Credit: Michelle Sintaa
Morna
c Infrastructure Workshop One: The LDC maps and rates
pathways in the community. Photo Credit: Michelle Sintaa
Morna
BLANK PAGE
KOUNKUEY DESIGN INITIATIVE
23
03 ASSESSMENT FRAMEWORK
01 introductions
3.1
3.2
nlrdp sustainable
development index
8 forms of
capital
A
b
03 assessment framework
Multiple models exist to describe the interactions
between society and environment, and to
analyze and understand the trade offs between
different forms of economic, environmental, and
social capital. In developing the Sustainable
Development Index KDI has attempted to lay out
a broad conception of sustainable development
in the context of Longborizu using quantifiable
and qualitative indicators across the different
sectors, identified by the community in concert
with KDI. Development along the axes of these
sectors and indicators has implications for the
flow of resources in the community, not just in
the physical and economic sense, but for the
societal and ecological elements of people and
place.
a
b
In order to start to understand how this
“development” might play out in the broadest
sense we have used the Eight Forms of Capital
as a way of elucidating the linkages between
different sectors, and for understanding how
each indicator tracked has the potential to
influence a variety of resource flows.
3.1 NLRDP Sustainable Development Index
NLRDP Sustainable Development Index (SDI)
is a bespoke framework that forms a basis of
sectors and sub-sectors upon which to structure
the Development Plan. Each sub-sector includes
a set of relevant quantitative and qualitative
indicators and can be used to make assessments
of the existing conditions and changes in the
future as investments and interventions are
introduced. The Index attempts to lay out a
broad conception of sustainable development
without being reductive with the complexity and
interrelatedness of the issues at hand.
See Figure A p. 25
The NLRDP Sustainable Development Index
was created to provide for:
1.
Gathering baseline information on Nator
Village and Longborizu Section.
2.
Capturing the broad range of
challenges, needs, aspirations, and
ideas of the communities of Nator
Village and Longborizu Section.
3.
Evaluating changes in social,
financial, material, living,
intellectual, experiential, cultural
and spiritual capital over time.
4.
Providing the basis for evaluating
the impact of interventions related
to the implementation of the NLRDP
The chosen sectors and subsectors were defined
by the outcomes of several community meetings
held in April of 2014, with each of the eight
society groups, namely; children, childless boys
(about 15 to 21 years old), childless girls (about
15 to 21 years old), men of child bearing age,
women of child bearing age, women beyond child
bearing age, male elders (tendanaa – household
heads) and female elders (pogonaa – spouses
and widows of household heads). (For further
information on these meetings, please see
Community Meetings 05a – 05g Outcomes in
NLRDP Baseline Conditions Report Technical
Appendix).
A Challenges and aspirations listed by members of
Longborizu Community. Source: NLRDP Community
Meetings (April 2014)
B Summary of the challenges and aspirations of members
of Longborizu Community by sub groups. Source: NLRDP
Community Meetings (April 2014)
KOUNKUEY DESIGN INITIATIVE
25
A
1.3 assessment framework: con’t
The community meetings showed that the
community on whole shared concerns and
aspirations in the area of infrastructural
developments like water and access, but also
had independent ambitions depending on their
gender and age groups.
NLRDP interventions in any of the subsectors
would invariably engage a multiplicity of capitals.
These interactions help to optimize for multicapital abundance and therefore maximum
social effect.
The categories of sectors and subsectors
structure the contents of this report, and select
indicators are used within each chapter to show
the current status. Indicators were selected with
a broad range of reference points, including but
not limited to:
• Key Indicators Survey 2013 (USAID/WHO)
• Demographic and Health Survey - Ghana
2008
• Millennium Development Goals/Millennium
Villages Impact Assessment
• Multi-Dimensional Poverty Index
• World Happiness Report (2013)
• Agricultural Consultant Recommendations
• Indicators identified in consultations and
workshops
The aim of using standard indicators, and in
particular Ghana specific indicators, is to allow
for apples-to-apples comparisons to regional,
national and international data, to understand
in context Nator’s current situation and areas
that need further development. Each subsector
is addressed in more detail and a list of select
indicators of the subsector is summarized at the
end of each section.
3.2 Eight Forms of Capital
Eight Forms of Capital is an economic map
that conceptualises and accounts for the
world’s multiplicity of resource flows (Roland
& Landua, 2013, p.11). The Eight Forms of
Capital economic model recognizes that beyond
the financial there are other forms of capital;
social, material, living, intellectual, experiential,
26
NLRDP: NEEDS ASSESSMENT REPORT
cultural, and spiritual.
If a business venture assumes a holistic
understanding of the flow of resources,
then enterprise can be an effective tool for
creating positive change, where abundance
can be found in material terms, but also in
terms of the living assets upon which human
survival depends like food, water, energy
and shelter (ibid, p.12).
C
Pools of Capital can be held and developed
by multiple entities, and various flows can
occur within and between each form of
capital (ibid, p.12).
Economic theorists, Ethan Roland and
Gregory Landua propose that a truly healthy
system of economic development not only
sustains the status quo of capital assets
but in fact regenerates capitals that are
under pressure and depleted. In order for an
enterprise to become regenerative, it must
strike the right balance between the capitals
that nurture human existence – social,
cultural, spiritual and living – and the capitals
that support the functioning of our societies
– financial, material, and intellectual. The
enterprise must plan to replenish these
nurture capitals. Proverbially speaking, a
regenerative enterprise does not harvest the
root of the tree, only its fruit.
The community meetings showed that the
community on whole shared concerns and
aspirations in the area of infrastructural
developments like water and access, but
also had independent ambitions depending
on their gender and age groups.
A A clear framework to understand the global web of
interactions and transactions: the global economy. Credit:
Regenerative Enterprise: Optimizing for Multi-Capital
Abundance, (2013)
DA
LIVING STANDARDS
Life satisfaction
SO
M
F
L
Assets and Ownership
SO
M
F
L
Water
SO
M
F
L
Sanitation
SO
Electricity
SO
Cooking Fuel
From the thematic areas of access and basic services, income and business, agriculture and
opportunity, education and health, and training, KDI defined the following sectors and subsectors:
8 FORMS OF CAPITAL
COMMUNITY
Cultural Resilience
SO
Community Groups
SO
M
Community Cohesion
SO
M
Security
SO
M
Equality of the disadvantaged
SO
Public Amenities
SO
Access to Service Providers
SO
Life satisfaction
SO
Assets and Ownership
SO
LIVING STANDARDS
INCOME & EMPLOYMENT
F
L
I
E
SP
L
I
E
SP
I
E
F
L
M
SP
F
I
L
M
F
L
SO
M
F
L
Water
SO
M
F
L
Sanitation
SO
Electricity
SO
SP
F
SO
M
F
Access
SO
M
F
Communication Technology
SO
F
M
F
F
Communication Technology
SO
E
I
E
SP
I
SP
Water Management
SO
M
F
L
I
E
SP
Management of Pests, Diseases and
Fungal Infection
SO
M
F
L
I
E
Crop Diversity
SO
M
F
L
I
E
Climate Resilience
SO
M
F
L
I
E
SECTOR
SUB-SECTOR
Agricultural Costs, Labour, Yields
SO
COMMUNITY
INCOME & EMPLOYMENT
Cultural
Resilience
Expenditure
and Income
SO
Community
Groups
Economic Activity
SO
M
Community
Cohesion
Seasonal Employment
SO
Security
Financial Management
SO
Equality of the disadvantaged
SO
Public Amenities
SO
M
F
Medicaltofacilities
Access
Access
Service and
Providers
SO
SO
M
F
L
L
Life satisfaction
Injuries and Disease
SO
SO
M
F
F
L
Assets and Ownership
SO
M
F
L
Water
Child and Adult Education
SO
SO
M
FF
L
Sanitation
SO
Electricity
SO
SO
HEALTH
Nutrition
SO
ENVIRONMENT
AGRO-ECONOMY
M
L
I
E
SP
F
L
I
E
SP
F
L
I
E
M
F
L
M
F
F
M
F
F
M
F
SO
M
F
Access
SO
M
F
Non-RenewableTechnology
Energy
Communication
SO
SO
M
FF
M
F
Air Pollution
Agriculture systems
SO
M
F
SO
E
EDUCATION
L
I
E
L
L
I
E
I
E
I
E
L
I
E
L
II
E
L
L
I
E
I
E
SP
M
M
F
F
L
L
I
I
E
E
SP
SP
M
F
L
I
E
SP
SO
M
F
L
I
E
SP
Water Management
SO
SO
M
M
F
F
L
L
I
E
Management of Pests, Diseases and
Fungal Infection
SO
M
F
L
I
E
Management of Pests, Diseases and
Fungal
Infection
Solid Waste
SO
M
F
L
I
E
Crop Diversity
SO
M
F
L
I
E
Crop Diversity
SO
M
F
L
I
E
Climate Resilience
SO
M
F
L
I
E
Climate Resilience
SO
M
F
L
I
E
Agricultural Costs, Labour, Yields
SO
M
F
L
I
E
Agricultural Costs, Labour, Yields
SO
M
F
L
I
E
L
I
E
L
I
E
F
M
Economic Activity
Seasonal Employment
Financial Management
SO
F
F
F
INCOME & EMPLOYMENT
E
8 Forms of Capital
SO – Social
M – Material
F – Financial
SO
M
M
Seasonal Employment
Financial Management
F
L
L
F
Expenditure and Income
M
Economic Activity
SO
Medical facilities and Access
SO
M
Injuries and Disease
SO
F
Child and Adult Education
SO
F
Existing facility
SO
M
F
L
I
Biodiversity
SO
M
F
L
I
Non-Renewable Energy
SO
M
F
L
I
Air Pollution
SO
F
F
L
Deforestation and Desertification
SO
M
F
L
Construction Materials Depletion
SO
M
F
L
Solid Waste
SO
M
F
L
Water contamination
SO
M
L
SP
8 Forms of Capital
SO – Social
M – Material
F – Financial
L – Living
I – Intellectual
E – Experiential
SP - Spiritual
!
E
F
L – Living
I – Intellectual
E – Experiential
SP - Spiritual
!
KOUNKUEY DESIGN INITIATIVE
I
L
L
SO
Water contamination
SP
SP
SO
SO
SO
ENVIRONMENT
L
Water Management
SP
SP
SP
L
L
Nutrition
SP
SP
Soil Management
Construction Materials Depletion
HEALTH
F
Structures
Biodiversity
SP
F
L CAPITAL
I
E
8M
FORMS
OF
Deforestation
and Desertification
Soil
Management
Expenditure and Income
SP
SP
EDUCATION
SP
E
E
Cooking Fuel
E
E
I
E
Agriculture systems
Existing facility
I
F
I
I
LIVING STANDARDS
I
L
I
I
L
F
M
L
L
L
M
SO
L
F
M
SO
Access
F
SP
E
Structures
L
F
L
Structures
Agriculture systems
E
F
M
SP
F
M
M
F
F
Cooking Fuel
AGRO-ECONOMY
M
L
F
SO
figure a: NLRDP Sustainable development index
SUB-SECTOR
E
Soil Management
AGRO-ECONOMY
SECTOR
SP
27
L
I
CHAPTER II | BASELINE CONDITIONS
04 COMMUNITY
4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 4.8 4.9
cultural
resilience
community
groups
community
cohesion
security
equality of the public amenities
disadvantaged
access to
service
providers
life
satisfaction
summary
04 community
The research methods outlined in the previous
chapter were used to gather empirical
information, while review of literature from local,
regional, and national authorities provided
supporting data. This chapter examines each
sector identified in the Sustainable Development
Index and presents the material compiled in the
field, to complete the set of baseline conditions.
By looking at each sector in depth and examining
the links between sectors, it is hoped that the
complex and interwoven web of challenges
facing Longborizu and Nator society can be
clearly understood and used to inform future
sustainable development initiatives.
COMMUNITY
This section covers the community culture of
the nuclear community of Longborizu and its
wider society of Nator. It delves into societal
group relations, activities and organisations, as
well as the link between Longborizu and local
government service providers.
4.1 Cultural Resilience
Cultural celebrations, ceremonies and rites are
a staple in Dagaaba society. The most common
ceremonies and rites are funerals, burial rites
(that take place one week and one year after
burial), and name day celebrations (where
babies are officially welcomed into the world and
given a name two weeks after birth). In addition to
these adhoc get-togethers, there are two annual
celebrations: one river celebration called Nyeri in
May and another at harvest in December.
On average, KDI has observed about one large
social gathering every week either in Longborizu
Section, Nator Village, or the neighbouring villages
of Sankana, Takpo or Goli. The interconnected
nature of clans in this cluster of villages through
marriage dictates that most often, Longborizu
residents are expected at gatherings both inside
and outside of Longborizu. People’s judgement
of close family encompasses a far wider group
of relations than an average western concept of
family. It is considered a grave insult to miss the
funeral of one of these relations, thus residents
are obliged to leave farm work, business, and
employment about once a week to attend.
30
NLRDP: NEEDS ASSESSMENT REPORT
c
A
On one occasion, a resident informed the KDI
project leader that she could not attend a training
as she had intended because she was expected
at her sister-in-law’s, grand-aunt’s funeral. She
professed, “So you see, I have no choice. I have
to go.”
There is a large number of Natorna diaspora
that live in clusters in the South of the country –
mostly in Obuasi and Techiman. It is interesting
to observe that despite the length of time they
have been away or even if they were born
outside of the village, people will insist on being
buried in the village. There remains, it seems, a
strong belief that one must be buried with one’s
ancestors so that they will guide you to the world
of the afterlife and without them you would be
lost. This suggests that Dagaaba culture endures
even outside the physical boundaries. Locals
jokingly threaten that if migrated residents do not
come back often enough to pay them visit, when
they finally return in death, their funerals will be
empty and the will not have a blessed departure
to the next world.
The activities and rituals that take place during
funerals, burial rites, and name day celebrations
are similar in many ways but there are also
variances. A notable difference in funerals, is
the length of the event. Funerals typically start at
sunset and continue with unabated energy until
the following sunset. This means that, not only
are locals expected to leave their occupancies
an average of once a week, but they are often
away for twenty-four hours and return exhausted.
While community members note the significant
amount of time required to attend these cultural
events as a challenge, from a cultural perspective,
there are also benefits in these activities.
First, these events present an opportunity for
local percussionists and xylophone players to
exercise their art and train up younger boys.
Second, they offer a venue to perform traditional
songs and dances specific to each occasion,
and young children are encouraged to enter the
performance circles and learn the songs and
dances. Third, the events are occasions to wear
traditional clothes – the men wear a hand woven
smock and pants, and women wear traditional
cloths in colours specific to the occasion, sewn
A
B
d
F
A Percussionists at a harvest day celebration. Credit: Michelle C A Nator Youth Association exists in the southern town of
Sintaa Morna
B Young girls dance the kore at a harvest day celebration
supported by their grandmothers. Credit: Michelle Sintaa
Morna
Techiman. Credit: Michelle Sintaa Morna
d Traditional xylophones and percussion instruments. Credit:
Joe Mulligan
04 community: con’t
in the modern styles. Finally, at funerals and
burial rites, elders sing dirges in the old Dagaare
tongue, that few are still able to speak. It is again
an opportunity for younger people to make a
connection to their mother language culture.
A
in class. Currently, about 8 of the 210 permanent
Longborizu residents can carry on a fluent
conversation in English. Of these, half are
children attending school.
These events also offer a positive economic side
effect. They present an opportunity for marketing
products to a wider consumer group. Women will
often set up small vending stalls and sell highervalue goods, like snack foods and locally-brewed
alcoholic beverages.
In Longborizu, it is encouraging to see that the
local language is still so widely spoken and that
students continue to study the written form of the
language. However in English-speaking Ghana
and in the modern globalised world, the need
for residents to be able to speak other, widely
spoken languages is clear.
Language
4.2 Community Groups
The Dagaare language is spoken by
approximately 1.1 million people who hail from
the Upper West Region of Ghana and south
eastern part of Burkina Faso. The language
was originally transcribed by Muslim settlers in
Wa and there exist story and text books printed
in the language by Ghana Education Services.
For students in the Upper West Region,
Dagaare is the primary language of instruction in
Kindergarten. Once pupils reach Primary school,
classes are taught in English, and all pupils study
either Dagaare or Wale (the local language of
Wa, which is almost identical to Dagaare) as a
second language. Since Dagaare has several
dialects, many students do not study their home
dialect; this is the case for Longborizu students.
The variations in the dialects are minimal
however, with differentiation lying mostly in
pronunciation and a handful of words.
Longborizu has a healthy culture of creating
community organisations for leadership,
advocacy, and income generating purposes.
Upon arrival in the village KDI found four
committees, three income generating
organisations, and two church groups in
operation. In February 2014, residents elected
a Longborizu Development Committee (LDC) to
work closely with the KDI project leader to define,
plan, and guide implementation of the NLRDP
projects. KDI has noted that among the naturallyoccurring groupings within the village, the young
girls and boys (about 15 to 21 years of age) are
keen to have their own official association that
could have regular meetings and a set of goals.
Most locals speak a basic level of Twi, the
dominant southern Ashanti language, as a
result of their migrations for work. Some Natorna
people returning from the south are unable to
speak Dagaare and are forced to use Twi, to
communicate with village locals.
Since Dagaare is spoken by so few, it can be
debilitating for young people wishing to travel
for job opportunities if it is their only language.
As such, KDI has noticed a push from adults
for children to learn and speak English instead
of their mother tongue. Parents are boastful of
their children who can speak English and PTA
members of N-L KG School have complained
that their children do not speak enough English
A
b
Committees
Apart from the LDC that KDI helped form, there
are four Longborizu committees. When the N-L
KG School was built in 2012, there was a need for
residents to volunteer as unskilled construction
workers. The project was undertaken during the
peak rainy season, when community members
are the busiest, yet they managed to organise
themselves into four teams of young men and
their wives in order to have help on site every
day.
A WIDO saving and Loaning Group 140325. Caption: WIDO
saving and loaning group have highly organised procedures.
Photo Credit: Chelina Odbert
B Suntaa Maale is the name of this women’s group, meaning
“to make progress”. Photo Credit: Chelina Odbert
KOUNKUEY DESIGN INITIATIVE
31
A
Once the school was built, it was decided that
a committee would be needed to advocate for
the school in various capacities. Originally, this
group was called the Executive Committee, had
seven active members and by default, dealt with
matters both related and unrelated to the school.
Over the past two years, the executive committee
became the School Management Committee
(SMC) and a Borehole Committee as well as
a Health Committee were elected to allow the
SMC to focus solely on the school. Additionally,
a volunteer Parent-Teachers Association (PTA)
was created.
The committees have between three and seven
members and do not meet regularly but only when
a specific issue needs to be discussed. While the
SMC continues to have a strong decision making
role and has been effective in implementing
several goals on behalf of the school, the other
three committees have expressed that they are
not able to be effective without regular meetings.
It is their wish to strengthen their groups, in
particular to advocate for a much needed second
borehole and community ambulance.
32
NLRDP: NEEDS ASSESSMENT REPORT
Income Generating Groups
There are three income generating groups
which are divided along gender and age
lines. The Young Men’s Association
consist of about 60 men old enough to be
able to plough fields for a full work day (about
15 years old and up). The group organises
themselves to do group labour days, mostly
for money but occasionally on a volunteer
basis for community endeavours. The WIDO
Saving and Loaning Group consists of 20
members, all young women of child bearing
age. The group is supported by the Women’s
Income Development Organisation (WIDO),
a national organization, and have an
organised system of operation. Suntaa
Maale (“to make progress”) is a saving a
loaning group that is made up of women
beyond child bearing age.
Church Groups
Two church groups exist. There is a
Pentecostal branch of the Fountain Gate
Church that meets in Longborizu. There is
also a Baptist church group, led by a pastor
from Longborizu, that meets at a church in the
centre of Nator. Neither of the church groups
have any specific improvement programs
in Longborizu but address the spiritual
B
needs of their members. The Pentecostal
Church group has been observed to have
destructive effects on community cohesion;
A most recent occurrence stemmed from
the Pentecostal pastor accusing some
community members of witchcraft.
4.3 Community Cohesion
There are 3 clans in Longborizu. The houses
of the clans are clustered together, each
clan having their own funeral grounds. Clans
remain a dividing factor in the community.
According to the Longborizu elders, two
brothers were the first settlers of the new
section of Nator. As the two youngest in a
large family of boys, the brothers were unable
to obtain farm land and decided to move
their families to a piece of open land across
the Longbori River, where Longborizu is
now located. The two families grew over five
generations until today and they are known
by the clan names Mbuobu and Gbangyeba.
Approximately three generations ago, a
new clan of settlers, facing a similar lack of
farm land, moved in from the neighbouring
village of Takpo. This clan is referred to as
Toorkuor.
KDI was warned at the start of NLRDP, that
decisions should be made in consideration
of fair treatment of all the clans. In particular,
it has been apparent that those who are part
of the Toorkuor clan – the newest arrivals to
the section and occupiers of the land furthest
from the centre of the section – are sensitive
to the fact that some developments like the
borehole and the school are far away from
their homes.
There are other potential causes of
community division in Longborizu which
include: religious differences–there are
several denominations of Christianity, Islam,
and traditionalism present in the village;
and differences in educational attainment—
tensions sometimes rise between members
of the community who are educated (some
to a tertiary level) and those who have little
or no education whatsoever.
Despite instances in which KDI noted mild
tensions as a result of the aforementioned
divisions, the community members self-report
that Longborizu has experienced “many
years of peace”, without any “disturbances”,
or “unwarranted deaths” (that locals may
A Young boys vote yes to creating an official association of
their own. Credit: Chelina Odbert
04 community: con’t
use of witchcraft against the victims).
KDI witnesses the cohesive nature of Longborizu
on days when communal labour is called
for. Community members rarely miss these
occasions and work to the best of their ability
and without complaint. Men do heavy labour and
women carry water. And as if by magic, tea-taba
(like coffee) appears at tea time and lunch at
lunch time for the volunteers.
In the early months of NLRDP research phase,
KDI also experienced the peace that the
residents spoke of, with no perceived clashes.
However, one unexpected incident in August
showed that underlying tensions do exist and
have the potential to manifest themselves in
severe ways. The August incident involved the
Pentecostal church group who had arranged two
days of “witch-hunting.” A non-local pastor (who
claimed to be a prophet) used church members
to help him identify the witches and wizards of
the community and physically harmed them in
the name of the church. One of the accused
women was hurt to the point of hospitalization.
On the surface, the events of those two days
appeared to be religious-based, and perhaps
some of the church following did in fact believe
in the pastor’s ability to identify nefarious
community members. However, upon further
investigation it became clear that the accusers
and the perpetrators of the violence had ulterior
motives, perhaps related to the clan division
mentioned above, and the accused had common
weaknesses that made them susceptible to
maltreatment.
The occurrence of the witch-hunt not only
displayed disunity in Longborizu but also proved
the effectiveness of leadership of the community
and its ability to bring back cohesion. Following
the two days of violence, four respected men and
one woman managed to bring the community
back to a sense normalcy over ten days. They
arranged for the severely hurt woman to be
taken to hospital and for her case to be reported
to the police. They called on the village elders
to oust the pastor and perform rites to identify
the cause of the disunity and they assembled
several community meetings to discuss the issue
and encourage those involved to make amends.
A
Thus, as in any society, there are both sources
of cohesion and conflict in Longborizu. However,
given the very small size of Longborizu, these
tensions are easily magnified. Steps towards
reducing tensions must be made to ensure
open communication. The potential that physical
interventions and social programs have to
cause unintentional conflict or tension between
different groups must be carefully considered in
the strategic planning for village development.
A
4.4 Security
In Longborizu everyone knows one another,
thus opportunities to commit crimes are minimal.
As a result, the security in Longborizu is quite
high in comparison to larger urban communities
in Ghana. However, community members’
comments and observed incidences suggest
that instances of insecurity for property and
people do exist.
Property
b
Twenty percent of those Longborizu households
that have lost livestock in the past year state theft
as the greatest reason for the loss after animal
disease. Focus group participants stated that it
was never clear who has stolen their animals
because they customarily allow their animals to
roam freely during the day.
A Map of Longborizu: division of land (yiri) between the three
clans of Mbuobu, Tookuori and Gbangyeba. Source: NLRDP
Household Survey
KOUNKUEY DESIGN INITIATIVE
33
04 community: con’t
Property Cont.
Residents report that these daytime thefts are
typically of individual or very small quantities of
animals, not entire herds. However, male elders
of the community reported that in the past, theft
of large numbers of cattle depleted the village’s
ample stocks. Young Wale men would come in
from town and round up herds overnight. It was
suggested that part of the vulnerability of villages
like Longborizu was the lack of young men of
their own to protect the livestock (since they
would be away looking for work). As a result,
very few people now own cattle and the ones
that do only own small herds. These elders are
dismayed that in addition to this loss of wealth,
the loss of cattle has also affected soil fertility
since manure was used as fertilizer.
Theft of less valuable items have also been
described. Theft of crops was reported by focus
group participants with cases tending to be of a
few special plants and never in large quantities.
Personal items may be stolen from houses but
cases are rare enough that people do not lock or
secure their homes even when no one is in the
compound.
People
The Longborizu community does not have
incidences of violent theft. Rather, violence is
related to domestic cases like the witch-hunting
occasion described in the previous section.
While KDI perceives that cases of violence are
few, it is important to note that for victims of
this violence, there appears to be little recourse
for protection or retribution. The elders of the
village lead decisions about events and land
designation but do not have the power to try
cases of human rights violations. The district
police of Nadowli are also rarely involved in
cases of violence in the villages, since there are
only a few officers for the entire district and they
do not have transport to travel to places where
the incidents occur.
Thus, people generally rely on their household
head and male family members in these matters.
This can be problematic especially for women
who are in disagreement with their male family
34
NLRDP: NEEDS ASSESSMENT REPORT
members. For example, women who are abused
and are not supported by their male relatives
are forced to resign themselves to the violation.
Domestic violence is thus commonplace in
Longborizu, as well as in the wider region.
4.5 Equality of the Disadvantaged
KDI has seen disadvantages for 4 groups in
Natorna society, namely: women, elderly people,
young people, and the physically and mentally
disabled.
Disadvantages for women generally stem from
the system of land rights in Dagaaba culture. This
patriarchal system hands land down from father
to son and women have no right to own or inherit
land. Any land that women use individually is lent
to them by their family. Women are generally
excluded from decision making within the family,
even with regards to their own welfare. (African
Initiatives, 2013).
Women and young girls appear to have far more
duties and chores daily than men and young boys
do. NLRDP Household survey revealed that for
example water collection was usually done by
women and female children in 31 (94%) of the
households in Longborizo. In a survey of time
spent of men and women in the village, women
have a much broader set of responsibilities with
many reporting generating other income through
businesses as a major past time, along with farm,
homegarden, rearing animals and schooling.
10% of men listed recreation as a major activity,
while no women listed recreation.
These disadvantages become even more
pronounced if a woman’s husband passes on.
When a Dagaate woman marries, she leaves
her home village and enters into her new village
alone. Since a dowry payment is made for her,
she may not return to her home village unless
the dowry is returned in full. Thus, a woman is
typically committed for life to her new village and
family and when she dies, will be buried in that
village.
This can become problematic if a woman’s
husband dies; without a protector or advocator
for her needs, widowed women may be
brutalised, forced to marry or produce children
for another male in the family and disinherited
(African Initiatives, 2013). The incident of the
witch-hunt described in previous sections
supports this assessment. Moreover, KDI has
noticed that the plots of land that widows use for
farming are often small, leftover, infertile pieces.
Widows often face additional difficulties in doing
farm work due to old age.
The twenty-six men and women of Longborizu
above the age of 65 expressed their difficulty
in getting around and in farming because of
bone-related medical problems and cataracts
leading to blindness. This mobility challenge is
shared by all physically challenged individuals
inBLongborizu. The Nator landscape is difficult to
navigate in many places, even for able-bodied
people, because of the long distances, rough
terrain, undulations in the land and multiple
broad and deep water crossings to exit the
Longborizu section of Nator. On a positive note,
official public buildings like schools and clinics
are required to have disabled access points and
KDI has noted the seriousness with which district
officials monitor this rule.
“What will I do if I fall sick on my farm? I cannot
see my way across [the river] to the clinic.”
– Oldest living resident of Longborizu, Mr.
Anuba
Young girls and boys in Dagaaba society,
especially those who do not have children, are
not supposed to be vocal. During meetings
and workshops it has been noted that young
people mostly defer to the older attendants of
the meetings and will at times choose to stand
outside the meeting venue, as if to suggest
they only came to listen. When questioned as a
separate group, however, they are highly vocal
and engaged. This is a disadvantage to the
village society since this group often lends a
unique perspective and raises innovative ideas.
In one-on-one conversations, KDI discovered
that the mentally challenged endure ridicule as a
result of a misunderstanding of their
medical conditions. People will often attribute
these residents’ behaviour to curses and witchcraft
and attempt “cures” based on the interpretation
of the ailments. The mentally afflicted are kept
at home with their families who care for them
as best they can, but this misperception of their
situation prevents them from living a “normal” life
andAlimits their ability to constructively contribute
to society.
04 community: con’t
A
4.6 Public Amenities
The public amenities that are available to the
Longborizu people are basic since provision
of public services in the immediate community
is limited and people’s ability to travel far from
Longborizu is also constrained. Most Longborizu
people walk as their primary means of transport.
25 households report having access to a bicycle,
and 7 to a motorbike, though observations
suggest the number of vehicles in the village
may be lower than this. Public transport operates
from the central Nator market and reaches out
twice a week to the district capital of Nadowli and
the regional capital of Wa and once a week to
medium sized city in the South named Techiman.
Within the boundary of Longborizu, three types
of amenities are available, all of which serve
an additional purpose as a gathering space of
some form or other. The first is public spaces
that the community have cordoned off around
three old trees – one around an Ake Apple tree,
one around a Neem Tree and the last around a
mango tree. Officially these are funeral grounds
that the three clans use for deaths of their own
kin. Unofficial gatherings, celebrations and
community meetings are also hosted at these
trees.
A
A
d
E
The second is the borehole, which is the only
source of household water in the community but
also serves as sort of informal gathering space
at dawn and dusk, where young women will wait
in line for water, do their washing and catch up
with each other.
b
C
A, B, C Three funeral grounds are sited around large trees
and serve an additional purpose of providing spaces for
official and unofficial gathering. Credit: Michelle Sintaa Morna
d Women walk to the borehole at dawn. Credit: Michelle
Sintaa Morna
E The N-L School is used as a meeting venue when
needed. Photo Credit: Patrick Morna
KOUNKUEY DESIGN INITIATIVE
35
04 community: con’t
a
b
4.6 Public Amenities Cont.
The third is the N-L KG School, which offers
classes for kindergarten age children but has
served as critical meeting venue throughout the
NLRDP research process. It previously served
as a backup venue for funerals in case of rain
on the weekends. Community members have
expressed that there is a need for a gathering
space with protection from the rain that can be
used for funerals.
A
In the centre of Nator Village, a thirty minute
walk away, public amenities include; another
Kindergarten school, as well as a Primary
and Junior Secondary School (JSS), a market
area that operates once every six days and a
government clinic (Community Health and
Planning Services zone) that offers basic testing
and first aid, wound dressing, and administers
basic medication. They are open all night but
do not offer overnight facilities. In the past, a
pharmacy was situated next to the market but it
went out of business about one year ago.
The services offered in the nearby vicinity do not
cover all of the typical needs of the community
and it is necessary to travel further out to the
surrounding villages of Takpo, Goli and Sankana,
and the town of Nadowli. The local clinic lacks
enough staff and people are forced to travel on
foot, by bike or motor vehicle to clinics that offer
more service. Takpo and Goli CHPS has a much
larger staff and better stocks of medical drugs
10km to 15km away, and the Nadowli regional
hospital 30 km away offers some basic surgery,
bone setting, overnight facilities and a maternity
ward. Reaching the Nadowli Hospital when sick
is particularly difficult. Often, people rely on a
resident with a motorbike to take them to the
hospital. They will give them money for the fuel
(30GHC/$10). Most often, the person who will
take people to hospital is Pastor Gabriel, one
community leader, and it uses up a lot of his time
in the week. Even by motorbike, reaching the
Nator clinic in the first place remains a challenge
especially because of the access issues in the
rainy season (see Section 2.7 Access for more
details).
A second crucial facility that is lacking in the
36
NLRDP: NEEDS ASSESSMENT REPORT
c
B
c
B The Nator market spills out significantly beyond the
government built gazebo, which is problematic when it rains
as shown in this photo. Credit: Michelle Sintaa Morna
C The Nator market is a busy site when it is held
every 6th day. Women are arriving to set up their
stalls Credit: Michelle Sintaa Morna
04 community: con’t
wider Nator is a senior high school (SHS). This
could partially account for the limited number
of people who have continued their education
beyond JSS. The few students who graduate to
SHS and wish to continue with their education
will typically live with a relative in one of the
neighbouring villages, or else Nadowli or Wa.
Some who can afford it will attend a boarding
school. This essentially means that any of
the Longborizu youth who achieve success in
completing their education are drawn away from
the village, many never to return.
A third facility that can only be accessed in
Nadowli is the Police Station. As explained in
the Security Section of this chapter, the police
services are rarely used. But when they are
needed there is the barrier not only of reaching
the police station but also of paying for the
needed services. The cost of filing a complaint is
45GHC (about $15) – far beyond an affordable
amount for the community members.
The Nator market is also lacking in that it neither
provides all the products that people need (Nator
market has only limited retail products like canned
goods, beauty products and hardware and does
not have pharmaceuticals, clothing or animals),
nor does it provide enough of a market to sell
Longborizu pito, shea butter, soap and other
products. Each market is on once in every six
days so weekly people supplement their Nator
purchases and sales elsewhere. Depending on
the day of the week, they will travel between one
and two and a half hours (one way, depending
on the mode of transport) to Sankana and
Nanvili markets to sell their wares and to buy
needed items that aren’t available at Nator. For
pharmaceuticals, the closest option is Nadowli
town, which is not walkable but can be reached
by bicycle in about two hours, by motorbike in
about thirty minutes, and by public transport in
about one hour (available twice a week at Nator
market). (More detail on access will be given
Section 5.7 Access.)
“Sometimes I will complain about how much
work I have to do on the farm, forgetting that our
women will walk and walk and walk... They will
carry very heavy things on head and go around
to all the markets.” – Longborizu resident, Pastor
Gabriel Yagasoma”
All but one of the amenities listed in
this section have been provided by the
government; the only exception is N-L
School, which was constructed privately but
adheres to government building standards.
In general the buildings are well constructed,
built for longevity and providing for disabled
access.
However, KDI has noted that, although the
Nator Market has a gazebo and a public toilet
facility, neither of the two are sized for the
quantity of people who attend market day.
The market stalls spill out significantly onto
the uncovered portion of the market, which is
problematic when it rains. The public toilets
are not up to standard from a sanitation
perspective, often overflowing and borehole
with bad odour immediately adjacent to the
market place.
Similarly, Longborizu borehole is seen
not to be sufficient for the community for
two reasons. First, it is as far as a 800m
(a fifteen minute walk) from some of the
outlying houses. This is significant when
one considers the amount of water a family
requires on a daily basis, though it does
meet WHO standards of a maximum of 500m
from source. Secondly, the borehole is the
sole source of locally available household
water for the community. When there is a
break down, the community is forced to
walk to Naayiri (about thirty minutes away).
This second point is a resilience issue as
the implications of a breakdown in the dry
season when the other village borehole’s are
also under pressure is significant.
In summary, though for the most part
sufficient amenities are available within the
district and Wa, access to them is limited due
to a lack of motorized vehicular transport and
bad roads.
4.7 Access to Service Providers
Nator village has two representatives on the
Nadowli district assembly; one Assemblyman,
Francis Tuura who is a political position and
one Circuit Supervisor, Ken Zorre, who holds
an administrative position. In other words, the
assemblyman’s job is to advocate for large
projects like roads, bridges and electricity to be
brought to their village and to assist the district
to collect census data and surveys in their area,
while the Circuit Supervisor job is to monitor the
day-to-day running of local government facilities,
like schools and clinics. Informal conversations
with locals suggest that people feel that their
Nator representatives are not as effective as
they would like. (More information on this point
can be made available upon request.)
Specifically, there are three things that Longborizu
was trying to advocate for recently: a second
borehole, GES to officially register the school
and access the GES capitation grant that was
due the school. A new borehole was approved
thanks to the efforts of the Borehole Committee.
But it was never completed because it was illsited and the drill machinery was damaged. The
committee advocated for a second attempt and
that attempt failed too again due to ill-siting.
Since then, the committee has lost the impetus
to advocate for a third attempt, which they state
is mostly due to no members not wanting to take
on the monetary cost of making the several visits
necessary into Nadowli town. (More information
on the attempted boreholes is given in the Living
Standards section of this report.)
The advocacy for GES to register the school and
for the capitation grant was eventually successful
thanks to the work by the SMC of the school with
support from the Circuit Supervisor.
It is heartening that the Longborizu members
are self-motivated enough to make the efforts to
advocate to the necessary authorities. However,
without adequate support from their assembly
representatives and with the barrier of travel
costs, the community have been unsuccessful
in achieving all their goals when it comes to
accessing their service providers. NLRDP must
ensure protective measures against corruption
and unfair disadvantage when considering
project operations in the future.
4.8 Life Satisfaction
KDI believes that considering the life satisfaction
in a community is critical in a development project
A
because
it helps us to gauge if real progress,
as opposed to simply a global perception
of development, has been made. Judging a
person’s satisfaction with life, however, is not
a precise exercise. Nevertheless, NLRDP
attempts to gauge, given all the conditions of
living discussed in this chapter, how satisfied
Longborizu people are with life.
The World Happiness Report attempts to
rationalize a rating of the highly subjective
question of happiness by using an original index
based on; life expectancy, GDP per capita,
freedom to make life choices, social support,
generosity, and perceptions of corruption
(Helliwell, Layard and Sachs). In the 2013 report,
Ghana is ranked number 86 of 156 countries of
the world, which by African standards is very
high – Ghana ranks third in Africa after Libya and
Nigeria. The report cites an average GDP per
capita, life expectancy, level of generosity and
freedom to make life choices as the reason for
its middle level ranking. Ghana did score above
average in its level of social support (ibid, p.22).
From KDI’s perception of Longborizu life over
the past months, we find that, on the bases of
social support, generosity, freedom to make
life choices, life expectancy, and perceptions of
corruption, Longborizu is a microcosm reflecting
the macrocosm of Ghana.
With regards to social support, in summarizing the
government provided services, one may view the
level of support as basically satisfactory. Sections
1.6 Public Amenities, and 1.7 Access to Service
Providers, explain that most of the needed public
facilities are provided for by government in
the vicinity, albeit with limited access and with
barriers to advocacy for extended and improved
facilities. In Sections 5. Education and 6. Health,
we can see that the government offers virtually
free education up to JSS level and runs a
relatively affordable government health scheme,
although Longborizu residents still have barriers
KOUNKUEY DESIGN INITIATIVE
37
04 community: con’t
to affording these.
However, if one considers the perspective of
social support that is provided through the
generosity of the community, Longborizu
residents actually experience quite a high level
of support. Examples of this type of support are
given in Sections 4. Community, and 7. Income
& Employment, such as: communal labour
on individual’s farms and homes, community
donations that are expected at times of need,
remittances from migrated family members
and loaning of properties from community
members. In general, KDI has seen a high level
of generosity, which we would argue is a form
of social support that bolsters the governments’
efforts.
With regards to freedom to make life choices,
we can again draw from the information given
in previous sections to support the assessment
that freedom to make life choices is not very
high. While the government of Ghana does not
intentionally control peoples’ life choices, there
are nonetheless life factors that create the lack of
freedom. Section 5. Education, points to several
barriers to education for both children and adults,
that in effect limit peoples occupational options
for the future, to agricultural related work. In
Section 1.5 Equality of the Disadvantaged, we
see that women and young people have even
less freedom to make life choices than adult
men, because of societal norms. In summary,
KDI would assess that Longborizu residents
are on whole not free to make life choices in
Longborizu, but that this circumstance could be
improved if services and funds were available to
people.
that petty corruption does exist within the local
authorities and service providers and is noticed
by locals. In general, it seems that people feel
resigned to these corruption practices and do
not try to fight them. On a country-wide level,
however, when it comes to larger practices of
corruption, Ghana is widely known as a one of
the least corrupt countries in Africa.
These five factors of life satisfaction show that
Longborizu has reasons to be satisfied with
social support and generosity but in the areas of
freedom to make life choices, life expectancy and
corruption they have reason to feel unsatisfied
and there is opportunity for improvement.
In the chapter Objective Benefits of Subjective
Well-being (ibid, 56), the World Happiness
Report suggest ways (that have been studied and
proven to be true) that ones’ level of happiness
can be raised. These are outlined in the following
table and should be considered in improving the
overall level of life satisfaction in NLRDP. KDI is
considering delivering a life satisfaction survey
amongst Longborizu residents in the near future.
This was not originally included in the HH survey
due to time constraints.
B
Life expectancy at birth of men of Nadowli-Kaleo
District is 55, and of women is 50 (Nadowli-Kaleo
District, 2014 ). This number is below world
standard and Ghana averages. The causes for
this low statistic can be seen in Section 5. Health
of this report, which offers some insight into the
high infant mortality rate, lack of diverse nutrition
and barriers to medical health care.
Perceptions of corruption are also explored in
the Section 1.7 Access to Service Providers.
Evidence, as well as KDI’s experience, shows
38
NLRDP: NEEDS ASSESSMENT REPORT
B Nator Water Body Credit: Louisa Brown
summary: 04 community
RESOURCES
4.1 Cultural Resilience
CHALLENGES
KEY INDICATORS
1. Regular practice of cultural music, dances and dirges
1. Cultural events use up valuable time of residents
1. Perceived opportunity for practice of traditional music, song and
2. Dagaare widely spoken and written language taught at schools 2. People need to be able to speak more widely spoken languages
dance:
ample
3. Strong cultural connection even amongst Natorna diaspora
in addition to Dagaare
2. Availability of dagaare language books in N-L School Library:
no
4.2 community groups
1. Healthy culture of creating community organisations for leader- 4. Water (borehole) and Health committees as well as PTA lack 1. Number of organised community groups
9
ship, advocacy and income generating purposes
effective advocacy strategies with government
2. Number of organised community groups deemed generally
2. Capital succefully being generated in income generating groups 5. Destructive witch-hunting activities of one church group
effective:
3. Willingness of young people to form their own groups
5
4.3 Community cohesion
4.4 security
1. Verbal consensus that Longborizu is a peaceful place with no 1. Destructive witch-hunting activities of one church group
1. Perceived level of cohesion in community:
sometimes
disturbances.
2. Tendency for tensions to manifesr in a severe outburst instead
2. Ability of leadership to pacify tensions at critical moments
of in an open communicative way
3. Ease with which disadvantaged groups, such as widows, may
be maltreated
1. No need to lock up personal belongings
2. Incidences of theft are minor
1. Insecurity of large valuable herds of cattle
1.
2. Inability of local authorities to protect people from acts of
violence and bring justice to perpetrators
2.
3. Domestic violence is commonplace
Percentage of household who report theft of animals in the past
year
6% (2 households)
Reported cases of violence against an individual in the past year
4
4.5 equality of
disadvantaged
1. Local authorities take disabled access on public facilities very 1. Women’s rights are difficult to re-instate because oppression is 1. Percentage women completed secondary education
seriously
based on patriarchal land ownership
2.8% (3 women)
1. Girl children spend more time on duties and chores than boys, 2. Number of representatives under the age of twenty one in
which leads to a higher school drop-out rate
Longborizu committees:
0
2. Terrain of Longborizu difficult to adjust to facilitate easy movement for physically challenged and elderly people
3. Misconceptions about mental disabilities and mental illness
leads to unhelpful “treatment” of the medical conditions
4.6 amenities
1. Most of the communities typical needs are provided for within 1. Longborizu community struggle to access the services further 1. Estimated number of minutes taken reaching Sankana and
Nadowli-Kaleo district and Wa
afield in the district and Wa because of a lack of vehicular transNavili Market by typical means of transport (one way):
180 minutes
2. All the amenities except for the N-L KG School were provided
port and the cost of available transport
by government
2. Some needed facilities are not available within the vicinity, like 2. Typical cost of transport to Nadowli Hospital and pharmacy (one
way):
3. The facilities are generally well constructed, built for longevity
surgery, bone-setting, mid-wifery and complex diagnoses
10 ghc
and providing disabled access.
4.7 access to service
providers
1. The community have proved that they have the self-motivation 1. Nator assembly representatives have proved generally ineffec- 1. Number of successfully implemented, government-funded
and organisation to advocate for services for themselves.
tive in bringing needed services to Longborizu and Nator.
infrastructure projects in LB in the last year
0
2. A barrier to adequate advocacy for services is the cost of travel
to the Assembly offices in Nadowli
3. Corruption is a recognised issue at all levels of government
office
4. It seems likely that corruption has affected the cost-effective
provision of services to Longborizu as with other areas
4.8 life satisfaction
1. High level of community social support
2. High level of community generosity
1. Low level of freedom to make life choices
2. Low level of life expectancy
3. High level of perceived corruption
1. Perceived level of generosity and community social support:
high
2. Percent of adults (above 21) enrolled in an adult education class
or apprenticeship program in the 2013-2014 year:
4%
KOUNKUEY DESIGN INITIATIVE
39
05 HOUSEHOLD STANDARDS
01 introductions
5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 5.7 5.8 5.9
assetts and
ownership
water
sanitation
electicity cooking fuel structures
access communication summary
technology
5.1 ASSETS AND OWNERSHIP
B
A
The assets and “wealth” of the people of
Longborizu were assessed using a standard
wealth index employed by Demographic
and Health Surveys. The index constructs a
composite measure of a household’s cumulative
living standard. For Ghana there are a total of
87 factors (on assets, household construction,
access to water and sanitation) each of which
is assigned a statistical score. We picked up
almost all of them in the NLRDP HH survey to
enable us to quantify a measure of the “wealth”
of each individual household in LB.
SEWING MACHINE
CLOCK
TORCH
COMPUTER
GRINDING MILL
Based on the findings of the 2008 Demographic
and Health Survey of Ghana there are large
differences in ownership of household goods
between urban and rural areas. Sixty-seven
percent of urban households and 21% of rural
households own a television. More than threequarters of households in urban areas own
a mobile phone compared with 37% of rural
households. At the same time rural households
are much more likely to own agricultural land and
farm animals. Rural households are almost three
times as likely to own agricultural land as urban
households (67 and 23 percent, respectively)
and about two times as likely to own animals
(58 and 21 percent, respectively). Based on the
assessment of assets from this comprehensive
national survey, the Upper West Region of
Ghana is the poorest in Ghana.
RADIO
5.1 Assets and Ownership
FIGURE 5.1.2 LONGBORIZO HH ASSET OWNERSHIP reflecting
no one in the highest wealth brackets,
Source: NLRDP of
HHthe
Survey
2014
the relative 100homogeneousness
village.
There is no household in the lowest86%
bracket,
which suggests
the
village
is
not
necessarily
“the
poorest of the80poor” in the Upper West region.
56%
Though there60is a relatively balanced distribution
C
between the clans, from observation KDI has
40
seen that there is unfair distribution amongst men31%
and women. Some examples at the local level
20 of
are given. First,
the bicycles
and motorbikes
11%
11% 11%
8%
owned in the section, not one is owned by a
woman but rather
they occasionally borrow
0
them. This fact is surprising considering that
women tend to be the ones who travel furthest
regularly because of their role in the family to
sell items at market. Second, there are several
mobile phones that are owned in the village (25
households report having at least one member
E
with a phone), but KDI has only witnessed 4
women charging phones at the communal solar
power point (which is in the KDI office). Third,
FIGURE
LONGBORIZOinHOUSEHOLD
in an exercise that
will5.1.3
be explained
further
OWNERHSIP OF ANIMALS
detail in Section 3. Agro-Economy,
community
members drew theirSource:
assetsNLRDP
and resources.
KDI
HH Survey 2014
observed that while many women drew things
like cooking utensils and furniture (which are
actually itemsCattle
shared1by the whole family), only
men drew the bicycles and motorbikes and some
hunting equipment.
ELECTRICITY
05 HOUSEHOLD standards
Interviewed households are separated into five
wealth quintiles (which allows assessment of the
influence of wealth on various population, health
and nutrition indicators). We can subsequently
compare against the wealth of the rest of Ghana
(in 2008 – as shown in the adjacent figure) and
any country that has done a DHS survey.
This condition may be explained by the 9HH
patriarchal nature of society. Generally, men
are the ones who travel seasonally to do work
in the South where
Sheep they make
3HHmore money than
people who remain in the village. And generally
women who hold cash from market sales take
on the responsibilities like buying household
ingredientsChickens
and paying for school fees. Thus, 9HH
those who can afford such expensive items are
men.
The results are interesting compared to the rest
of the country. The assessment suggests that
Longborizo is not atypical from the average rural
Ghanaian village in that most of its residents are
in the lower quintiles, though Longborizo has a
higher percentage of people in the second lowest
(second poorest) quintile, so we can say its poorer
than average rural Ghana by some measures.
The deviation within the village is pretty low, with
6HH are
Traditionally, Fowl
a households’ assets
understood to comprise animal and land wealth.
In a meeting with Longborizu Young Men’s
Association, thePigs
men spoke of how a wide7HH
range
of problems they faced stemmed back to,
“the
issue of poverty”. So, KDI posed the questions
“What is wealth? And what is poverty?”. By their
understanding, without land and animal assets,
the sustainability of one’s wealth is precarious.
FIGURE 5.1.1 LONGBORIZO WEALTH ASSESSMENT
Sources:
1. Ghana Deomgraphic and Health Survey (2008)
2. NLRDP HH Survey (2014) - Longborizo Section
POOREST
LONGBORIZO
UPPER WEST
53%
RICHEST
64%
36%
22%
12%
10%
3%
RURAL GHANA
34%
31%
2%
6%
1
2
4%
21%
10%
19%
32%
41%
3
4
5
Goats
URBAN GHANA
Guinea
WEALTH QUINTILES
KOUNKUEY DESIGN INITIATIVE
41
FEMALE
5
3.4
4
3
4.0
3.7
79%
MALE
2
1
FARM HOMEGARDEN
6.3
6
% HH OWNING AV. SIZE/HH (ACRES)
1
76%
100%
5
In Longborizo every household collects water
from the common borehole, with an average
time of 25 minutes taken to go, collect water and
come back. 94% of this water collection is done
by women and girls.
In Longborizu water has consistently come up
as a shared concern for all societal groups in the
research process. The community accesses one
shared borehole for household water needs and
collects additional rain water during the rainy
season. The borehole overflow and well water
is also used for construction purposes, and river
water is used on farms at times to supplement
erratic rains. These four sources have been
understood to be insufficient for the community
needs for several reasons outlined here.
The Birimian and granite rock found in the
district western basement complex (where Nator
is located) hold a considerable quantity of water,
which is why there is good potential for the
drilling of boreholes and sinking of wells in the
area (Nadowli-Kaleo District Assembly, 2014).
Currently, all 200 Longborizu residents rely
on a single twenty year old manually pumping
borehole. According to community memory, the
borehole has never run dry like others have in
neighbouring sections and villages (though it
does have recurring mechanical problems). This
is in part due to the care that is taken with the
borehole. The community protects it from running
dry because there is an unofficial rule that people
may not pump water from the borehole for use
on their farms, gardens or to water their animals.
Instead, a runnel leading to a small pond collects
waste water for the animals to drink from. The
Young Men’s Association gather on communal
labour days to weed around the borehole,
EST
3%
42
NLRDP: NEEDS ASSESSMENT REPORT
GHANA AVERAGE
In Ghana the overall level of access to improved
sources of water stands at 76.2% for rural
households. Only 6% of rural HH’s have water
on their premises, with the majority collecting
water from communal facilities. 72% of these
households spend less than 20 minutes per
round trip, with 21% spending more than 30
minutes. In 68% of households it is the women
and children who usually do this work.
RURAL GHANA
5.2 Water
URBAN GHANA
05 HOUSEHOLD standards: con’t
LONGBORIZO
0
ensuring no large trees grow and leach from the
water table.
The government has also played a part in
the longevity of the borehole. In a borehole
maintenance program some years ago, one
handy community member named John was
chosen to undergo a training that taught him to
troubleshoot and fix problems without having
to wait on government workers to help. Thus,
when the borehole pump breaks, the Borehole
Committee will make a collection of money from
all the households as quickly as possible. From
there, one member (usually Pastor Gabriel) will
go out to buy the needed parts. John will then
fix the problem. “Our borehole is sick”, the LDC
says. Apparently it needs to be fixed several
times a year.
According to the Longborizu Development
Committee, the next nearest option for household
water is the Naayiri central borehole, which is
about a thirty minute walk away and is already
under a lot of pressure from the residents in this
densely populated area, and from the users of
Nator market. The second nearest is a well one
hour’s walk away in Banoare. Subsequently,
when the borehole breaks it is of the utmost
importance to have it fixed as quickly as possible
to avoid putting more pressure on the Naayiri
water supply and walking the extra distance for
water.
5.2 WATER
FIGURE 5.2.1 LONGBORIZO USUAL WATER
COLLECTION DEMOGRAPHIC
Source: NLRDP HH Survey 2014
6%
18%
A
B
5.3 SANITATION
FIGURE 5.6.1 LONGBORIZO and ghana HHs material of interior floors
A
b Sources: 1. NLRDP HH Survey 2014
2. Ghana Demographic and Health Survey (2008)
FIGURE 5.3.1 LONGBORIZO HOUSEHOLD TOILET
FACILITY ACCESS
Source: NLRDP HH Survey 2014
IMPROVED pIT
LATRINE
pIT LATRINE
Wout. SLAB
MALE
8%
FEMALE CHILD
(UNDER 15)
12%
OTHER
76%
women (age 15 plus)
5.6 STRUCTURES
19%
100
3.6%
DUNG
22%
80
8%
60
53%
75%
EARTH/
SAND/MUD
BRICKS
0.7%
10.4%
2%
TILES
CARPET/
LINO
21.5%
65%
EARTH/
SAND/MUD
BRICKS
5
34
3
5
40
BUSH
LATRINEwater
W. sources
Map ofpITvillage
SLAB
A The borehole is the only source of household water in
the community. Credit: Michelle Sintaa Morna
20
CEMENT
CEMENT
b Longborizu Borehole is manual pumping. It is
the only source of household water in the section.
Photo Credit: Michelle Sintaa Morna
0
LONGBORIZO
RURAL
GHANA
UR
GH
SEWING MACHINE
CLOCK
TORCH
COMPUTER
GRINDING MILL
RADIO
ELECTRICITY
L
U
05 HOUSEHOLD standards: CONT.
In the case of land, we once again find that men
dominate ownership since culturally, land rights
deny female ownership, and only allow women
to borrow land if convenient (explained further
in Section 1.5 Equality of the Disadvantaged).
It should be considered, however, that in
comparison to assets like electronics and
vehicles that mostly are enjoyed individually,
the benefits of land and livestock ownership can
be said to be more communally enjoyed by the
family. In conclusion, Longborizu people have
some surplus funds for extraneous expenses
and some security in ownership of living capital,
but most of the wealth is truly owned by men.
80
60
9HH
Goats
31%
40
20
RU
POOREST
56%
11%
11% 11%
Sheep
8%
SEWING MACHINE
CLOCK
TORCH
FIGURE 5.1.3 LONGBORIZO HOUSEHOLD
OWNERHSIP OF ANIMALS
Source: NLRDP HH Survey 2014
Cattle
6
AGRO-ECONOMY
Sheep
3HH
64%
3
7HH 53%
22%
1
34%
31%
2
9HH
Chickens
Guinea
Fowl
Pigs
6HH
UPPER WEST
RURAL GHANA
1
Goats
UR
3HH
LONGBORIZO
0
COMPUTER
NLRDP household survey indicates that a
large majority of households own land (in terms
of “freehold” through family inheritance) and
animals (see adjacent figures). While ownership
of land is high, each household likely owns fewer
livestock than other animal-owners in the region
and nation wide. KDI has learned that each
household’s herd of large livestock (cattle, sheep
and goats) is dwindling from past numbers as a
result of theft. In the past, thieves would travel
from Wa and overnight, drive whole herds away.
With the majority of strong young men working
in the south, few remained to fight them (details
on theft are given in Section 1.3 Security). Elders
report that people once owned herds a hundred
strong, yet currently the largest herd of cattle
owned in Longborizu is only 12 head strong.
Now people raise fewer livestock but rather keep
pigs and fowls (22 households).
86%
GRINDING MILL
– LDC representative of the Young Men’s
Association, Mark Dakura
100
LONGBORIZO
HOUSEHOLD
FIGUREFIGURE
5.1.1 5.1.3
LONGBORIZO
WEALTH
ASSESSMENT
Sources:
OWNERHSIP OF ANIMALS
1. Ghana Deomgraphic
andHHHealth
Source: NLRDP
SurveySurvey
2014 (2008)
2. NLRDP HH Survey (2014) - Longborizo Section
Cattle 1
Source: NLRDP HH Survey 2014
RADIO
‘[Poverty is] the inability to meet your need or
carry out activities to you benefit … If you have
a lot of money and no land and no animals, you
are you in poverty because the money goes
away fast. If you have no money but a lot of land
and animals, you in poverty because the animals
can die or be stolen at any second and because
crops fetch a bad price.’
FIGURE 5.1.2 LONGBORIZO HH ASSET OWNERSHIP
ELECTRICITY
5.1 Assets and Ownership Cont.
9HH
URBAN GHANA
KOUNKUEY DESIGN INITIATIVE
43
05 HOUSEHOLD standards: con’t
The community identified the need for a second
borehole many years ago. It would provide
a back up supply in case the first broke down
and it would be situated on the eastern end of
the section, where people currently walk the
furthest to reach the borehole. According to
some Longborizu community leaders, the story
of the second borehole goes something like this:
Four years ago, the community advocated to
the District Assembly the need for the second
borehole and were successful. They collected
GHC500 (about $167) from the residents and a
site was chosen by the government surveyors.
The borehole construction team came to the
village to begin the work but they drilled to their
maximum depth and found no water. Over the
next year, the borehole committee pushed for
the government to make a second attempt at
the borehole and eventually permission was
given. On this second attempt, however, the
drill machinery hit solid rock underground and
got stuck. The construction team were unable
to retrieve their drill bit and to this day, the bit
remains underground. It is not clear why the
government workers were unable to site the
project correctly and Longborizu remains with a
single borehole.
community to engage with the developers of this
project to investigate opportunities, including the
potential to deliver piped water via a future river
crossing in the problematic area to the south of
the water tower.
According to the Circuit Supervisor, more
recent attempts have been made to re-open
the conversation with the District Assembly of
the secondary borehole. But the request was
quickly dismissed since there is a large water
project that is nearing completion in Naayiri
that will supposedly offer clean water supply to
Longborizu too.
Longborizu is careful not to use the precious
clean water supply unnecessarily. Thus in the dry
season, construction water is usually gathered
from the overflow from the borehole (which is
also what animals drink), or for large projects
(like the N-L KG School construction) communal
labourers will walk an hour to the Banoare well
to collect water, returning several times to fetch
enough.
This project was funded by the World Bank
and is a large borehole that has a water tower
of approximately 50,000 capacity and a series
of underground piping leading to several water
points in key areas, like the Naayiri Market,
Nator RC School and Nator RC teacher’s
accommodation. LDC members informed KDI
that they were consulted about the project
directly and were initially made to believe that in
the future, Longborizu would be included in the
pipe connections. However, later the government
officials suggested that they may not be included
due to the fact that it would be problematic fixing
the piping across the river. KDI is keen for the
44
A
NLRDP: NEEDS ASSESSMENT REPORT
Between the rainy months of June and
November, rain water collection is a vital addition
to the borehole water for a household. People
generally collect water in large clay pots or
household aluminium pans. Some people have
retrofitted a small makeshift gutter to their roof’s
edge to maximize the water that is caught. Even
though people find the rain water, “more sweet
to drink [than the borehole water]”, people mostly
use this water for laundry cleaning, because of
sediments found in the water. People prefer not
to bathe with the water because it is too soft. Two
issues raised are that one can only catch a small
pot’s worth in one heavy rain and that some
people do not have zinc sheets on their roof.
Given the four cases described above, it is
clear that improved access to household water
sources must be a priority for Longborizu and
this point will be considered in the early stages
of NLRDP.
b
b
A
C
d
B
“[In the past, the borehole would break and]
when the wells dry up, there is not even enough
to drink, let alone washing. So in the dry season
our clothes can remain dirty” - Madam Millie
For agricultural purposes, those who have their
farms on the edges of the river will occasionally
gather water to spray their plants if there is a
long stint without rain. Because of the amount of
water that is required to feed their plots, people
A Two attempts to drill a second borehole have failed due to
bad siting. Credit: Michelle Sintaa Morna
B The World Bank has funded a large scale mechanized
borehole to feed the wider area of Nator. The project is
incomplete. Credit: Louisa Brown
C Small makeshift gutters are sometimes attached to the
roofs to increase rain water catchment. Photo Credit: Chelina
Odbert.
D Some farmers who have plots on the edges of the river use
the water to supplement erratic rains. Credit: Michelle Sintaa
Morna
3
4.0
3.7
79%
MALE
2
1
1
76%
100%
the lack of a sustainable year-round water source
has been identified by the community and KDI as
the major factor limiting the potential to extend
agricultural growing into the dry season. This is
expanded upon in Section the Agro-Economy
section, 3.3 Water Management.
GHANA AVERAGE
RURAL GHANA
A
URBAN GHANA
05 HOUSEHOLD standards: con’t
LONGBORIZO
0
b
A
5.3 Sanitation
When asked what the current situation of
sanitation in Longborizu, the LDC replied
resoundingly, “Free range!”. This is backed up
by results from the household survey that show
39% of household’s using unimproved communal
facilities, and 53% “no facility/bush/field”. The
local situation is not inconsistent with the
national picture where 92% of rural households
report using non-improved sanitation (30%
report “no facility/bush/field”, with a further 49%
using communal unimproved facilities). Open
defecation is not ideal from several standpoints.
It poses several hygiene concerns, from danger
of transmitting disease through contact with
faeces or transfer of microbes by flies, to the
fact that it limits people’s ability to perform hand
and genital cleaning properly. When it is done
in public areas, it also creates an unappealing
environment. These factors are understood to
an extent by locals, (discussed in this section)
yet the community has not pushed sanitation
as an immediate priority. KDI speculates this
may be because the population density of the
area is low, thus the known effects of the open
defecation are minimised and people do not
RICHEST
connect them
back to sanitation.
SSMENT
2008)
ection
OREST
3%
3.4
4
FARM HOMEGAR
5
64%
22%
Discussions with the LDC demonstrated the
level of understanding of sanitation. They told
the infrastructure study team how in the past,
when there was only open defecation, apparently
there used to be a common health problem that
is called “barefoot” – banbanyile – which would
36%
create sores between the toes and was linked
to stepping on faeces. Once people started to
build shared pit latrines, however, the problem
ceased. They were also aware that open
defecation is also linked diarrhoea and cholera
(though cholera is non-existent in Longborizu).
They listed a further two reasons why open
3% First, that it, “makes
defecation was not ideal.
12%
10%
the environment look bad” and second that
5.2 WATER
B
5.3 SANITATION
5.6 STRUCTURES
FIGURE 5.6.1 LONGBORIZO and gh
material of interior floors
Sources: 1. NLRDP HH Survey 201
2. Ghana Demographic and Health S
c
FIGURE 5.3.1 LONGBORIZO HOUSEHOLD TOILET
FACILITY ACCESS
Source: NLRDP HH Survey 2014
FIGURE 5.2.1 LONGBORIZO USUAL WATER
COLLECTION DEMOGRAPHIC
Source: NLRDP HH Survey 2014
6%
18%
IMPROVED pIT
LATRINE
pIT LATRINE
Wout. SLAB
MALE
8%
FEMALE CHILD
(UNDER 15)
OTHER
76%
women (age 15 plus)
A This typical pit latrine serves about between 12 and 15 family members. Credit:
Michelle Sintaa Morna
b, c Six improved pit latrines are for public use at Nator Market, but due to
overcrowding, they are not clean. Credit: Michelle Sintaa Morna.
5.5 COOKING FUELS
19%
pIT LATRINE W.
SLAB
D
22%
80
8%
12%
3.6%
100
75%
60
53%
EA
SAN
BR
40
BUSH
20
0
KOUNKUEY DESIGN INITIATIVE
CEM
LONGBORIZO
5.7 ACCESS
45
05 HOUSEHOLD standards: con’t
When visitors come for funerals, celebrations
and gatherings, locals are embarrassed to send
them to “free range”.
a
For these reasons, the LDC explained that many
compounds now have shared pit latrines. The
household survey recorded that 60% of the
compounds had one of these facilities and that on
average each one is shared by 6-7 people. The
LDC explained, however, that, being physically
outside of the house, the latrine is open to any
who would use it. The design of the latrines are
very basic and none has any improvements,
such as a vent pipe. LDC members also noted
that the latrines in the local style are at risk of
termite infestation, which can cause the walls of
the pit to collapse.
A
A factor the LDC did not point out was the
question of hygiene practices after using the
toilet. Observations implies that people do not
use toilet paper and that latrines and areas where
open defecation takes place do not offer water
for cleaning up afterwards. Thus it follows that
people cannot be performing hygiene routines
properly.
B
Due to the perceived need for a public toilet
for visitors, one LDC member, Pastor Gabriel,
led some young men last year to build a public
latrine adjacent the Muoboyiri funeral grounds
(shown on the sanitation map). But being that it
was made of local materials it did not last long
and is no longer in use since people worry about
falling into the pit. As such, the LDC requested
a new one with a better structure. The LDC
includes representatives from the SMC and PTA,
who added that this new public toilet could serve
the school too.
a Map: toilets and known “free-range” spots in LB
46
NLRDP: NEEDS ASSESSMENT REPORT
A
A
Currently, Madam Millie, the head volunteer
teacher, has told the children to defecate in a
specific area near the river. But this is inadequate
as small children have no understanding of
hygiene practices and may make themselves ill.
The SMC views creating a facility as one of ten
top priorities for the school. (More is written on
the priorities of the N-L KG School in Section 6.
Education.)
The young girls of Longborizu also proposed
the idea of having a public toilet facility in a
private meeting. They requested that it would be
only for the girls, which suggests that they are
uncomfortable with the current situation, perhaps
because of safety or embarrassment.
Two sets of public toilets exist in Nator, which
some Longborizu members do use when they
are there. One is a set of six improved pit latrines
at the Nator Market and the other is a basic boys
and girls toilet at Nator RC School. Neither of the
two facilities is up to a hygienic standard due to
overcrowding.
Though community members did not raise toilet
facilities as a top priority in initial meetings, it is
clear from the comments made by the LDC that
there is a need to view it higher up on the priorities
list, particularly in relation to public facilities
such as the school and funeral grounds (future
and existing). Any future interventions around
sanitation should also consider an appropriate
hygiene education component.
5.4 Electricity
National electrification stood at 38.2% of
rural households in (World Bank, 2012) and
is increasing throughout the country and in
the Upper West. Longborizu is currently not
connected to the national grid. All stakeholders
in the community expressed electricity as one of
the top priorities for improvement and similarly,
the Nadowli-Kaleo District Assembly lists
“Provide adequate and reliable power to meet
the needs of everyone in the District” as one of
six objectives of the Medium Term Plan 2014-17
(Nadowli-Kaleo District, 2014).
“We need it [electricity] but we can’t come by it.”
– Pirimaa, LDC member
Neighbouring Takpo and Sankana have power
lines running on the main feeder road that
provide a handful of houses and businesses with
electricity in their central sections. Goli has the
poles and electricity lines in place for a similar set
up but the community have chosen not to switch
on the electricity because they insist that all of
the sections must receive the electricity at the
same time. The high tension lines use hardwood
poles that are paid for by the District Assembly
Common Fund (DACF). Labour to raise the poles
is also hired by the district assembly through
their Ghana Social Opportunities Program. It is
the job of the local community to clear a firebreak
along the pole lines every year.
Nator-Duorin, which is the most outlying section
of Nator, appears to have undergone some
electrification as a part of the developments in
Sankana. On top of the small grid connection,
the Duorin community also has two large solar
powered street lights donated through a World
Bank program.
District Chief Executive, Mr. Bonosco, stated in
a speech to Longborizu community in April 2014
that electricity would reach Nator by September
and there is evidence on the ground to suggest
this process is ongoing, though perhaps
behind schedule. With the some background
understanding, KDI has a fair level of confidence
that the project will be complete within the year;
the reason for pushing the Nator connection was
to electrify the World Bank water project.
There may be the opportunity for Longborizu to
advocate to have the electricity line extended
to reach the section as Nator-Duro on have.
However, KDI suspects it would not be easy
to convince the district assembly because
Longborizu is ill-positioned – looking at all
the surrounding villages, the electricity layout
has repeatedly favoured public centres in the
villages that coincide with the main feeder road.
Longborizu, however is not central, does not
contain its own market space and is off the main
feeder road by about 1.5km. Perhaps, a more
promising opportunity to pursue would be to
question the leadership of Nator-Duroin how to
go about receiving a donation of solar powered
KOUNKUEY DESIGN INITIATIVE
47
05 HOUSEHOLD standards: con’t
street lights from the World Bank program as
they have.
It is clear that connecting Longborizu to the grid
is not a current priority of the district though
that is not to say that it will not be in the future.
Longborizu people may be able to access power
at the central market in Nator if the grid is extended
here but the effect that it will have on their dayto-day living will be limited. The investigation of
opportunities to influence the extension of the
grid will be considered in subsequent stages
of the NLRDP, as well as decentralised and
renewable options for power supply.
At the Morna compound – where KDI has its onsite office – there are fifteen 100W solar photo
voltaic panels (not working at full efficiency) that
offer outside lights within the compound and at
the funeral grounds adjacent to the compound.
One plug is situated outside the compound and it
is sometimes used at celebrations to play music
or create additional light. Since the panels were
installed in 2007, the children have used the
lit space within the compound as a night time
space to play and space do homework and the
adults have uses the funeral grounds adjacent
the compound to hold late night meetings. Since
KDI arrived, many more night-time community
meetings have utilized the lights and many
people also charge their phones inside the KDI
office.
One other compound has a diesel powered
generator that is mostly used for a phone charging
business in Nator market but is occasionally
switched on to play modern music for night time
socials.
During the initial KDI visit in 2013, community
members were split into groups by age and
gender and asked to give KDI a tour of the
places of importance in the community. When
asked to show KDI the most beautiful space
in Longborizu, the group of children took us to
the Morna Compound and pointed at the solar
panels. One ten year old boy also pointed out
that Longborizu needs street lights so that,
like Goli, they can meet and conduct business
and they can find their friends’ houses at night
48
NLRDP: NEEDS ASSESSMENT REPORT
A
B
time. The opportunity that nightime lights offer
the children is something that they truly value.
NLRDP, should thus take into consideration the
need for more convenient night time socializing
and study/work opportunities for children and
adults.
A
The LDC listed the following as the things they
would do if Longborizu had electricity:
- Charge phones
- Study
- Work in the night as if it was day,
- Listen to radio and watch television (if they had
one)
- Drink cold water
- Start a welding business
- Access internet (it’s difficult on phone)
- Stop thieves stealing in the night. (They steal
cooking pots and animals)
- Use it to make cooking easier and faster
C
Electricity, it seems could greatly improve
people’s lives in Longborizu. The N-L KG School
may be an ideal first electrified public space in
Longborizu since it is large enough, covered
from the rain, and could have the combined
benefits of night classes, businesses and IT.
5.5 Cooking Fuel
Cooking fuel in Longborizu is homogeneously
timber-based – some use dried logs and others
charcoal. This is consistent with the national
picture where 75% and 18% of rural households
use wood and charcoal respectively. Timberbased cooking fuel is generally considered
not ideal because wood collection is labour
intensive and depletes the forest, because fire
and char can burn people, and because cooking
indoors can affect respiratory health and can
be hazardous, especially for children. The
issue of cooking fuel has not been raised as a
concern by the community and thus appears
to be less of a priority to Longborizu residents
than one might imagine. Ultimately it is a readily
available and “free” (not taking into account time
or environmental impact) source of fuel that has
been used for millennia. In addition, the relative
low density of Longborizu and surrounding
villages means that the pressure on the
A Girls attend a night time meeting with KDI in the lit
compound of KDI’s office. Photo Credit: Mary Yelfaari
B Girls demonstrate a game they like to play in the lit
compound of KDI’s office. Photo Credit: Mary Yelfaari
C Boys attend a night time meeting with KDI in the lit
compound of KDI’s office. Photo Credit: Michelle Sintaa
Morna
5.2 WATER
5.3 SANITATION
FIGURE 5.6
material
Sources: 1.
2. Ghana D
FIGURE 5.3.1 LONGBORIZO HOUSEHOLD TOILET
FACILITY ACCESS
BORIZO WEALTH ASSESSMENT
05 HOUSEHOLD standards: con’t
hic and Health Survey (2008)
y (2014) - Longborizo Sectionsurrounding forests has not led to a collapse of
ORIZO
WEST
HANA
5.6 ST
tree coverage in the same ways as other areas.
POOREST
RICHEST
The first negative aspect of timber-based
cooking
fuel is that it takes a lot of time and energy to
collect enough wood, dry it and store it. Wood
is usually collected by women, first on their
individual farms and then in every forest area
surrounding Longborizu. When asked if people
had to go further and further to find wood each
year, 64%
LDC members
36%said no. Rather, they said
that if one goes late in the wood collection season
(early dry season – January), then you have to
travel “far”. LDC members joked how they often
would meet Takpo people in the bushveld that
separates the two villages when out collecting in
January, as Takpo would also have depleted the
firewood available on the southern side 3%
of the
bushveld.
It
can
be
deduced
thus
that
they
may
53% have walked
22% up to12%
10% for the wood
forty-five minutes
at that time. However, one Longborizu native of
about eighty-five years of age was dismayed that
the forest used to be much thicker in the past.
The dangers in collecting the wood (snakes
and falling tree limbs) seemed to be the major
discouraging factor for the LDC group when
4% it
comes to firewood collection.
34%
HANA
2%
1
31%
21%
10%
The second negative aspect of fire cooking is
the smoke, which affects respiratory health,
especially when cooking indoors. KDI’s data
collection shows that 72% of households cook
indoors, and 25% in a separate building, so the
concern6%
of smoke is founded. This is compared
to the national average of 60% of households
19%
41%
who cook inside the
house or a32%
separate building.
The third negative aspect is the amount of time
that it takes to cook food items is longer, which
uses up even more energy than necessary.
Women who brew pito and process shea nut
butter will often carry two to three logs of 2 metres
length and 20cm girth to brew or process one
large pot of their product. Considering that these
activities are usually done once a week, the
number of logs required over time is significant.
2
3
4
A
Source: NLRDP HH Survey 2014
expensive. Only 6 Longborizu women know the
art of charcoal-making.
FIGURE 5.2.1 LONGBORIZO USUAL WATER
COLLECTION DEMOGRAPHIC
LDC women say that they have never used other
forms of cooking fuel but that if they had access
to electric or gas stoves, they would definitely
use them because it would save them time. By
contrast, KDI has observed in Wa, and even
further out in Ghana, that many households
have electric or gas stoves but will still cook on
charcoal. Gas and electricity can be unaffordable
for many households and some households insist
that the food tastes better when cooked on fire.
For this reason, KDI is unsure if residents would
necessarily switch over to electric or gas cookers
if given the chance, as they said they would, not
to mention the logistical and economic questions
that would arise.
Source: NLRDP HH Survey 2014
Any NLRDP intervention with regards to cooking
fuel would need careful consideration in order to
achieve desired health, safety and environmental
standards, while remaining be appropriate to
residents’ cultural dispositions and economic
status.
pIT LATRINE
Wout. SLAB
6%
18%
MALE
IMPROVED pIT
LATRINE
8%
A
FEMALE CHILD
(UNDER 15)
80
8%
60
12%
53%
OTHER
76%
women (age 15 plus)
100
40
BUSH
19%
20
pIT LATRINE W.
SLAB
0
B
L
A Timber high tension poles began being laid in Nator
central in July of 2014. They will connect Nator Market to the
municipal electrical grid. Credit: Michelle Sintaa Morna
5.5 COOKING FUELS
5.7 ACCE
FIGURE 5.5.1 LONGBORIZO HH COOKING FUELS
MAINLY USED
FIGURE 5.5.2 LONGBORIZO HH COOKING
LOCATION
Source: NLRDP HH Survey 2014
Source: NLRDP HH Survey 2014
3%
16%
25%
CHARCOAL
SEPERATE
BUILDING
84%
WOOD
OUTDOORS
72%
FIGURE 5.7.1 LO
MAIN BARRIER
Source: N
L
15% M
F
15% M
DISTANCE TO
FACILITY
INDOORS
LA
FO
5
QUINTILES
The listWEALTH
of negatives
continues beyond the three
examples given. One small benefit however,
that some women gain from timber-based
cooking fuel, is that they sell charcoal, which is
KOUNKUEY DESIGN INITIATIVE
49
05 HOUSEHOLD standards: con’t
A
b
C
5.6 Structures
Longborizu building structures are often a
combination of two styles of building; one
traditional flat roof style and the other a
modernized mud brick style that has a zinc
roof. However, in the few cases where people
can afford it, people’s preference tends towards
buildings of concrete blocks with zinc roofs.
Structures made for water crossings also utilize
mud and timber. Longborizu residents face
constant structural failures and repairs on their
mud based structures.
As shown, about 45% of the Longborizu roofscape is of the flat roof style, 45% is of zinc with
mud brick walls and the remaining 10% is of zinc
with cement block walls. This means that, on
average, 90% of homes have to be maintained
with fresh mud mortar and sometimes entirely
new walls annually.
The techniques used in constructing buildings
of the traditional style have been the same for
generations. The key materials used are clay soil
and compressed sand stone for block moulding,
clay for plastering, neem, red mahogany or
african teak poles for beams (due to their natural
termite-resistance) and a mix of bark and cow
dung for floors. While most floors are cement
(75% of households) , a large proportion are
mud (22%) and dung (4%), consistent with the
average for rural Ghana (22% and 2%).
The modernized version of the traditional style
uses a sloped zinc roof instead of flat roof.
Since the mud bricks are highly susceptible
to disintegrating when wet, the zinc roofs
significantly increase the life span of the mud
brick walls. Another modernization is to buy a
single bag of cement and add minimal amounts
to mud blocks and plaster, or to use pure cement
to plaster mud bricks and floors. Community
members have said that one of the major
reasons that some people are no longer using
the flat roof style is that the thick poles of termiteresistant species of wood are getting more and
more difficult to come by in the forest.
The latest style that can be seen in Longborizu is
like the town style, which uses cement blocks and
50
NLRDP: NEEDS ASSESSMENT REPORT
d
e
f
G
A Longborizu residents face constant structural failures and Sintaa Morna
repairs on their mud based structures. Credit: Michelle Sintaa C Women team up in the dry season to re-dung the floors of
Morna
B Many people still have a portion of their homes in the
traditional flat roof style. This family will apply a thick adobe
mix to these timbers to complete the roof. Credit: Michelle
their compounds. Credit: Alexandra Dryer
d People mine aggregate from large compressed sandstone
deposits in the section. Photo Credit: Louisa Brown
e People mine aggregate from large compressed sandstone
deposits in the section. Photo Credit: Louisa Brown
f Fine Sandy clay is excavated from the river’s edge. Photo
Credit: Louisa Brown
G Longborizu men pride themselves on skillfully hand moulding
cement blocks unsupervised due to their extensive practice
while building N-L KG School
GHANA AV
RURAL
URB
L
05 HOUSEHOLD standards: con’t
mortar and has a zinc roof. This type of building
appears to be the most admired by residents
since it does not require annual repairs, contains
window openings and is subjectively seen as
more aesthetically beautiful. The cement blocks
are made with a mix of one bag of cement to eight
wheelbarrows of sand and two wheelbarrows of
sand stone aggregate. Both the sand and sand
stone aggregate are excavated in Longborizu
(A map of quarries can be seen in Section 7.5
Construction Materials Depletion). A minimum of
rebar is used in foundations and no other tensile
elements are added to the walls.
5.2 WATER
Only residents returning from the south can
afford to build private homes like these, but
the style can also be seen around Nator in the
public government buildings and in the privately
constructed N-L KG School. It is interesting to
note that there is a trend around the north of
the country of using common stylizations of the
cement buildings to imitate southern styles of
traditional building, for example, trims on the roof
and filleted edges of walls.
locally
designedUSUAL
and constructed
bridge
FIGUREOne
5.2.1
LONGBORIZO
WATER
exists in Longborizu and crosses a narrow
COLLECTION
stream
on the DEMOGRAPHIC
western edge of the section to the
neighbouring
of Taamapuo.
The bridge
Source:
NLRDPsection
HH Survey
2014
is made of termite resistant neem poles and clay
mud. The LDC informs KDI that this bridge is
6% once a year and that the repairs
usually repaired
will only take
place if the bridge has broken (in
MALE
other
words,
no preventative maintenance is
18% The
undertaken).
bridge is precarious because it
FEMALE
does CHILD
not utilize any joinery but rather sits unfixed
on Y-shaped
(UNDER
15) columns. There is no rule against
larger vehicles or animals crossing the bridge.
On one occasion, a three-wheel vehicle carrying
a bull attempted to use the bridge and broke it.
76%
plus)
“He crossed women
with his(age
bull15and
the bridge broke.
There was nothing we could do about it because
nobody knew him. So, we just had to fix it
ourselves.”
– Pastor Gabriel Yagasoma
“If we could go in for a domba (type of tree-cutting
machinery), we could make a better bridge.”
– James Kandine
5.5 COOKING FUELS
A
The LDC recognise that the bridge is not of
the highest possible quality. In a tour of the
surrounding crossings, one community member
showed how the bridge that the Tamapuo
community was able to build was better than the
Longborizu one, pointing out the thick planks that
had been laid. The Arup CAUSE project leader
added that the community had cleverly avoided
spanning very wide areas with the bridge by
building soil retaining structures reinforced
with planting of vettiver grass, and allowing
gaps where heavy flow can pass. There is no
evidence of overtopping and the bridge seems
to have offered enough height and passage for
peak flows.
5.3 SANITATION
The concept behind the local bridge style utilized
by Taamapuo is similar to that of the government
constructed bridge that crosses the Longbori river
on the eastern edge of Longborizu. It has heavy
soil retaining sections and a series of culverts
FIGURE
LONGBORIZO
HOUSEHOLD
TOILET
sized5.3.1
for heavy
flow. (More
information
will be
given on the
bridges
and
water
crossings
of
FACILITY ACCESS
Longborizu in the following Section 5.7 Access.)
Source: NLRDP HH Survey 2014
There are advantages and disadvantages to both
IMPROVED
the traditional
and pIT
modern styles of construction.
NLRDP should
consider
different combinations
LATRINE
pIT LATRINE
of these styles as precedent for new buildings
order to maximise material efficiency,
Wout.inSLAB
sustainability, longevity, employment opportunity
and replicability8%
of structures.
8%
12%
OTHER
19%
53%
b
5.6 STRUCTURES
FIGURE 5.6.1 LONGBORIZO and ghana HHs material of interior floors
Sources: 1. NLRDP HH Survey 2014
2. Ghana Demographic and Health Survey (2008)
3.6%
100
DUNG
22%
80
75%
60
EARTH/
SAND/MUD
BRICKS
0.7%
10.4%
2%
TILES
CARPET/
LINO
21.5%
65%
EARTH/
SAND/MUD
BRICKS
5%
34.5%
3.8%
56%
40
BUSH
pIT LATRINE W.
a CementSLAB
blocks are made with cement and locally
excavated sand and sand stone aggregate. Credit: Louisa
Brown
b Longborizu natives returning from the South can afford
to build larger homes of cement. There is a trend of
stylizing trimmings to look like South Ghana traditional
building styles. Credit: Chelina Odbert
20
0
CEMENT
LONGBORIZO
5.7 ACCESS
CEMENT
RURAL
GHANA
URBAN
GHANA
5.7 ICTKOUNKUEY DESIGN INITIATIVE
FIGURE 5.7.1 .HH MOBILE PHONE OWNERSHIP
51
05 HOUSEHOLD standards: con’t
a
b
c
5.7 Access
Access refers to the means of entering or
exiting Longborizu. Most movement happens
locally – between Nator, Sankana, Takpo, Goli,
Nanvili, and Nadowli – in order to reach public
amenities and social gatherings. Section 4.1
Indigenous Culture, discusses the frequency
and importance of public gatherings and Section
4.6 Public Amenities, lists the public amenities
that are available in the Longborizu vicinity.
Both sections show that it is obligatory and a
common occurrence for locals of Longborizu
to travel out on a regular basis to the other
sections of Nator, to the neighbouring villages
of Takpo, Sankana, Goli and Nanvili, and to the
district and regional capitals of Nadowli and Wa.
Unfortunately, Longborizu finds itself cut off from
all the listed places in both the rainy and the dry
season for different reasons. In the rainy season
(June to November), the shallow watershed in
which Longborizu is situated quickly fills with
both wide and deep watercourses. In the dry
season (December to May), almost all these
watercourses are completely dry and passable
but the sheer distance to each of the amenities
remains an issue without availability of adequate
or affordable transport. Longborizu residents
have indicated key places that are priorities to
reach. These have been summarised in Section
4.6 Public Amenities. Based on various sources
of information over the six months of research,
it is very clear that the question of improving
access to these key amenities is the single
most important priority held by the majority
of residents of all ages and genders.
A
d
a The bridge is precarious because it does not utilize any joinery
but rather sits unfixed on Y-shaped columns. Credit: Michelle
Sintaa Morna
b The bridge built by Taamapuo community is stronger than the
one built in Longborizu but still in the local style. Credit: Louisa
Brown
c The Government built all weather crossing on the eastern side
of Longborizu minimizes costs by bridging 3 small areas and using
52
NLRDP: NEEDS ASSESSMENT REPORT
e
f
mounds and planting in between. Photo Credit: Michelle Sintaa
Morna
d Crossing from the Longborizu borehole to the Nator Clinic taken
in September 2014. Pathway 2 on map. Credit: Michelle Sintaa
Morna
e Crossing from the Longborizu school to the Nator Market taken
in September 2014. Pathway 1 on map. Credit: Michelle Sintaa
Morna
f A locally constructed adobe bridge crosses a
stream to the neighbouring section of Tamapuo.
Credit: Louisa Brown
5.2 WATER
5.3 SANITATION
5.6 STRUCTURES
FIGURE 5.6.1 LONGBORIZO and ghana HHs material of interior floors
a
Sources: 1. NLRDP HH Survey 2014
2. Ghana Demographic and Health Survey (2008)
05 HOUSEHOLD standards
FIGURE 5.3.1 LONGBORIZO HOUSEHOLD TOILET
FACILITY ACCESS
Source: NLRDP HH Survey 2014
8%
FEMALE CHILD
(UNDER 15)
8%
12%
OTHER
76%
women (age 15 plus)
19%
53%
21.5%
65%
EARTH/
SAND/MUD
BRICKS
34.5%
3.8%
56%
40
BUSH
pIT LATRINE W.
SLAB
reason, all of the pathways are seen as high
Bearing in mind the importance the community
traffic routes. The most important pathways
places on the question of access, KDI devoted
FIGURE 5.5.1
LONGBORIZOto HH COOKING
wereFUELS
judged based onFIGURE
where5.5.2
they LONGBORIZO
lead to. TheHH COOKING
two of the first LDC intensive
workshops
footpath
crossing
the
river
between
N-L KG
finding out more about the challenges
people
MAINLY USED
LOCATION
School
and
the
Nator
RC
School
(shown
as 2014
face in this area. In one workshop,
the
group
Source: NLRDP HH Survey 2014
Source: NLRDP HH Survey
Pathway 1 and Pathway 2 on the maps) and the
toured all the pathways that lead in and out of
footpath crossing the river between the centre of
Longborizu, discussing, mapping and noting
Longborizu and the Nator CHPS zone (shown
problematic points. In the second, the group
3%as the
as Pathway 5 on the maps) were chosen
discussed solutions to the biggest problem
16% the
OUTDOORS
pathways that needed the most improvement.
points and suggested realistic contributions
25%
community on whole could make toCHARCOAL
the solutions.
The LDC cited three SEPERATE
reasons for their
prioritizations; first, each member claims to walk
The group produced a map of pathways and
BUILDING
on these two paths an average
of once a day,
destinations that is replicated in the following dry
the
season and rainy season maps. The maps lists84% and second, these two paths are considered72%
most dangerous to cross during the rainy season,
the varying problems that each pathway poses
WOOD and third, children use this path regularly. INDOORS
for travellers.
According to the LDC, many outsiders use
Longborizu pathways as alternative routes
during the rainy season in order to avoid crossing
flooded waterways in their own sections. For this
75%
60
20
0
5.5 COOKING FUELS
EARTH/
SAND/MUD
BRICKSA
80
CEMENT
LONGBORIZO
CEMENT
RURAL
GHANA
URBAN
GHANA
5.7 ACCESS
5.7 ICT
FIGURE 5.7.1 LONGBORIZO MEN AND WOMEN
MAIN BARRIERS TO HEALTHCARE ACCESS
FIGURE 5.7.1 .HH MOBILE PHONE OWNERSHIP
Source: NLRDP HH Survey 2014
Sources: 1. NLRDP HH Survey 2014
2. Ghana Deomgraphic and Health Survey (2008)
80
LACK OF
15% MONEY
FOR
15% MEDICINE
DISTANCE TO
FACILITY
70
76.4% 78.4%
60
35%
FLOODING
35%
LACK OF MONEY
FOR TRANSPORT
57.0%
50
40
37.3%
30
20
10
0
a LDC Map of pathways. Caption: The map was
GHANA AVERAGE
18%
MALE
22%
CARPET/
LINO
2%
5%
RURAL GHANA
6%
pIT LATRINE
Wout. SLAB
DUNG
TILES
URBAN GHANA
Source: NLRDP HH Survey 2014
IMPROVED pIT
LATRINE
100
0.7%
10.4%
LONGBORIZO
FIGURE 5.2.1 LONGBORIZO USUAL WATER
COLLECTION DEMOGRAPHIC
3.6%
produced by the LDC in collaboration with KDI
in the group’s first workshop. It records all the
pathways and problematic points of Longborizu.
Soource: LDC Infrastructure Workshop 1
KOUNKUEY DESIGN INITIATIVE
53
05 HOUSEHOLD standards: con’t
a
b
Either of the two pathways may be used to do
the following:
Reach key amenities, including:
- Nator RC School
- Nator and Goli markets
- Nator and Goli CHPS zones
- Nadowli District Hospital C
Connect to public transport:
- Nator central to Wa, Nadowli or Techiman
- Serekpwere to Wa or Nadowli
Visit relatives and attend funerals and
celebrations in:
A
c
d
- Goli
- Nator-Kaabogo
- Serekpwere
- Nadowli
Outsiders to enter Longborizu to:
- Attend Longborizu funerals and celebrations
- Use the grinding mills
- Attend Nator-Longborizu KG School
- Pass through Longborizu to Takpo or Nanvili
This extensive of activities list supports the
community’s assessment of priority. The major
difficulty faced is within the rainy season, from
about July to November, when the heavy rains
create a wide, deep, rushing river that obstruct
the pathways. In addition poisonous water
snakes are known to live among the reeds in this
portion of the river.
It is possible to avoid crossing the water at
this point if one is willing to cross two smaller
streams and walk an extra thirty minutes to
one’s destination (by walking east and crossing
the river on the government built all-weather
crossing). It appears that in weighing the two
options, community members who travel on
foot prefer to face the larger crossing and the
associated risks.
The crossing is difficult for children and adults
alike. In a closed meeting, school girls described
how they have to wake up at four in the morning
in rainy season in order to complete their chores,
cross the river and reach school by seven for roll
call. They have to remove their school clothes
54
NLRDP: NEEDS ASSESSMENT REPORT
e
a The Taamapuo bridge utilizes thick, machine cut planks instead
of timber poles and adobe for its walkway. Credit: Louisa Brown
b This culvert on the eastern side of Longborizu was built
by government and is high quality version of the local style
Taamapuo building. Photo Credit: Joe Mulligan
c Joe Mulligan briefs the LDC on the plan for the workshop.
Credit: Michelle Sintaa Morna
d LDC make a list of all the pathways leading in and out of
Longborizu. Credit: Michelle Sintaa Morna
F
e Outside, LDC members explain difficulties with each
pathway. Credit: Joe Mulligan
f LDC members assist to make notes on a map of the
pathways. Credit: Michelle Sintaa Morna
05 HOUSEHOLD standards: con’t
and pack them in their bags as they cross. They
estimate that at its highest the water reaches the
chests of the older girls. The small girls have to
be carried on their older sisters’ backs on those
days. KDI has also heard stories of one child
who drowned while crossing the river in 2010.
Apparently on a second occasion two girls were
pulled into the water by a strong current. One of
the girls was bitten by a snake but was thankfully
rushed to the hospital in time and both survived.
“We were told we should not hold hands when
we cross the river anymore. If one of us falls in,
we will also take the others in.”
– A young school girl.
The LDC also told of how the women will cross
the river with large pans full of their wares on
their heads. One LDC member, Pirimaa, said
once she had slipped and lost all of the maize
she was sending to the market.
The LDC proposes that the best solution to this
issue is construct a low-level bridge over the
river. Before KDI began working in Longborizu,
the community had already thought of doing
this. However, they had delayed in attempting to
construct one because they could not think of a
way to cover such a long width of water. Their
proposal was that, if KDI and Arup CAUSE could
provide some technical assistance, they could
volunteer their labour to locate hardwood trees
deep in the forest and hire a domba (tree-cutting
machine) to make beams. They could also find
and collect all of the soil and aggregate needed.
Map: Longborizu Rivers
KOUNKUEY DESIGN INITIATIVE
55
05 HOUSEHOLD standards: con’t
KDI and Arup CAUSE conducted a levelling
survey of the river to give cross-sections of
the river at key points, a sense of water levels
in rainy season, and trial pits to understand
soil and rock profiles in and around the river
bed prior to the NLRDP strategic phase. Some
broad suppositions can be drawn from the data
collected at this early stage that suggest that
a crossing over the Longbori river would be a
substantial undertaking in terms of technical
design, cost, and implementation. First, the
narrowest convenient siting of the bridge would
be significantly wide – at minimum 200 metres.
Second, the size of the government-built, vented
ford upstream indicates large river flows at peak
rainy season. Third, there appears to be little to
no founding rock available close to the surface,
which if true would mean that heftier and more
complex foundations would need to be designed.
In a local precedent study, KDI and Arup Cause
found that there are examples of both local
style, low-input bridges and higher quality, highinput bridges. Both construction techniques
bridge shorter distances and use soil and antierosion planting in between bridges, thereby
accommodating for heavy flows while reducing
the cost and design complexity of the crossing.
(This point is discussed further in Section 2.6
Structures.)
A wider precedent study presented the option
of a sand dam, which provides a ford across
the water and also stores water through the dry
season in the sand which accumulates upstream
of the dam. This has been succesfully used for
crossings in Kenya and other countries that
have similar dry-land design conditions (Neal,
2012). KDI and Arup CAUSE will commence a
full technical and cost-benefit analysis of several
potential solutions in the strategic phase.
Longborizu people who use public transport to
reach places like Nadowli, Wa and Techiman
are affected by the state of the feeder roads
in the area. Often, people will use three-wheel
cars to reach their destination and these cars
are known to be unstable. KDI has frequently
seen overturned three-wheel vehicles in the
56
NLRDP: NEEDS ASSESSMENT REPORT
b
maize/millet/sorghum production
unproductive land
maize/millet/sorghum 100m
production
rice production
A
estimated flood zone
XS1
98m
97m
cross-sectional area of estimated flood zone = 26sqm
NB: exaggerated vertical scale
0m
20m
40m
60m
b
99m
80m
100m
A
rice production
maize/millet/sorghum production
maize/millet/sorghum production
101m
100m
estimated flood zone
99m
XS2
cross-sectional area of estimated flood zone = 48sqm
NB: exaggerated vertical scale
0m
20m
40m
60m
80m
98m
100m
100m
98m
96m
XS3
Existing Bridge
0m
20m
40m
60m
80m
rice production
maize/millet/sorghum production
100
100m
maize/millet/sorghum production
101
cross-sectional area of estimated flood zone = 48sqm
100
98.5
0
XS2
10
20
30
40
99
50
60
B The Taampuo community built a local style crossing over
a wide river using a series of bridges and soil mounds with
planting. Credit: Louisa Brown
C One building lost its entire roof in a windy storm last year.
The family have been unable to repair the damage. Credit:
Michelle Sintaa Morna
70
80
90
100
98
C
05 HOUSEHOLD standards: con’t
vicinity and the cause is often the uneven road.
Nadowli-Kaleo District has listed the upgrade
and maintenance of feeder roads district wide
as a top priority in the medium term (NadowliKaleo District, 2014). KDI has seen that some
of the roads, for example the road between
Serekpwere, Goli, and Nator area has been
graded in the past dry season and on these
roads, improvement for motor vehicles has been
significant.
A
A
The feeder road that links Longborizu to the
main village road (connecting Sankana, Takpo,
Nator, and Nadowli) is about 1.5km long has
two areas that are considerably difficult for cars
to pass in the rainy season due to flooding and
loose sandy soil (indicated on the Longborizu
Pathways Map). The District Planner at NadowliKaleo Assembly informed KDI that this feeder
road had been considered for an upgrade in the
previous year’s budget, but had not been chosen
in the end because of the water crossing that
would require a bridge. Longborizu community
organises a communal work day once a year to
fill the two spots with branches and rocks so that
cars can pass with care. Nevertheless, KDI has
experienced getting stuck in a marshy area near
the school.
Improving access is of the highest priority for the
Longbortizu community and must be considered
accordingly when developing the proposed
interventions for the NLRDP.
Local government has not been able provide
adequate upgrades and the community has not
been able to carry out its own solutions due to
lack of funds and technical expertise. The high
cost of any engineered solutions is a major
limiting factor to any parties seeking to make
improvements in this area.
A Sand dam bridges are designed for conditions similar to the
Longbori river crossing and offer the benefit of storing water
during the dry season. Images from: (Neal, 2012).
KOUNKUEY DESIGN INITIATIVE
57
5.8 Communication Technology
12%Mobile telephones are the primary technology
in Nator Village, since
OTHERused for communication53%
there are no land line connections in the vicinity
BUSHother technologies
and since people do not own
like
computers or fax machines. This section,
19%
therefore, takes a focus on the barriers to people
pITaccessing
LATRINE W.mobile phone communication.
SLAB
As stated in the section 2.1 Assests & Ownership,
KDI recorded a total of 25 (76%) households
with members having mobile phones. This is
consistent with he average household ownership
in rural Ghana (78%). From observation these
phones are for the most part owned by young
to middle-aged men. Phones are often shared
with other village members when needed. For
example, elderly people will make requests to
contact their relatives in the south on occasion.
The first difficulty that Longborizu face in using
mobile phones is that the network reception is
poor. Two of Ghana’s mobile networks (Airtel
FIGUREand
5.5.2
LONGBORIZO
HHinCOOKING
MTN)
get reception
Longborizu and can
be patchy. People move around to spots that
are knownLOCATION
to have stronger reception. There are
occasions
whenHHpeople
Source:
NLRDP
Surveyneed
2014to make a phone
call but cannot due to network issues. Goli and
Sankana one again prove to be better serviced
than Nator in the aspect of communications
because they
3%are closer to mobile towers and
receive clear reception equivalent to the level of
service inOUTDOORS
Wa.
LS
25%
Second, there is no place to buy airtime in
SEPERATE
Longborizu. Previously, one person sold airtime
from his home but says that he stopped because
BUILDING
people would buy the airtime on credit and not
72%
pay him back. (People
have mentioned this issue
in regard to many other local businesses and it
will be discussed INDOORS
more in Section 7. Income &
Employment.)
Third, people struggle to charge their phones.
There is a facility for phone charging at the Nator
market once every six days but it is not often
enough to keep phones on all week. Since KDI
arrived, many people charge their phones in
the KDI office using the solar power, but in this
instance, the power is not always reliable and at
58
NLRDP: NEEDS ASSESSMENT REPORT
22%
80
75%
60
EARTH/
SAND/MUD
BRICKS
CARPET/
LINO
2%
21.5%
a
65%
EARTH/
SAND/MUD
BRICKS
LONGBORIZO
5.7 ACCESS
KDI has attempted to use 3G mobile technology
in Longborizu to access internet on the computer
in the past via a USB device. It is possible to
connect to basic 2G network, which allows for
FIGURE
LONGBORIZO
MEN
WOMEN
the
slow 5.7.1
download
of html files
andAND
opening
of
small attachments. It is fortunate that the best
MAIN BARRIERS
TO HEALTHCARE
location
for clear reception
is at theACCESS
school
and thisSource:
should NLRDP
be takenHH
in Survey
to consideration
2014 in
NLRDP designs.
3.8%
CEMENT
RURAL
GHANA
B
A
URBAN
GHANA
5.7 ICT
FIGURE 5.7.1 .HH MOBILE PHONE OWNERSHIP
Sources: 1. NLRDP HH Survey 2014
2. Ghana Deomgraphic and Health Survey (2008)
80
In summary the LACK
Longborizu community is not
entirely isolated and isOFable to connect with the
outer world
via MONEY
communication technologies,
albeit with15%
someFOR
inconvenience. Some people
are aware of new technologies and
see value in
35%
MEDICINE
adapting
to
use
them.
However,
it
is
concerning
15%
FLOODING
that women of the community seem
to be being
TO
left outDISTANCE
of this progress.
NLRDP should consider
ways FACILITY
to raise the access to communication for
all.
70
LACK OF MONEY
FOR TRANSPORT
0
35%
34.5%
56%
times the power point is not accessible.
Some
40young people use their mobile phones
to access the internet, though of the men
interviewed only three claimed to have ever
used the internet, and only two had in the last 12
months. Clearly people do not use the internet
to its20
full beneficial capacity. Most young
people
CEMENT
access only Facebook and connect with their
friends. One of the young women who does own
a mobile phone in Longborizu thought Facebook
was the internet and was surprised to hear from
KDI all0the other things it can be used for. Those
who do know the other uses of the internet find
their mobile phones are not an ideal interface
for accessing other communications and
information. LDC members expressed strong
interest in learning how to use computers and
the internet.
5%
76.4% 78.4%
60
57.0%
50
40
37.3%
30
20
10
GHANA AVERAGE
8%
05 HOUSEHOLD standards: con’t
8%
DUNG
TILES
RURAL GHANA
pIT LATRINE
Wout. SLAB
IMPROVED pIT
LATRINE
100
0.7%
10.4%
URBAN GHANA
Source: NLRDP HH Survey 2014
3.6%
LONGBORIZO
FACILITY ACCESS
A People who can afford zinc sheets upgrade their mud
buildings to offer improved longevity. Credit: Michelle Sintaa
Morna Morna
summary: 05 household standards
RESOURCES
5.1 assets and ownership
CHALLENGES
1. Longborizu people have some surplus funds for extraneous ex- 1. Livestock ownership was much higher in the past
penses
2. Most of the wealth is owned/controlled by men
2. Relative equality of wealth in village
KEY INDICATORS
1. % households in middle wealth quintile:
33%
2. No. households with more than 20 livestock (cattle, sheep,
cattle, pigs, goats:
5
5.2 water
5.3 sanitation
1. The existing borehole has proved reliable for twenty years
1. Attempts to build a second much needed borehole have failed 1. Average time spent fetching water per return trip:
25 minutes
2. There is a trained community person who is capable of fixing
twice
the borehole
2. Rain water catchment systems miss out on volumes of water 2. % of HH’s reporting water collection by women and girls:
94%
due to lack of infrastructure for collection and storage
3. Alternative sources of water for various uses are far away from
the village
4. Lack of a sustainable year-round water source limits the potential to extend agricultural growing into the dry season
5. Burden of water collection falls on women and girls
1. Most compounds have access to a pit latirne
1. Open defecation remains the main practice
2. Community members understand the negative impacts of open 2. N-L KG School do not have a public toilet facility
defecation
3. Young girls do not feel comfortable using shared toilet facilitie
1. % HH with improved sanitation:
8%
1. No. of public facilities avaible in LB and Nator central with
improved sanitation:
1
5.4 electricity
5.5 cooking fuel
1. There is currently some, albeit small, access to electricity within 1. Nator central is the only village in the vicinity that has not been 1. Number of publicly used power outlets:
3
Longborizu (solar PV)
connected to the electrical grid.
2. Nator Central will most likely have a grid connection by the end 2. Longborizu does not have the immediate prospect of being con- 2. Number of public spaces containing a light
2
of the year.
nected to the electrical grid
3. There are many profitable and socially beneficial activities that
community members would be doing if they had electricity
1. A few women make business selling charcoal for a high price.
1. Only timber based fuels are used in Longborizu with related 1. % HH cooking using solid fuels:
time, safety and environmental issues
100% (33)
2. There is evidence that the forest has been depleted over time; 2. % HH who cook indoors on fire or charcoal stoves:
97% (32)
increases in population in Longborizu or surrounding areas
could significantly exacerbate the problem
3. Almost all households cook indoors and compound the respiratory ailments casused by the smoke.
4. Very large logs are required to brew pito and process shea butter which may be depleting old growth forest
KOUNKUEY DESIGN INITIATIVE
59
summary: 05 household standards continued
RESOURCES
CHALLENGES
KEY INDICATORS
5.6 structures
1. There are examples of well-constructed bridges and buildings in 1. Poles of termite resistant wood are becoming more and more 1. Percentage of buildings with floors made of materials of low
both traditional and modern styles
difficult to obtain in the local forest
durability (mud, sun-baked clay brick, dung):
25%
2. People are still able to construct their homes at a relatively low 2. Longborizu residents face constant structural failures and re2. No of times community built bridge(s) have been repaired in the
cost because many of the materials are still available locally and
pairs on their mud-based structures
past 12 months:
for free.
1
3. Longborizu men are skilled in cement block fabrication and construction due to the practice they had in building Nator-Longborizu School.
5.7 access
1. Some residents who have bicycles and motorbikes can access 1. The rainy season crossing of the Longbori river has puts many 1. % respondants suffered injury/danger due to flooding:
amenities in a relatively short space of time
residents in danger on a daily basis
29%
1. Efforts to construct a crossing of the water would be a substan- 2. % households reporting 1. bicycles and 2. motorbikes ownership
1.76%
tial undertaking in terms of technical design, cost and imple2. 21%
mentation
1. Local government have not been able provide adequate service
and the community have not been able to carry out their own
solutions due to lack of funds and technical expertise
1. Feeder roads in the area are still dangerous for residents using
public transport, especially those taking three-wheeler transport
5.8 communication
technology
1. Longborizu community is not entirely isolated and is able to con- 1. Access to mobile phones is limited by lack of facilities to charge 1. % HHs with one or more phones:
76%
nect with the outer world via technologies.
phones and buy airtime
2. % of people reporting to have accessed the internet in the last
2. Some people use internet and others are aware of internet.
2. Network reception is mediocre to poor
year:
3. People see value in adapting to use technologies.
3%
60
NLRDP: NEEDS ASSESSMENT REPORT
BLANK PAGE
KOUNKUEY DESIGN INITIATIVE
61
06 AGRO ECONOMY
01 introductions
6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 6.6 6.7 6.8 6.9
water
agricultural soil
pest and
crop
systems management management disease
diversity
management
climate
agricultural agricultural
resilience costs, labour business
& yields
summary
B
A
06
A AGRO ECONOMY
C
Agriculture is the primary source of sustenance
and income generation in Longborizu and Nator.
In the following section, the typical systems of
agriculture and the way in which it is used to
support sustenance and income are explored.
A consulting agro-ecologist, Alexandra Dryer,
supported KDI in the agricultural component
of the study through research and field work in
Longborizu. In April 2014, two farmer focus groups
were convened with approximately 30 people in
attendance each time. Additional information
was gathered through anecdotal observations
and informal conversations during group
meetings and one-on-one farm walk-throughs.
Statistical information on production methods,
yields, income and nutrition was ascertained in
a Household Survey of 132 households. Minutes
from focus groups, Alexandra Dryer’s agricultural
report and recommendations are included in the
Baseline Conditions Technical Appendix.
6.1 Agricultural Systems
The Upper West region is marked by a single
rainy season from May until October, with
‘small’ rains typically beginning in late March
or early April. The temperature peaks at
around 40 degrees Celsius at the end of the
dry season, and lows of about 20 degrees
Celsius occur during the middle of the rains.
The focus groups noted that the rains have
been changing recently and are not as
consistent as they once were. People can
no longer trust that the small rains mark the
beginning of the rainy season making it safe
to sow the first crops, and there has been
an increase in the frequency of droughts.
This pattern was experienced this year when
farmers who planted during the “small” rains
lost their crops when the longer rains failed
to materialize. (More detailed study on the
potential implications of climate change can
be found in Section 3.6 Climate resilience).
As described in the first chapter of this report
(Project Context), Longborizu lies within a semiarid strip on the border of the Guinean Savanna
and the West Sudanese Savanna and shares
many climatic characteristics with the better
known Sahel. Due to the dry, dusty, windy and
fire-prone environment, generally low soil fertility,
as well as the fact that there is only one growing
season, Longborizu has challenging growing
conditions.
Land ownership rights are held by the
community as a whole and right to use the
land granted by the tendaana (household
head) to individual family lineages. As
explained in section 4.5 Equality of the
Disadvantaged, women do not hold any
rights to the land, but if a household has
enough land, married women may be given
access to small plots by their husbands to
cultivate vegetables and other food crops
B
E
A Two months into the rainy season (June), farmers have
planted the seeds but the environment remains relatively
dry. Credit: Louisa Brown
B Most edible leaves fall from trees during the dry season,
A
C
leaving the savannah brown. Credit: Michelle Sintaa Morna
c One Longborizu farmer describes how she runs her farm
and garden. Credit: Michelle Sintaa Morna
KOUNKUEY DESIGN INITIATIVE
63
6 AGRO-ECONOMY
06 AGRO ECONOMY: con’t
FIGURE 6.1.1 LONGBORIZO AGrICULTURAL PLOTS
for the household’s consumption (RademacherSchulz, C. and Salifu Mahama, E., 2012, p.25).
Sources: NLRDP HH Survey (2014) - Longborizo
Section
FARM HOMEGARDEN
Focus groups described how the basic agriculture
in Nator involves a bush fallow and home garden
system. The bush fallow system begins in the dry
season when the bush (sowing area) is cleared
except for the sheanut tree (Vitellaria paradoxa)
and dawadawa (Parkia biglobosa). Staple crops
(maize, millet, sorghum) are then sown into the
fields in beds amongst the shea and dawadawa
for three to five years, after which time the
land is left to go fallow in order to regenerate
some nutrients, as the land has ceased to be
productive. Legumes and pulses (groundnuts,
beans, tiger nut) are rotated into the fields,
creating a rudimentary crop rotation.
Source: NLRDP HH Survey 2014
% HH OWNING AV. SIZE/HH (ACRES)
EXTENSION CHIEF/ELDERS
OFFICERS
1
4% 2%
76%
100%
5
Rice production is also practiced in the flooded
areas throughout Nator, and is listed in the top
three most important crops, along with maize
and millet, for the community.
Homegardens are used in two ways. The
more traditional homegarden involves creating
a fenced-in area directly surrounding the
homestead. Higher value crops that require
more care; for instance, tomatoes, garden eggs
and cassava, are planted here.
FIGURE 6.3.1 LONGBORIZO
INFO SOURCES ON FARMING
27%
OTHER COMMUNITY
MEMBERS
67%
RADIO
A
This area is mostly in use during the rainy season,
with the fences rebuilt each year. People who use
the area for cassava or sweet potatoes—crops
that take more than one season—will maintain
the fence more thoroughly throughout the year.
The second type of homegarden is found in
areas still in the centre of the village, but slightly
outside the direct homestead. Staple crops will
be planted here in the same manner as the
bush fallow system. Since most of the fences for
the former homegarden style are redone each
year, the two areas have significant overlap.
Most people have not established a permanent
homegarden area.
64
NLRDP: NEEDS ASSESSMENT REPORT
FIGURE 6.5.1 LONGBORIZO STAPLE CROPS PLANTED IN 2013
Sources: NLRDP HH Survey (2014) - Longborizo Section
100
A Mixed gender focus farmer groups of about 30
informed the NLRDP agricultural study. Credit:
Michelle Sintaa Morna
06 AGRO ECONOMY: con’t
b
People in the area for the most part follow the
same tried-and-tested routine on their farms or
gardens without much variance. The system,
described in the following graphic, is designed to
help farmers reduce pests, increase soil fertility
and maximize output over the limited growing
season.
fertilizer is becoming less effective, the shaping
of the beds is causing soil erosion, as well as
the afore-mentioned climatic factors, and much
of the applied fertilizer runs off before it can
properly break down. Erosion also leads to
increased labor; time spent fixing and managing
the beds where the grains are planted.
Three main problem areas were identified by the
community: 1. labor, 2. soil fertility, and 3. income.
These issues are compounded by weather,
pests, diseases, and increasing fertilizer costs.
The issues are interconnected and must be
considered together when discussing potential
options to improve the current scenario.
The key to ensuring agricultural stability and
promoting growth in Longborizu is to reduce
farmers’ exposure to these risks while creating
sustainable livelihood options. These issues are
considered in turn in more detail in the remainder
of the Agro-Economy section.
The homestead gardens require the building of a
new fence each year, which can take people over
a month to complete. Collecting sticks from their
farms and further areas in the bushveld is a time
consuming and exhausting process. This is the
same process people use for collecting firewood,
exhausting the resources from their farms before
moving beyond, often walking several kilometres
with large bundles.
Labor
The style of agriculture practiced in Longborizu
is labor intensive. Primary agriculture centers
on staple crops of maize, millet and rice with
a small rotation of legumes and pulses such
as groundnuts and beans. Readying the fields
for sowing is done by hand and takes over one
week to prepare an acre. Lack of plow capable
animals, such as cattle, means that this is the
only option available unless something is hired
from an outside source. This is particularly
problematic for widows and the elderly who often
times are too weak to undertake this laborious
task. Instead, they need to hire labor at 6 GHC
per day, which is often more than they can
realistically manage financially, greatly reducing
the area they can farm each year. Tractors are
available at 60 GHC per acre as well, but this is
again outside of what most people can afford.
Synthetic fertilizer is used on the maize, which
is time consuming to apply as most people will
measure out the exact amount per plant. In
addition to the reasons stated above for why
Income
Low income in Longborizu from agricultural
activities can be tied to the above factors of poor
soil fertility and high labor, which drive down
yields. Lack of diversity in crops grown and only
one growing season also contribute. The local
markets are flooded with the same products, as
everyone only grows a handful of items. Maize,
millet, groundnuts, and tigernuts dominate the
landscape. The price for these goods fluctuates
throughout the year; they are lowest directly
after This, together with higher food prices, leave
many people unable to purchase additional
supplies, and are often left in a position of not
having enough food to feed the household.
In Dagau, this period of hunger is commonly
referred to as nadibo or ‘what shall we eat?’ and
is a common problem throughout much of SubSaharan Africa.
Also contributing to lower income is the rising
cost of fertilizer combined with the increasing
ineffectiveness, making the profit margin for
staples lower each year.
c
A
d
B
e
B Land clearing is done by hand using hoes. Credit: Michelle
fields in beds amongst the shea and dawadawa for three to
five years, after which time the land is left to go fallow. Photo
Sintaa MornaMorna
C A fenced in area directly surrounding the homestead is used Credit: Michelle Sintaa Morna
e Rice is farmed at the banks of the Longbori and Nyeri
to grow higher value crops like vegetables, yams and sweet
rivers. Photo Credit: Michelle Sintaa Morna
potatoes. Credit: Joe Mulligan
d Staple crops (maize, millet, sorghum) are sown into the
KOUNKUEY DESIGN INITIATIVE
65
06 AGRO ECONOMY: con’t
Soil Fertility
this area.
Low soil fertility is an issue that is naturally
occurring in the sandy laterite soils of Longborizu
but is being compounded by environmental
factors and agricultural practices. To understand
these causes, a technical background in the
soil structure and the process by which plants
intake nutrients is necessary. Section 3.2 Soil
Management gives a full explanation of these
processes and the ways in which the soil can be
ameliorated or deteriorated.
In one agriculture workshop, KDI conducted
a resource mapping exercise in small groups
of adults and youths by asking them to make
small drawings of all the community’s resources.
Some samples of items drawn show that of the
items listed (apart from cash and vehicles) all
are closely linked with agriculture and the agroeconomy. This underlines the central importance
of agriculture in the community’s outlook and
reinforces the case for agricultural improvement
as a key catalyst for positive change in the
community, using existing capitals for maximum
growth.
These three problem areas can be logically
linked to climatic factors (as will be demonstrated
in section 3.6 Climate Resiliency). But an issue
that may be compounding the challenges is that
it appears that government extension workers
have given Longborizu community members
flawed technical advice on various occasions over
the past decade. Some examples are; teaching
overly complicated, low-output composting
techniques (that seems to have confused many
Longborizu members); advising farmers to start
using expensive fertilizers and hybrid seeds
that in the long run cannot achieve desired
goals; and giving out loans irresponsibly so that
community members have defaulted. (These will
be touched at various points later in the Agroeconomy section.) It has been suggested that
these extension workers may be trained in the
south and have therefore learned techniques illsuited for this dry climate and infertile soil.
Aside from the community and KDI identified
challenges, the Nadowli-Kaleo District Medium
Term Plan (2014-17) states that the district
suffers from other agricultural inefficiencies,
namely; poor storage facilities; erratic/unreliable
rainfall; inadequate credit facilities; poor farming
technology; inadequate irrigation facilities; and
poor road network from producing areas to
marketing centres. With the majority of residents
relying on agriculture as their primary source of
income, it is imperative to link NLRDP planning
to appropriate programs and opportunities
afforded by government to maximize progress in
66
A
NLRDP: NEEDS ASSESSMENT REPORT
b
A
A
6.2 Soil Management
Farmers of Longborizu have repeatedly raised
the issue of soil fertility during consultations.
Focus group participants told of how over the
years they have noticed that their efforts to raise
soil fertility have been increasing, yet their yields
have been decreasing. The farming process is
a constant battle to sustain or improve yields by
whatever means available. This section presents
several typical soil management techniques that
farmers spend much of their labour and funds
on. Literature review as well as a technical
understanding of soil can rationally explain why
these efforts are less and less effective over time.
With this in mind, NLRDP can design long term
strategies to improve soil fertility while reducing
labour and cash input.
C
A A selection of resources drawn by Longborizu adults.
Source: NLRDP Agriculture workshop 1
B A selection of resources drawn by Longborizu youth.
Source: NLRDP Youth Resource mapping workshop.
c A group of farmers draws resources that Longborizu
d
community owns at an agricultural workshop. Credit: Michelle
Sintaa Morna
d Farmers set up soil embankments with these innovative
woods fish traps. Photo Credit: Michelle Sintaa Morna
06 AGRO ECONOMY: con’t
In order to fully understand the growing
conditions in Nator, it is important to first
understand soil structure and the process by
which plants intake nutrients. The most common
fertilizer application for agriculture comes in the
form of NPK; N=Nitrogen, P=Phosphorus, and
K=Potassium. While plants require more than
just these three nutrients to grow, these have
been identified as the most important, and are
used in the largest quantities during growth. It
is also important to note that the nutrients that
plants intake during the growing process are also
part of where the edible parts of crops receive
their nutrition for human intake; balanced soil,
and therefore nutrients, lead to more nutritiously
balanced food for humans.
The method by which plants intake nutrients
is not as simple as the nutrients merely being
present, rather, soil structure is imperative
in this process as the soil must be capable of
dissolving and binding the nutrients into a form
that the plant can then use for growth, with the
key factors being pH level and amount of organic
matter. The more neutral the pH and the more
organic matter present, the more productive the
soil becomes and the more readily the nutrients
are processed for plant use. Principally, higher
acidity content diminishes, and eventually
comes close to eliminating, the crops capacity
to intake phosphorus. This is highly problematic
as plants cannot grow properly without sufficient
phosphorus.
The soil in Nator is classified as a laterite and
soil tests indicate it is a highly acidic, sandy soil
with low organic matter content, as is true for
soils throughout the Northern Savanna regions
of Ghana (Bridges, E. M., 1997). Thus, the
local soil is not ideal for agricultural needs and
requires some form of additional nutrients and
organic matter in order to grow even basic,
native crops.
Even though workshops and interactions
showed that Longborizu residents did not know
the scientific reasons why, it was clear that they
were well aware of the fact that local soil needs
assistance to grow food. For many generations
and to this day, people have collected the
manure from their animals’ kraals and scattered
A
c
it on their gardens and farms. In doing so, the soil
increases its nutrient levels as well as decreases
its acidity. People also structure their planting so
that legumes, nuts and pulses – that have the
capability of capturing gaseous Nitrogen from
the air, and transforming into a solid compound
that is absorbed into the soil – before heavy
feeding crops, like grains. These two techniques
cost farmers next to nothing in terms of time and
cash. However, people have found the effects of
that these methods alone are insufficient.
Some years ago, urged by agricultural extension
officers in the area, farmers in Longborizu
increased their synthetic fertilizer use in hopes
of increasing farm productivity and in particular,
maize yields. Since then, six years ago, the cost
of fertilizer has steadily risen, as has the rate of
their application, but yields continue to decline.
Several people indicated they were planning
on forgoing planting crops that normally require
fertilizer, preferring instead to outright purchase
what they would normally grow, as it would
be more cost effective than the investment in
fertilizer.
“I made my calculations and I realized that I
have spent more on fertilizer [for my maize]
than it would have cost me to buy the maize at
market… This year, maybe I will not plant maize
at all.” – Pastor Gabriel Yagasoma
A
b
B
d
e
Last year, fertilizer was priced at 50GHC (then
about $15) per bag and the price has increased
to 60GHC (now about $20) this year. A significant
amount is spent on fertilizer each year however
some 8 households reported crop failure (where
they harvested less than half of what they
expected to) in the last two years, citing soil
infertility as a major cause.
A The soil in Nator is classified as a laterite and soil tests
indicate it is a highly acidic, sandy soil with low organic matter
content. Credit: Joe Mulligan
B Farmers sowing seeds. Credit: Michelle Sintaa Morna
At the school front, 25cm of erosion has taken place due in
large part to student’s daily sweeping. Credit: Michelle Sintaa
Morna
d The owner of this farm expressed his concern that these
maize plants may not produce any cobs because he could
not afford fertilizer and the rains started late this year. Photo
credit: Michelle Sintaa Morna
e There is a culture of daily sweeping outside structures,
such as homes, the borehole and the school and it
compounds erosion. Michelle Sintaa Morna
KOUNKUEY DESIGN INITIATIVE
67
Cattle
RURAL
1
9HH
Goats
06 AGRO ECONOMY: con’t
This explains why the community has noted that
fertilizer applications to their maize fields have
appeared to have little impact in recent years.
In the simplest of terms, mineral fertilizers will
only achieve yield increases in the short-term
for poor soils with low organic content. After this
time, those fertilizers will cease to be effective,
basically achieving the same results as applying
zero fertilizer (Kotschi, J, 2013).
Low soil fertility is compounded by process of soil
erosion, as it removes the slightly better quality
top soil. Soil erosion is ubiquitous in Longborizu
despite the relatively flat topography. The first
reason for this is uncontrollable by farmers; the
Harmattan. This refers to the hot, dry continental
winds that blow from the northeast across the
Sahara desert and into Ghana causing extremely
hot, dry days and soil to be blown away. The
second two reasons are caused by Longborizu
residents; a culture of daily sweeping of areas
just adjacent to the compounds affects ability to
grow food close to the homestead; additionally,
furrows are dug parallel to the natural slope in
many farms, causing top soil to be carried to
concentrated areas on the farm and at times off
the farm.
There are many locally available resources
that could improve soil fertility over time, while
reducing agricultural costs, and labour intensity,
such as carbon materials to make bio-char, food
scraps to make compost, nitrogen-fixing trees
and animal droppings like bat guano. These
could be used in conjunction with synthetic
fertilizers or on their own.
Thus, while farmers are taking measures to
manage their soil and increase fertility, there is
a gap in knowledge that causes them to spend
68
NLRDP: NEEDS ASSESSMENT REPORT
A
funds and efforts unnecessarily. NLRDP is
well positioned to increase understanding and
knowledge so that farmers can make informed
decisions regarding their chosen system.
Guinea
Fowl
6.3 Water Management
As it stands, farming in Longborizu is entirely
dependent on the natural pattern of rainfall
and dry season farming is almost impossible in
Longborizu. Farms and gardens are rain fed,
and on occasions when people irrigate their
agricultural plots themselves, they will fetch the
supplementary water from natural ponds and
rivers that fill up and empty out with immediate
reaction to rain. There is only one short growing
season and within that period there will often be
dry spells of up two weeks long, thus inconsistent
rains are directly linked to decline in yields (as
demonstrated in the graph below) (RademacherSchulz, C. and Salifu Mahama, E., 2012, p.75).
Community members undertake three limited
methods of water management that will be
explained in this section, but for the most part
they have no option but to work with the erratic
rainfall patterns.
This year, KDI recorded rainfall from May to
September and noted that the heavy rains began
six weeks late and that there have already been
six long stints without rain this year. Residents
have said that the Longbori river began to
exhibit consistent baseflow many weeks later
than usual (first noticed on the 22nd of August
after a reported heavy rain that lasted twelve
hours). People watched and waited from early
May, trying to predict when would be best to
start planting. Government Agricultural Services
advised on radio that from early June that people
should begin to plant. Some chose to plant
early and are concerned that the insufficient
rain experienced in June will cause the plants
not to produce. Others waited until early July,
the latest reasonable time to plant. They too
are concerned that their plants will not mature
in time for the end of the rains. As a result, it is
expected that yields will be particularly low this
year. Government Agricultural Services predicts
that rain will continue on longer than usual this
year. It is hoped that this information will prove
to be true.
9HH
Chickens
A
6HH
A
7HH
Pigs
B
6 AGRO-ECONOMY
FIGURE 6.1.1 LONGBORIZO AGrICULTURAL PLOTS
Sources: NLRDP HH Survey (2014) - Longborizo
Section
FARM HOMEGARDEN
As already mentioned, for synthetic fertilizers
to be effective, the soil conditions need to be
favorable. The soil in this region is already fragile
and synthetic nitrogen in the form of urea or any
of the ammonium based applications increases
soil acidity while decreasing humus and organic
content, thus perpetuating a problem of infertility.
Fertilizer alone in this environment is not enough
to increase yield; measures to increase the pH
and organic content must also be taken.
URBAN
3HH
Sheep
Source: NLRDP HH Survey 2014
% HH OWNING AV. SIZE/HH (ACRES)
EXTENSION CHIEF/ELDERS
OFFICERS
1
4% 2%
76%
100%
FIGURE 6.3.1 LONGBORIZO
INFO SOURCES ON FARMING
5
A Number of dry spells in planting season (AprilOctober) 1981-2011. Source: Synoptic Weather Station
Wa, Upper West Region (2011)
B Annual rainfall Production, acreage and yields for
five crops in Nadowli 200 – 2009. Source: Where the
rain falls survey adapted from Wa station data from
Meteorological service of Ghana (2011)
HH AV
Source: N
27%
OTHER COMMUNITY
MEMBERS
67%
RADIO
130 GHC
HIRED VEHICLE
06 AGRO ECONOMY: con’t
Three methods that the agricultural study team
have observed farmers using to optimize water
are as follows; the first is to build up soil ridges
at deliberate points around their plots that help
to trap flooding water for a longer period of time;
the second is to dig human sized, unlined pits
near their plot that hold water for a slightly longer
period of time. In these two cases, the methods
only work if the plot is along a river edge or pond
and often the water will have to be carried by
bucket to the area in need of water. The third
method is to utilize grey water from the outdoors
bath rooms by digging a small channel from the
drain that usually leading to a papaya, banana or
plantain tree. In all, the agricultural study judges
that these methods are only assisting with the
issue of the dry spells to a minimal extent.
A problem that KDI has noticed on a majority of
farms is that people will often build their planting
rows parallel to the natural slope of the land,
thereby losing the little rain water they have to
gravity. At times, the rows will actually guide
water off the farm entirely, into the river or onto
other people’s plots. Agro-ecology promotes a
variety of low cost, low input, low maintenance
methods (in the long run) that can vastly improve
the retention of water in farm soils, in part by
using the topograpy of the land and alignment
of the planting to retain water and soil. Via the
farmer trainings undertaken so far KDI has
already started to train community members on
these techniques in a systemic way to assist
with water retention and resilience to dry spells.
Workshop and meeting participants have
pointed out the potential to extend the growing
season by having agricultural water available for
a period of time in the dry season. Young men
seem to be the strongest proponents of this idea,
since they say that they could avoid travelling
away from the village in the dry season if they
could have work to do. They have also proposed
that fish farming throughout the year could be
highly lucrative as fish is a high demand, high
value product in the area. Two examples of dry
season farming in other places suggests that
this community idea is valuable and should be
investigated further.
a
b
The first example is seen through an anecdotal
source. KDI has heard that even though villages
in the Upper East Region are perceived as dryer
than Upper West villages, they are known to
produce far more vegetables.
“It is very hot and dry there [in Upper East regional
capital, Bolgatanga] … yet they will produce so
many onions that they even export them in big
trucks to Burkina Faso.”
– Martin Dery, Director of local NGO PRONET
Apparently, the difference that Upper East locals
have made for themselves is that most will dig
shallow dug wells in their own plots that they
manage to keep full throughout the dry season.
KDI hopes to visit and learn from these farmers
in the near future.
A
c
The second example is in Nator’s neighbour
Sankana. A decade or two ago (it is not
remembered exactly when), a large embankment
dam was built in the river adjacent to Sankana.
Farming on the dam edges and fishing in
the dam takes place. It should be noted that
the topography and upstream catchment of
Sankana is particularty suited to the larger-scale
daming of the river, though the potential for water
storage can and should also be considered in
Longborizu.
B
KDI believes that the gap between development
in Sankana in comparison to its neighbours
Nator, Goli and Takpo, can most likely be
attributed to the existence of the dam. Sankana
market is the second largest, most attended and
most stocked economic centre after the district
capital of Nadowli. Year round, one can find leafy
green vegetables and high value vegetables like
tomatoes, green peppers and garden eggs in the
market, whereas in neighbouring villages, dry
season markets severely lack in fresh produce
– the few vegetables and greens sold are dried.
Dried fish for the district is also sourced at
Sankana market. A well-stocked and attended
CHPs zone and HiPC (government clinics) are
adjacent the dam and they are far better facilities
than those found in other villages of the district.
F
d
e
f
d
A Longborizu pond at the end of the dry season, taken on
1st April 2014. Credit: Michelle Sintaa Morna
b Longborizu pond in the “small rains”, taken on the 8th of
July 2014. Photo Credit: Louisa Brown
c Small soil ridges are sometimes deliberately built to trap
flooding water. Credit: Michelle Sintaa Morna
d A majority of farms build their planting rows parallel to the
natural slope of the land, thereby losing the little water they
have to gravity. Credit: Michelle Sintaa Morna
e Longborizu pond in the “heavy rains”, taken on the 10th of
September 2014. Photo Credit: Michelle Sintaa Morna
f Unlined pits are sometimes dug out to hold rain water for a
slightly longer period. There are narrow and deep, as well as
shallow and wide ones.
KOUNKUEY DESIGN INITIATIVE
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06 AGRO ECONOMY: con’t
These two examples show how agricultural
business may be increased with dry season
water availability but KDI would suggest that the
effect of such an intervention could be multiplied
beyond just business. First of all, by extending
the growing season, nutrition year round could
be greatly improved and in the long term this may
increase life expectancy (explained in further
detail in section 5. Health). Moreover, dry season
agriculture could also be the key to breaking the
economic cycle that perpetuates hunger, overexpenditure and lack of income in the difficult
period between May and August when people
await the next harvest (explained in further detail
in section 3.6 Climate Resilience).
temporary shelters on their farms and sleep
there. Farmers will help each other to fight of
troupes by throwing stones at them.
NLRDP should consider ways in which the
growing season can be extended that balance
capital input with expected profit and social
gains.
The solutions for removal of pests of the insect
variety and weeds from farms and gardens are
less imaginative. In the rainy season, weeds may
easily overtake a plot in two weeks. Insects and
aphids are very common on growing plants. Most
leafy green vegetables are speckled with holes
but people will usually eat them nonetheless.
There are also few species of weeds that are
gathered and eaten. Few can afford pesticide
and weedicide but several report that they have
used pesticide and weedicide on their farms
or gardens in the last growing season. KDI
has noted that people find particular import in
applying weedicide to their rice paddies. Where
these chemicals are not affordable, a family
may physically pick out weeds from their farm
and simply allow insects to mar their leaves and
vegetables.
6.4 Management of Pests, Weeds, Diseases
and Fungal Infection
As previously described, farmers depend on
their yield for their subsistence. Thus an attack
of pests, diseases, weeds or fungi can be
catastrophic for a household. Depending on the
types of crops being grown, the level of income
of the family, and the number of family members
available to help with labour, people while choose
to be less of more active in the prevention and
removal of the threats. Generally, the agricultural
study team has seen more active innovations for
the removal pests and fungi, than of weeds and
diseases.
There are a variety of pests that are common
both for growing plants and for produce that
has been dried and stored. People have various
ways preventative and curative approaches to
each threat. Threat from larger animals include,
baboons, birds and herds of livestock. People
will build scarecrows and rotate them on their
farm, as well as hang shiny tape (taken from
old cassettes) to scare off birds and baboons.
According to consultations, baboons can be
particularly problematic just before harvest;
during this period some farmers may build
70
a
NLRDP: NEEDS ASSESSMENT REPORT
When it comes to goats and sheep, there is
a communal understanding that during rainy
season, they must be pegged for the day and
brought into the compounds at night. Large
herds of cattle however are out of the control
of locals. Fulani herdsmen will drive cattle
from neighbouring villages to waterholes in
Longborizu. At times, if they are not careful, the
cattle will trample peoples’ farms. This is a source
of tension between the Fulani and Dagaaba and
KDI has seen cases of this nature being taken to
the village headmen to be settled.
Termite mounds are omnipresent in the region.
Termites will at times attack productive trees on
farms. At first site of the mound, people will crush
the colony by digging to find its queen. People
will also avoid attracting termites to their farms
during the dry season by burning the harvested
and slashed stalks of maize, millet and sorghum.
Mounds found in the bush, however, can be
useful in that large chunks can be cut off to feed
fowls.
A
A
b
c c
d
d e
A If they are not careful, Fulani herdsmen may drive cattle
onto people’s farms, trampling their plants. Credit: google
B Termite mounds are common in the area. At first sight,
farmers will crush the colony by killing its queen. Credit:
Louisa Brown
c Maize drying on cement prior to storage. Credit: Michelle
Sintaa Morna
d Millet drying on cement prior to storage. Credit Michelle
Sintaa Morna
e Traditional grain silos are designed to have the smallest
possible area attached to the ground to protect against insect
attack. Credit: Michelle Sintaa Morna
06 AGRO ECONOMY: con’t
a
There are two traditional ways in which insects
that attack dried a stored food are dealt with.
The first is by using old-style grain silos, crafted
out of clay, kept out of rain and designed to
have the smallest possible area attached to the
ground. Commonly, these shared silos are seen
at the foyer of the compound. The second is to
dry neem leaves and put then into stored beans
and seeds. Apparently, the insects are put off by
the bitter taste of the leaves in the seeds.
seeds that produce higher yields. These seeds
require a greater cash input of fertilizer and
weedicide to perform as designed. It also seems
that some farmers do not understand that one
cannot save the seeds from crops grown from
these hybrid seeds.
Plants with fungal infection that are grown
close to the homestead (usually pumpkins and
squashes) will be treated by throwing ash on
the leaves. Diseased plants are simply removed
and burned and it appears there is not much
knowledge of remedies in this regard, especially
for fruit trees.
– Pastor Gabriel Yagasoma
Longborizu farmers thus demonstrate a variety
of techniques in dealing with the threats.
The agriculture study team has seen a gap in
knowledge on low cost, preventative measures
and on treatments for diseased tree crops, which
the NLRDP should take into consideration.
6.5 Crop Diversity
Focus group attendants listed 8 types of crop that
are currently farmed in Longborizu. These crops
make up a large proportion of people’s daily food
but there is a healthy culture that has continued
over generations of foraging foods from the
bushveld to supplement meals and products to
sell at market. These become essential when
family’s food stores run low between May and
August. (More information on the nutritional
variety of local foods is given in Section 5.1
Nutrition). Although there are several varieties of
crops grown, conversations with locals suggest
that the number of species (especially native
and climate appropriate species) of each type of
crop has decreased over time.
From one-on-one conversations with local
farmers, it is apparent that over time foreign and
hybrid seeds have taken over from local varieties.
In the past decade, farmers have been advised
by government extension workers to stop using
lower yielding but drought-resistant local seed
varieties and instead buy improved varieties of
A
“Sometimes you will plant the seeds [of tomatoes
purchased at the market] and they will grow and
look healthy but in the end there is no fruit.”
Two farmers who KDI spoke with had decided
that there could be some value in growing seeds
of local varieties.
d
“You know, when I was a child we used to grow
local beans … and they would produce [a lot] even
if there was no rain. Then we started growing this
type [benge – red/white/black beans] and they
don’t always produce very well. And I don’t know
why we changed. But you cannot find the local
type anymore.”
b
c
B
– Pastor Gabriel Yagasoma
One resident (Millicent Kandine) says her
husband made a point of growing the local red
type of millet last year, along with the foreign
varieties. He had heard that the local type is
more drought resistant. It was not easy for him to
find the seeds, she said; he searched all four of
the neighbouring villages to get the seeds.
d
E
The agricultural study team could be helpful to
farmers by informing them about the facts of
different types of seeds so that they can weigh
the pros and cons and make informed decisions
in their agricultural investments.
A Local ake apples (related to cashew fruit) are common
around the village. Collected around May, they are a critical
food source before the rains begin. Credit: Michelle Sintaa
Morna
B Cassava leaves remain green through the dry season and
are used to make stew. Credit: Michelle Sintaa Morna
C Mangoes ripen in the dry months of March and April and
are a favourite of local children. Credit: Michelle Sintaa
Morna
d Four types of local millet. Credit: Alexandra Dryer
Most leafy greens are riddled with holes from insects but
people will eat them anyway. Credit: Michelle Sintaa Morna
E Effects of pests. Credit: Michelle Sintaa Morna
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6 AGRO-ECONOMY
06 AGRO ECONOMY: con’t
6.6 Climate Resilience
A
72
NLRDP: NEEDS ASSESSMENT REPORT
FIGURE 6.3.1 LONGBORIZO
INFO SOURCES ON FARMING
FIGURE 6.1.1 LONGBORIZO AGrICULTURAL PLOTS
Sources: NLRDP HH Survey (2014) - Longborizo
Section
FARM HOMEGARDEN
Communities of the West African Savannah
and Sahel are recognized as highly vulnerable
to food insecurity as a result of climate change.
According to both climatic records and local
perception that will be shared in this section,
there is no doubt that changes to the climate
and rainfall patterns have been experienced
in Nadowli District over the past 30 years. As
pointed out in Section 3.3 Water Management,
there is a direct link between rainfall patterns and
farm yields that speaks to the heavy reliance that
Nadowli District farmers have on rainfall in terms
of regularity and volume. Sited in flat river delta,
a second vulnerability that must be considered is
the risk of flooding, which KDI has witnessed in
the course of the heavy rains thus far this year.
The following impact diagram – designed by
researchers of the Where the Rain Falls Report:
Case Study Ghana (Rademacher-Schulz, C.
and Salifu Mahama, E. 2012, p.66) – reflects this
causal relationship between rainfall, flooding and
livelihoods in one of Nator’s neighbours, Nanvili.
As seen in the following tables, the climate of
Nadowli-Kaleo District has been constantly
changing in the past thirty years. According to
surveys undertaken in Nator’s neighbouring
villages, Nanvili and Takpo, 92% of locals said
that they have perceived the changes in rainfall
and have observed impacts on local livelihoods
from the 1980s until today. The noted climate
changes include; that the rainy season starts
later (shift from April to May), is shorter and
contains more and longer periods of dry spells;
that extreme weather events have increased
(storms, floods, droughts); and that the climate
has become less predictable. The respondents
indicated that changing rainfall patterns have
a big effect on food production and that food
prices rise every year as a result (ibid, p.57).
Perceptions of extreme weather events were
studied in the same survey. A split of 27%,
44% and 71% of respondents said they had
experienced to their detriment floods, heavy
rains and drought respectively. These events,
they said, had destroyed crops and structures
and killed livestock. Two of the respondents
(1.3%) believed they had lost their livelihood
entirely as a result (ibid, 98).
B
A
Source: NLRDP HH Survey 2014
% HH OWNING AV. SIZE/HH (ACRES)
EXTENSION CHIEF/ELDERS
OFFICERS
1
4% 2%
76%
100%
5
FIGU
HH AVERAG
Source: NLRD
2
27%
OTHER COMMUNITY
MEMBERS
67%
RADIO
130 GHC
HIRED VEHICLES
FIGURE 6.5.1 LONGBORIZO STAPLE CROPS PLANTED IN 2013
Sources: NLRDP HH Survey (2014) - Longborizo Section
100
80
91%
88%
79%
70%
60
A Impact of variable rainfall and flooding diagram in Nanvili.
55%
40
39%
36%
Source: PRA session (2011), Where the Rain Falls Report.]
B Monthly rainfall (mm) and inter-annual variability (percent)
during the last three decades for the Wa Station, Upper West
Region (1981-2010). Source: Synoptic Weather Station Wa,
Upper West Region. (2011)
36%
20
0
MAIZE
MILLET
SORGHUM
RICE
BAMBARA
BEANS
BENGE
BEANS
GROUND
NUTS
TIGER NUTS
06 AGRO ECONOMY: con’t
A
Two study points will give NLRDP a basic
understanding of the degree to which Longborizu
may be deemed resilient to climate change from
an agricultural standpoint. First, the adaptation
strategies employed in soil management, water
management and crop diversification to counter
the effects of these two key aspects of rainfall
variability and flooding and second, harvest and
food insecurity resulting from climate change. A
third indirect study point – fallen structures like
bridges – must be taken into consideration as
it impacts livelihoods from the perspective of
connecting to markets.
Sections 3.2 Soil Management, 3.3 Water
management and 3.5 Crop Diversity make
evident the fact that at the moment, only some
farmers are attempting modest strategies that
could minimize loss of harvest in the event of
rainfall variability or flooding.
In terms of soil, most farmers are scattering
animal manure on the farm – a process which can
slightly increase the organic matter in the soil,
making it leach less. In terms of water, farmers
are building small soil mounds to dam water and
digging pits to collect water on their plots, which
can provide intermediate watering in case of a
dry spell to an extent. In crop diversity, evidence
from farmer consultations suggests that only a
select few farmers are beginning to consider
the drought-resistant capabilities of different
seed varieties. Household surveys informs us
that 30% of people in Longborizu report to have
experienced crop failure (where they harvested
less than half of what they expected to) in the
past three years. Thus, it is reasonable to deem
that in general the community are ill-prepared for
potential future changes in the rain fall patterns.
This conclusion is further supported by evidence
of food and harvest security.
The World Food Programme (WFP) in Ghana
considers a place to be food secure if, “All
people, at all times, have physical and economic
access to sufficient, safe and nutritious food to
meet their dietary needs and food preferences
for an active and healthy life” (WFP, 2009).
a Mean annual temperatures and linear trend from 1970–
2010. Source: Synoptic Weather Station Wa, Upper West
Region (2011)
KOUNKUEY DESIGN INITIATIVE
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06 AGRO ECONOMY: con’t
From literature Review, observation and
consultation, KDI has seen that there is a period
of time annually in which there is not enough
nutritious food to meet the dietary needs of the
community. The Where the Rain Falls survey
of 2011 found that 85% of the respondents
were, ‘unable to cater for the food needs of their
families throughout the year, and the situation…
seems to be “getting worse”’ (ibid, 63). This
period, between May and August is commonly
known as, nadibo – ‘what shall we eat?’ (ibid,
84), or “hungry season”.
In these three months, no food is available to
be harvested off the farm, few wild trees are
producing fruit and no fish is available from
the river. Food stores are being emptied; some
grains and beans need to be planted, some
must be sold to earn money for necessary farm
input, and large amounts must be eaten in place
of roots, vegetables, fish and meat. The market
are lacking in fresh produce and are also filled
with dried grains and beans. Thus, the variety
of nutrition in and quantity of foods eaten is low.
Between May and August, 75% of the Where
the Rain Falls survey respondents reported that
they did not have enough food to meet their
household food needs, and 69 per cent of them
did not have enough money to buy food either.
KDI has noted that between April and July,
funerals in the area were more frequent than
in August and September and seemed to be
mostly deaths of older people. It is possible that
this may be related to the low level of immunity
due to nutritional deficiency in the period of time.
Aside from the food and harvest insecurity that
hungry season causes, it also perpetuates a
cycle that further puts livelihoods at risk. People
are forced to sell their produce at a time when
everyone needs to sell their produce; supply is
high and demand is low, therefore the price is
low. (More detailed data on seasonal market
prices can be viewed in section 3.7 Agricultural
Costs, Labour and Yields.)
The majority of Longborizu residents said they
sell a portion of their grains, nuts and pulses at
some point in the year. Grains and beans were
mainly sold at the beginning of the rainy season.
This supports the idea that a majority Longborizu
74
NLRDP: NEEDS ASSESSMENT REPORT
sales are made at a time of the year when prices
are lowest. The main reason for selling wan an
unexpected expense.
Local structures are generally fragile and
particularly susceptible to water damage due to
the nature of the local materials used (see Section
5.6 Structures). When a heavy rain event occurs,
structures often get damaged. When waters rise
and flows are considerable locally made bridges
can break. It is subsequently problematic for
community members to reach their market
destinations which can further affect livelihoods,
especially during hungry season.
In summary, the lack of adaptation strategies for
climate resilience on farms, recurrent appearance
of hungry season and difficulty in reaching
markets due to flooding reveal that Longborizu
has a low degree of climate resilience. Given the
fundamental risk to livelihoods, NLRDP should
prioritise efforts to increase climate resilience.
Some recommendations that were given by
survey participants of Where the Rain Falls
Survey were to modernise farming with;
-improved seeds (high yielding varieties) and
early maturing crops
-tractor services or animal traction in order to
cultivate bigger fields
-fertilizer provisions
-provision of dams for dry season gardening to
ensure local farming throughout the year
-improve animal husbandry (e.g., create shelter
and vaccination campaigns)
And to;
-stop bush fires as they destroy vegetation cover
-curtailing tree felling for firewood and charcoal
production (practical solutions for other ways of
cooking were not, presented, however)
-creating local employment opportunities in
agriculture by establishing bigger modern farms
-provision of micro-credit services to farmers to
better access farm inputs
(ibid, 113)
NLRDP will consider these suggestions by
analyzing them in more detail and in the context
of Longborizu during the next phase of the
project.
A
B
F
A Onset of the wet season for the Wa station, Upper West
Region (1961–2010). Source: Synoptic Weather Station Wa.
B Timber/Adobe local style bridge crossing to Nanvili market
in June of 2014. Credit: Joe Mulligan
FIGURE 5.5.1 LONGBORIZO HH COOKING FUELS
MAINLY USED
9HH
FIGURE 5.5.2 LONGBORIZO HH
LOCATION
Source: NLRDP HH Survey 2014
16%
41%
CHARCOAL
6.7 Agricultural Costs, Labour and Yields
Early in the project, NLRDP identified that there
is the potential for agricultural improvements
to be a key catalyst for holistic positive change
in the community, using existing capitals for
maximum growth. Thus, in June of 2014, a
significant portion of the NLRDP Household
Survey was dedicated to detailing agricultural
income and expenditure in terms of human and
QUINTILES
financial capital. A second section formed WEALTH
a
general view of overall household expenditure
and income to contextualize the agricultural
data. The full household survey questionnaire
can be viewed in the Baseline Conditions Report
Technical Appendix. A future iteration of the
survey enumeration be made available to give
estimates for three other sections of Nator –
Naayiri, Banoare and Duorin – for comparison
purposes.
1
2
FIGURE 6.7.1 LONGBORIZO
HH AVERAGE ANNUAL COST OF LABOUR
3
b
4
200
GHC
67%
PER YEAR
%
OUTDOORS
SEPERATE
BUILDING
72%
84%
INDOOR
WOOD
5
7.2 ECONOMIC ACTIVITY
FIGURE 7.2.1 LONGBORIZO HH BUSINESS EARNINGS (GHC/YR)
Source: NLRDP HH Survey 2014
Source: NLRDP HH Survey 2014 (average over
25 HH using labour)
70 GHC
HIRED LABOUR
25%
500
500
400
320
300
200
100
150
70
Pito
0
50
25
20
130 GHC
HIRED VEHICLES
300
280
a Timber/Adobe local style bridge has been swept away by
b This traveller from Nanvili had to manoeuvre his motorbike
rushing water after a heavy rain event, leaving the crossingFIGURE
to 7.4.1LONGBORIZO
through mud and almost
hadWOMENS
an accident
upon OF
exiting
the
MEN AND
MEANS
SAVING
Nanvili market unbridged. Credit: Michelle Sintaa Morna] Sources: NLRDP
water. Credit:
Michelle
Sintaa
Morna
HH Survey (2014) - Longborizo Section
KOUNKUEY DESIGN INITIATIVE
80
75
Hairdressing
32%
Baskets/Calabash
19%
A
3%
Shea
9HH
06 AGRO ECONOMY: con’t
6%
2%
Dawa Dawa
URBAN GHANA
Source: NLRDP HH Survey
Shoe Repairs
10%
Tailoring
21%
Eggs
2014
31%
Animals
ZO
NG
34%
5.5 COOKING FUELS
4%
GHC/YEAR/HH RUNNING BUSINESS
HH
RURAL GHANA
summary: 06 agro economy
RESOURCES
6.1 agricultural systems
6.2 soil management
76
CHALLENGES
KEY INDICATORS
1. Longborizu farmers follow a tried-and-tested routine on their 1. Local farmers identified high labour intensity, low soil fertility and 1. Average size of HH farm:
5 acres
farms or gardens designed to help farmers reduce pests, inlow cash income as key challenges they face
crease soil fertility and maximize output over the limited growing 2. Nadowli-Kaleo District Assembly identifies the additional chalseason
lenges of poor storage facilities; erratic/unreliable rainfall; in2. Most of the recognized resources of the community are related
adequate credit facilities; poor farming technology; inadequate
to agriculture, thus there is potential for agricultural improveirrigation facilities; and poor road network from producing areas
ments to be a key catalyst for positive change in the community,
to marketing centres
using existing capitals for maximum growth.
3. Government extension workers have given Longborizu community members flawed technical advice that has compounded the
challenges faced
1. Longborizu community aware of the fact that local soils cannot 1. Farmers spend a large proportion of their farm investments on 1. % HHs using NPK and Sulphate fertilizers
26%
produce food without adding nutrients seasonally and currently
synthetic fertilizers
use low input devices (in terms of labour and cash) to raise the 2. With the current acidity of and lack of organic matter in the soil, 2. % HHs using animal manure and compost:
33%
fertility of the soil
synthetic fertilizers cannot improve the nutrient levels in the soil
whatsoever
3. The cost of synthetic fertilizers has increased significantly while
the improvement to the soil has been less and less pronounced
each year
4. Locals do not know of the nutrient cycle of soil or understand
why their synthetic fertilizers have been less and less effective
over the years
6.3 water management
1. Longborizu farmers attempt to manage their agricultural water 1. The success of agricultural outputs is highly dependent on the 1. % HHs who grew at least one crop during the dry season last
through low cost, low input methods.
erratic rainfall
year:
3%
2. There exist a variety of low input, low cost low maintenance 2. Current water management methods have limited effect in immethods that can be imparted to local farmers
proving resilience to dry spells
3. Virtually no dry season farming takes place due to a lack of water
6.4 management of pests,
weeds, diseases, and fungal
infection
1. Longborizu farmers know a variety of techniques for prevent- 1. The cost of using weedicide and pesticide is unaffordable for 1. Percent of households who used weedicide on their farm last
ing and curing the effects of pest, disease, weeds and fungal
most households
year
70%
infection.
2. Farmers would benefit from more knowledge in preventative
2. Percent of households who used pesticide on their farm last
2. Age old storage techniques work well and are free
measures
year
3. Farmers would benefit from more knowledge on measures for
79%
treating diseased fruit trees
NLRDP: NEEDS ASSESSMENT REPORT
summary: 06 agro economy
RESOURCES
CHALLENGES
KEY INDICATORS
5.6 structures
1. There are examples of well-constructed bridges and buildings in 1. Poles of termite resistant wood are becoming more and more 1. Percentage of buildings with floors made of materials of low
both traditional and modern styles
difficult to obtain in the local forest
durability (mud, sun-baked clay brick, dung):
25%
2. People are still able to construct their homes at a relatively low 2. Longborizu residents face constant structural failures and re2. No of times community built bridge(s) have been repaired in the
cost because many of the materials are still available locally and
pairs on their mud-based structures
past 12 months:
for free.
1
3. Longborizu men are skilled in cement block fabrication and construction due to the practice they had in building Nator-Longborizu School.
5.7 access
1. Some residents who have bicycles and motorbikes can access 1. The rainy season crossing of the Longbori river has puts many 1. % respondents suffered injury/danger due to flooding:
amenities in a relatively short space of time
residents in danger on a daily basis
29%
1. Efforts to construct a crossing of the water would be a substan- 2. % households reporting 1. bicycles and 2. motorbikes ownership
1.76%
tial undertaking in terms of technical design, cost and imple2. 21%
mentation
1. Local government have not been able provide adequate service
and the community have not been able to carry out their own
solutions due to lack of funds and technical expertise
1. Feeder roads in the area are still dangerous for residents using
public transport, especially those taking three-wheeler transport
5.8 communication
technology
1. Longborizu community is not entirely isolated and is able to con- 1. Access to mobile phones is limited by lack of facilities to charge 1. % HHs with one or more phones:
76%
nect with the outer world via technologies.
phones and buy airtime
2. % of people reporting to have accessed the internet in the last
2. Some people use internet and others are aware of internet.
2. Network reception is mediocre to poor
year:
3. People see value in adapting to use technologies.
3%
KOUNKUEY DESIGN INITIATIVE
77
07 INCOME AND EMPLOYMENT
01 introductions
7.1
income and
expenditure
7.2
economic
activity
7.3
seasonal
employment
7.4 7.5
financial
summary
management
07 INCOME AND EMPLOYMENT
This section looks at the various streams of income
available to Longborizu residents. Detailed
information on income sources, agricultural
and household expenditure, agro-business and
other economic activity was acquired through a
Household Survey of 132 households, including
all 35 households in Longborizu. This data
informs the observations and conversations
regarding income and employment in Longborizu
over the study period. On a regional and national
level, information from Ghana’s DHS survey of
2008 and the World Bank contextualises the
level of wealth and poverty.
7.1 Income and Expenditure
Regional and National Wealth Indicators
With a GDP per capita of $1,646, the World
Bank estimated that the percentage of the
national population that are living below the
national poverty line in Ghana is 28.5% (World
Bank Global Poverty Group, 2012). A generally
low level of cash income in Ghana is part of
the reason why Ghana ranks 131st out of 175
countries by the UNDP Human Development
Index (2004). A study produced by the University
of Legon, Ghana, suggests the Upper West
Region has continued to have one of the two
highest poverty rates country-wide annually
over the past decade, with Upper East Region
– the most recent record of 2012 estimating that
70.8% of the population are considered to be
living in poverty, far higher than the national level
(Al-Hassan and Diao, 2012, p.7).
The local circumstance reflects the low levels of
cash wealth in the region. Income and expenditure
fluctuates to a large extent based on the outputs
of farms, availability of raw materials for valueadded products in fallow areas and the changing
costs at the market as a result of supply. Collective
research informs us that in general, as a result
of the hungry season cycle (explained in full in
section 3.6 Climate Resilience) people have the
least income as well as the least food available
between the months of April and August, when
crops are not yet producing and grain stores are
low. Conversely, expenditure increases in these
months; people must buy farm inputs, food items
from the market (to supplement their dwindling
A
stores and lack of farm and foraged foods) and
they must engage in many funerals as well as
continue to pay school fees. In order to do afford
these, they must sell some of their grains store
at a time when the market price is at its lowest.
The combined effect of low income and
high expenditure in this period have severe
developmental impacts. One example, pointed
out by women of the Suntaa Maale group was
that they often have to pull their children out of
school in this period. And KDI has also witnessed
children who attend school outside of the village
return home in this time.
Nadowli-Kaleo District recognizes that low
levels of income debilitates the local population,
especially for those who are unable to
subsistence farm due to infirmity or young age.
Thus, two programs offer welfare through handouts and temporary work. The first, Livelihood
Empowerment Against Poverty (LEAP) gives
unattached funds of a minimum of GHC42 bimonthly (about $14) to vulnerable beneficiaries
like orphaned children, the aged above 65 years,
disabled people and people living with HIV/AIDS.
Currently this fund only supports 444 individuals.
The second program is aimed at increasing
employment. Ghana Social Opportunities Project
(GSOP) provides temporary work for local village
residents (giving preference to the vulnerable) in
labour intensive public works, such as feeder
road upgrading and afforestation projects. In
2014, this program has employed 2196 people.
While programs like these are important steps
in improving the low levels of income, they are
currently affecting only a small percentage of
the population and it is key to find ways in which
people can improve their circumstances that do
not rely so heavily on hand-outs. Bridging the
hungry season gap between April and August
could have positive spin off effects that would
multiply the financial, social human, benefits
gained. In the following section, 4.2 Economic
Activity, opportunities for NLRDP to achieve this
are investigated.
C
A
B
E
C
A Price development for maize, Wa market 2005-2009.
Source: Ministry of Food and Agriculture price data in Ghana
Cedis (2011)]
b Price development for maize, Wa market 2005-2009.
Source: Ministry of Food and Agriculture price data in Ghana
Cedis (2011)
c Price development for maize, Wa market 2005-2009.
Source: Ministry of Food and Agriculture price data in Ghana
Cedis (2011)
KOUNKUEY DESIGN INITIATIVE
79
07 income and expenditure: con’t
7.2 Economic Activity
Economic activity in the forms of agrobusinesses, sale of value-added products and
running of services comprises the vast majority
of cash income for Longborizo residents. Only 3
households report having residents with a year
round salaried employment and, in general,
there are few opportunities for income outside
of self-employment within the local village
area. As a result, 85% of households report
to engage in some form of products sales or
offer services. Nadowli-Kaleo District Medium
Term Plan reports only 38% of people districtwide engage in income generation outside of in
the climate-dependent activities of agriculture,
fishing and forestry – a far greater proportion of
the population than in Longborizu. The lack of
income generating opportunities outside of these
climate-dependent activities in part accounts for
the perpetuation of migration from rural sections
like Longborizu over centuries (to be discussed
further in section 4.2 Seasonal Employment).
Similarly, the same lack of opportunities leaves
residents in a precarious financial position
during the hungry season months of May to
August (discussed in sections 7.1 Income &
Expenditure and 6.6 Climate Resilience)
Where the rain falls Ghana survey explains
how the women in Ghana are the main socioeconomic backbone of the economy and that
despite their contribution, gender imbalance
continues with regards to the division of labour
and access to resources, which compel women
to take greater responsibilities and heavier
workloads than men. When farms are unable
to meet food requirements, it is women who
make up the short fall (Rademacher-Schulz and
Mahama, 2012, p.26)
KDI has seen significant evidence of this at play
in Longborizu, for example. the fact that almost
all value-added processing, craft-making and
market sales are conducted by women and
young girls. Women taking part in the Where the
Rain Fall Survey report that they are less likely to
be beaten and more likely to have their opinions
heard at home during the tough dry season,
when they earn the majority of family’s income
(ibid, p.26). There is an undeniable gender angle
80
NLRDP: NEEDS ASSESSMENT REPORT
in economic activity that will be considered in the
NLRDP and potentially opportunities to indirectly
support movement towards gender equality
through economic programs.
Agro-Business
A
Longborizu residents generally prefer to keep
grains and beans for their for their personal
consumption and sell their higher value nuts and
vegetables. 60% of households sold “legumes,
nuts and pulses” (and 30% of those that did sold
more than half of their harvest), while only 30%
sold grains (and less than 20% of those sold
grains sold more than half).
Typical produce for agro-business includes nuts
like; groundnuts and tigernuts, vegetables like;
tomatoes, garden eggs, green peppers, hot
peppers, cassava leaves, beere greens (type of
hibiscus), pumpkins, onions and okra, as well as
roots like; yam, kokoyam, cassava and sweet
potatoes, and fruits like; mangoes, oranges,
pawpaw. (A break-down of yields and quantities
sold of each of these items will be made available
in the NLRDP Household Survey Summary.)
Prices of agricultural goods fluctuates to a high
degree in the region depending on rainfall as
explained in the previous section,
In farmer focus groups, the agricultural study
team learned that currently, outsiders will travel
into the local village markets and sell their highvalue vegetables, especially at times of the year
when local villagers are not able to produce their
own. Longborizu farmers strongly expressed that
they are eager to be able to produce more, better
quality vegetables because of the high value they
have at local markets. Ideally, they would also
be able to produce them during the dry season,
when the price is at its highest and outsiders are
taking advantage of their lack.
Opportunities for dry season farming and
increased vegetable production are thus an
investigation point of high priority in NLRDP, on
which our engineering team, Arup CAUSE and
Agro-ecological consultant, Alexandra Dryer, are
focused. It is crucial to ensure, however, that the
B
07 income and expenditure: con’t
A
team respect the natural limitations of the bioregion and do not attempt to falsely increase
production by increasing capital inputs beyond
what is maintainable for local farmers. The added
human benefit of dry season food security,
nutrition and therefore health should also be
factored in.
to look light. Next the butter is cooked in large
pots on a hot fire (thus, two to three long and
thick logs must be fetched from the bush). The
final remaining impurities separate from the oil
and are siphoned off. Finally, the butter cools,
thickens, and is spooned into palm-sized balls
and sold at market wrapped in leaves.
Value-added Products and Services
The process is painstaking and time-consuming.
It is most often undertaken as a team of two
women and their girl children but only from within
the same household. Due to the flooded local
market, one palm-sized ball is worth 0.10GHC
(about $0.03), meaning one batch of the product
has an estimated worth of between 15GHC to
20GHC ($5 to $6.70).
A number of products that are either reared,
hunted, foraged or purchased wholesale
undergo value-adding processes and are sold at
local markets. These commonly include; animals
and animal products like; fowls, goats, sheep
and pigs reared for slaughter, hunted rodents
and fish, and various fowl eggs, as well as nontimber forest products like; shea nuts, butter and
soap, dawadawa (a local spice), baskets and
kogos (cane chairs), edible tree leaves, palm nut
oil, charcoal and firewood, and finally beverages
both local and bottled and both alcoholic and
non-alcoholic.
Due to the fact that the skills in producing
these items are generally common in the local
village area, markets tend to be flooded with
these products. If one considers the living,
human, material and intellectual capitals – in
terms of depletion of animal resources and raw
forest materials, time and labour of humans,
and craft innovations of native Dagaabas, the
financial capital, or cash profits, gained from
these activities are dismally low. Yet, in some
instances, middle men and end producers earn
large profits from these products.
One example of this unfair set up is in the
processing and sales of shea butter. The weeks
long process begins with forest foraging to collect
shea fruit. The next step (perhaps the women’s
favorite part) is to eat all the fruit, cleaning off
the nuts. Next, the nuts must be dried and hand
cracked in a large pestle and mortar. Once deshelled, the nuts are further hand-crushed and
then machine-crushed by passing the nut paste
through a diesel-powered mill twice. This paste
is hand churned to release the oil (vigorously
done by young girls bent double). The chaff is
rinsed out with water and the churning process
is repeated several times until the oil begins
Also to be considered is the material value of the
shea nut trees. Shea nut trees are not planted
but rather found naturally growing in fallow areas.
Where a productive shea tree is found on a farm,
knowing its potential value, a person will not cut
it down. They are not planted because they take
between ten and fifteen years to produce their
first fruits, which is perhaps too far in the future
to warrant concern at present. The shea tree
is only found in the in the dry savannah belt of
West Africa from Senegal in the west to Sudan
in the east. Currently shea trees are pervasive
in the area, but shea butter vanity products are
becoming more and more popular internationally.
Given the growing market and the fact that
people generally do not replenish this resource
by planting more trees, there is a possibility that
in the future, shea trees will become insufficient.
b
A
A
C
D
e
A When the river is up, children will fish for mudfish and
catfish, dry them and sell them locally. Credit: Michelle Sintaa
Morna
B Millicent Kandine rears ducks instead of common guinea
fowl. Credit: Michelle Sintaa Morna
c Dawadawa fruit is collected for the seed which makes a
local spice. Credit: Michelle Sintaa Morna
B Edible tree leaves are collected and sold. Credit: Michelle
Sintaa Morna
e Agro-ecologist, Alexandra Dryer assists Augustina to sell
her tomatoes and rice at the Nator Market during market
research. Credit: Michelle Sintaa Morna
KOUNKUEY DESIGN INITIATIVE
81
07 income and expenditure: con’t
Due to the human and material cost of shea
butter, KDI finds that locally, the product is
severely undervalued. On one occasion, KDI
saw bottled pure shea butter for sale in the
country capital of Accra of an equivalent size of
four “balls” being sold for 10GHC – a mark-up of
2500 percent. Beyond the national sphere, shea
butter has recently become a popular for vanity
products and companies like The Body Shop, as
well as UK-based Lush, claim to purchase their
shea butter from women’s groups in Northern
Ghana. From this perspective, there is an
opportunity to link local women to a wider market
to improve the remuneration for their hard work.
In discussions with Longborizu’s two women’s
groups, members were unaware that shea
butter was a product in demand internationally.
They were keen to have further discussions on
how the NLRDP project could link them to better
markets for their products.
Shea butter is only one example of potentially
profitable products manufactured locally.
National markets for other value-added products
such as Moringa oil and soap (medicinal
products), dried and powdered Moringa (a
nutritional supplement) and Jatropha seeds and
oil (a bio-fuel source) were found with relative
ease by the agricultural study team and most
potential buyers offered what appeared to be fair
prices. The potential of these early findings are
discussed further in the section on the Business
Pilot within the Pilots Report.
Three Longborizu groups indicated that the
mobilization of capital to start businesses was
a barrier that prevented them from starting
businesses. According to district records,
most existing businesses were started using
funds that individuals saved. The next highest
source of capital was borrowed money from
relatives and other sources were negligible.
This demonstrates the communities are not
tapping into the benefits of existing government
financial institutions, like the Rural Enterprise
Development Fund (REDF).
Nadowli-Kaleo District finds, as does KDI, that
locals generally do not conduct businesses as
co-operatives or as groups with relatives or
82
NLRDP: NEEDS ASSESSMENT REPORT
b
A
friends. Only 7% of businesses in the district
are conducted in groups. Though the women’s
groups at first were reluctant, they eventually said
they would be willing to work as a co-operative
in order to benefit from linking to national and
international markets through KDI. To enhance
growth and expansion of the small scale
enterprises, the NLRDP must consider ways in
which funds and support can be offered in the
most efficient way, and one of these approaches
may be to assist people to work as teams in the
business endeavours.
Several Longborizu locals (both men and women)
provide services in the village and also take their
service businesses out to other villages and
markets. Observed services are hairdressing,
tailoring, shoe-fixing, group farm services,
masonry work, sooth-saying, and phone charging
and milling (using a diesel generator). Generally,
each of these services is done by only one or two
individuals, since the market for each service is
small. 17% of households are making additional
income in this way.
a
A
C
D
B
Access to Local Markets
Locally, People usually rotate through at the local
villages of Nator, Takpo, Sankana and Nanvili to
sell these items depending on which village has
its market day. People would rarely attempt to
sell farm produce in Wa or Nadowli, because
prices tend to be lower at these economic
centres and transportation to reach them is an
added cost. On most days, one or two people will
also sell their wares in Longborizu itself under
central tree. On an ad-hoc basis, people will take
their products to public gatherings like funerals
and celebrations also in the local village area.
Within the district people may travel to Nadowli or
Wa to buy wholesale products, like rice, salt and
tea-taba (like coffee) to sell in small packages
for a profit in local markets. KDI is often asked
to purchase these items on trips in and out of
Wa, as if the cost of travel is nixed, profit from
these products can be very high. During one
LDC workshop, residents expressed a high
level of interest in the idea of public transport
to run between Nator village and economic
centres, saying that they suspect locals would
E
A The shea nuts are ground first by hand and then milled
twice at the local grinding mill. Credit: Joe Mulligan
B The shea butter is mixed to release the oil. Credit: Chelina
Odbert
C The shea nut paste is hand churned vigorously by young
girls bent double to release the oil. Credit: Chelina Odbert
D The shea butter is boiled to remove impurities. Credit:
F
Chelina Odbert
E Shea butter is sold in palm-sized balls, wrapped in leaves,
at local village markets for 0.10GHC (about $0.03). Credit:
Michelle Sintaa Morna
F Shea nut trees are not planted because they take fifteen
years to produce. Currently shea nut trees are pervasive, but
due to growing international demand, the numbers may be
too few in the future. Credit: Michelle Sintaa Morna
7.2 ECONOMIC ACTIVITY
07 income and expenditure: con’t
FIGURE 7.2.1 LONGBORIZO HH BUSINESS EARNINGS (GHC/YR)
be willing to pay anywhere up to 4GHC (about
$1.30) in-and-out per person, depending on
the distance. Transportation between markets
will be considered as a part of NLRDP access
programs.
Source: NLRDP HH Survey 2014
300
15
280
12
9
200
150
6
Grinding
3
Hairdressing
Tailoring
Baskets/Calabash
Pito
Shea
Eggs
0
105
50
25
20
Shoe Repairs
70
Dawa Dawa
100
15%
300
6%
3%
3 to 6 MONTHS
Seasonal migration has been a central issue
in the northern part of Ghana since the late
1800s, when the British Gold Coast emerged
as a unified administrative colonial post with
of centralized local services. At this time, the
colonial government instigated taxes, and in
particular a “Head Tax” that would tax each and
every individual. The fact that northerners lacked
320
1 to 3 MONTHS
7.3 Seasonal Employment
400
UP TO 1 MONTH
NLRDP will consider several things with regards
to programs related to economic activity.
Increased income generating activity could
be key to reducing seasonal and permanent
migration and the undesirable social effects that
come with it, such as loss of young men in the
village, destruction of family support structures
and reliance on remittances. Similarly, supporting
diverse sources of income that do not depend
on seasonal climate fluctuations could be the
key to bridging the 3 month hungry season gap
– multiplying the positive financial, social and
human effects – by reducing hunger, increasing
nutrition and therefore health, keeping children
in school year round and selling produce at a
time when the maximum profit can be gained.
Finally, linking local people to a wider market
could allow people do a larger quantity of valueadding processes to their raw materials in order
to fetch higher revenue from and balance the
time input that the processes take.
Sources: 1. NLRDP HH Survey 201
population at time of asking)
Animals
Summary
500
500
GHC/YEAR/HH RUNNING BUSINESS
As described in detail in section 2.7 Access,
there are significant barriers to reaching the
aforementioned markets due to long distances,
lack of motorized transport and difficulty in
crossing rainy season water channels that
surround Longborizu like a moat. As already
stated, NLRDP is of the view that economic
activity must be cultivated and one helpful aspect
would be by improving opportunities for local
sales, not to mention national and international.
FIGURE 7.3.1 DURATION OF SEAS
MIGRATION AMONGST LONGBORIZ
POPULATION
FIGURE 7.4.1LONGBORIZO MEN AND WOMENS MEANS OF SAVING
Sources: NLRDP HH Survey (2014) - Longborizo Section
80
70
68%
MALE
61%
60
FEMALE
55%
50
40
30
20
10
16%
10%
3%
3%
0%
0%
3%
KOUNKUEY DESIGN INITIATIVE
83
07 income and expenditure: con’t
cash resources to pay for these taxes was the
initial spark that sent men from rural villages
and remote towns out to look for paid work. The
flow of migrations within Ghana were largely in
response to the distribution of natural resources
across three ecological zones, namely the
coastal belt, forest middle belt and the northern
savannah. Consequently, movement circulated
from less-endowed areas of the north to wellendowed areas of the South. (RademacherSchulz and Mahama, 2012, 29)
This original push was propagated by colonial
authorities in their active recruitment of labour for
their profitable plantations of cocoa and timber,
and mines of gold (McLaughlin & Owusu-Ansah,
1994).Two bouts of famine as a result of drought
and a rapid growth of population put pressure
on resources in the early 1900s gave more
individuals further reason to migrate to the south.
Traditionally, only young unmarried males would
travel and most often only seasonally. Female
migration would only happen in the context of
wives reuniting with the husbands or relatives.
Over 150 years, the practice has grown to include
both seasonal and permanent migration and
also to include a large number of females, who
often work as head vendors (kayayei) at markets
and lorry stations. Theorists surmise that the
reason for these extended migration practices
is that a “culture of migration” has emerged
in which the perception of migration became
a highly interactive process going beyond
motivations of economics and sustenance to
include transformations of individual and societal
identity. (Rademacher-Schulz and Mahama,
2012, p. 27)
According to the 2000 Ghana Census, 26.9% the
Upper West population were living in the other
regions of Ghana (ibid, p.30). The most popular
regions for in-migration are Greater Accra region
(38.7% of the population) and Ashanti Region
(25.9% of the population) (Ghana Statistical
Services, 2008, 50).
84
NLRDP: NEEDS ASSESSMENT REPORT
B
A
A
A
c
A The young women’s WIDO Saving and Loaning Group
inspect a bottle of The Body Shop’s Body Butter, made with
shea. They were not aware that people use shea butter
internationally. Photo: Chelina Odbert
B Vida braids Mary’s hair. She also travels to outside villages
to offer hairdressing services when called. Credit: Michelle
Sintaa Morna
C Ladies shell groundnuts and hawk other items in the centre
of Longborizu. Credit: Michelle Sintaa Morna
FIGURE 7.3.1 DURATION OF SEASONAL
MIGRATION AMONGST LONGBORIZO Male
POPULATION
500
500
Sources: 1. NLRDP HH Survey 2014 (male
population at time of asking)
400
320
300
15
12
9
200
150
Grinding
Hairdressing
Tailoring
Pito
Shea
3
6%
3%
3%
6 to 12 MONTHS
Eggs
6
3 to 6 MONTHS
0
Baskets/Calabash
25
20
105
50
Shoe Repairs
70
Dawa Dawa
100
15%
300
280
1 to 3 MONTHS
So, it appears that there may be a desire to stop
seasonally migrating. And there is a national
program around galamsey that in the near future
may contribute to this desire.
Source: NLRDP HH Survey 2014
UP TO 1 MONTH
The number of seasonal migrants is also
significant. Of the 34 men (ages 15 to 49)
interviewed in the Household Survey, 7 said
that they had, “left Nator Village within the past
year to find work”. Most had left for a period of 3
months - see adjacent figure. The Young Men’s
Association told KDI that in the rainy season,
their group comprised about 70 men, but at
the time of the meeting in May, they comprised
about 30 men – suggesting approximately
half of the young men of the village were
away in the dry season this year. This can be
explained by an idea that is put forward by
various pieces of literature but also supported
by Longborizu’s Young Men’s Association:
“automatic unemployment”. Agriculture provides
and livelihood for most of the population of
Longborizu, therefore when the agricultural
season is over in December, suddenly the men
are automatically unemployed. The informal
conversation KDI had with the group suggested
that the problem was not merely the fact that no
money was to be made in the dry season, but
that there is nothing to do; that they sit all day
and are then a mouth to feed at night. The group
proposed that if in December, they do artisan
work, more of them would stay on in the village
through the dry season. In order to do that,
they would need training, which they currently
would not afford. If they had the opportunity
to do training, some would be interested in
construction, carpentry, welding, motor vehicle
and bicycle repairs, and butchery.
FIGURE 7.2.1 LONGBORIZO HH BUSINESS EARNINGS (GHC/YR)
Animals
Longborizu has demonstrated similar
permanent and seasonal migration cultures as
the rest of Upper West Region. From community
discussions and observation of funerals, it
seems that the majority of Longborizu migrants
live permanently in the South. People speak of
whole communities in Techiman and Obuasi that
comprise only Natorna people. Whole families
will appear at funerals by the bus load, some of
whom were born in the south, and some visit so
irregularly that they cannot speak Dagaare or
cook local foods.
A
GHC/YEAR/HH RUNNING BUSINESS
07 income and expenditure: con’t
7.2 ECONOMIC ACTIVITY
FIGURE 7.4.1LONGBORIZO MEN AND WOMENS MEANS OF SAVING
Sources: NLRDP HH Survey (2014) - Longborizo Section
80
70
68%
MALE
61%
60
FEMALE
55%
50
40
30
20
10
16%
10%
3%
3%
A Conceptual0Framework: Climate change and Migration.
Coop 2012Bank Assets
Source: Where the RainHH
Falls Report,
NO
SAVINGS
HH
Coop
0%
0%
Bank
Assets
3%
NO
SAVINGS
KOUNKUEY DESIGN INITIATIVE
85
07 income and expenditure: con’t
A
This is the dangerous work of artisanal gold
mining often done by northern migrants in the
south. The process involves catalysing mercury
with impure gold deposits to separate the gold
and causes a host of health problems related
to mercury poisoning. Due to the infection of
local streams with the mercury, the Government
of Ghana made the practice illegal in 2010
and began an aggressive radio and television
campaign encouraging citizens to report
galamsey workers to authorities. It is hearsay
that as a result of the recent campaign, many
young men can no longer make the money they
used to and have turned to crime around the
region.
If Longborizu locals reduced migration practices
as a result of the NLRDP implementation, KDI
believes it would have a positive effect on the
community on whole as well as on individual’s
personal prosperity due to the re-balancing of
the dependency ratio for several reasons. Firstly,
from a security perspective, having a greater
number of young men in the community could
reduce theft of valuable livestock and abuse
of older and single women left alone at home
(please see Section 1.3 Security for more detailed
information). Secondly, wives of migrants who
currently struggle to provide for the family with
little assistance from occasional remittances
would have regular support, which may in turn
improve residents’ (and especially children’s)
access to necessary services. Thirdly, ventures
that the community undertake could be better
implemented as a result of the additional labour
and diverse sources of idea. Finally, with year
round presence, families could undertake to use
micro-loans to create solid businesses that are
needed to promote Longborizu and Nator as a
new economic centre in the district and improve
financial prosperity for the community.
The NLRDP will need to consider ways in which
early programs can encourage people to remain
in Longborizu for longer periods in the year. An
apprenticeship program is option that is already
being explored as a part of the Infrastructure
Pilot.
a Upper West Migration Map. Source: Where the Rain Falls
Report, 2012
86
NLRDP: NEEDS ASSESSMENT REPORT
Grinding
Hairdressing
Shoe Repairs
Tailoring
Baskets/Calabash
Dawa Dawa
Pito
Shea
Eggs
3 to 6 MONTHS
1 to 3 MONTHS
Animals
3%
UP TO 1 MONTH
0
3
25
20
07 income and expenditure: con’t
7.4 Financial Management
FIGURE 7.4.1LONGBORIZO MEN AND WOMENS
A MEANS OF SAVING
Longborizu natives understand wealth to
constitute a combination of financial, material
and living capitals. As, one young man put it,
“If you have a lot of money and no land and no
animals, you are you in poverty because the
money goes away fast. If you have no money but
a lot of land and animals, you in poverty because
the animals can die or be stolen at any second
and because crops fetch a bad price.”
Sources: NLRDP HH Survey (2014) - Longborizo Section
As a result, people store their wealth, both in
assets like animals and in cash deposits in
various areas. From a gender perspective, KDI
understands that men usually make the final
decisions about how family money is spent.
However, women who collect cash directly
at market generally take care of household
expenses and children’s school fees. Anecdotal
evidence suggests that at times, a husband
or wife may purposefully obscure financial
information due to their mistrust of how the
money may be used by their partner.
The adjacent graphic from the household survey
shows the preference for women of saving
money in cooperatives amongst other women.
A
80
70
68%
MALE
61%
60
FEMALE
55%
50
40
b
30
20
10%
10
0
16%
3%
HH
Coop
3%
Bank
Assets
NO
SAVINGS
HH
9.1 CHILDREN AND ADULT EDUCATION
Coop
0%
0%
Bank
Assets
3%
NO
SAVINGS
KOUNKUEY DESIGN INITIATIVE
87
summary: 07 income and employment
RESOURCES
7.1 income and expenditure
1. Low cost of subsistence
2. Some inome generating activities in village
CHALLENGES
KEY INDICATORS
1. Declining income and increasing aspirational expenditures on 1. Average reported income per household last year from services:
2,030 ghc
education and health
2. Confluence of hungry season as lowest income and highest ex- 2. Average reported expenditure per household on educational
fees last year
penditure
2,800 ghc
7.2 economic activity
7.3 seasonal employment
7.4 financial management
1. People undertake to create economic opportunities in a variety
of ways.
2. Economic activity could provide an opening to indirectly influence gender equality
3. There are existing opportunities to link people to national and
international markets
1. There appears to be interest from local men in finding ways to
reduce the need for seasonal migration
2. A government program against galamsey (illegal artisanal mining) may reduce incentive for seasonal migration
1. Almost all responsibilities of processing of value-added goods 1. No. diverse businesses reported practised:
10
and all market sales falls onto women
2. Many value-added goods are processed painstakingly but are 2. Most common period for sale of grains last year:
‘Just before the rains’
sold at severely undervalued rates
1. High level of cooperative saving amongst women
1. Lack of trust between men and women on financial manage- 1. Percentage 1. men and 2. women who save cash in bank:
1. 10%
ment
2. 0%
2. Low level of saving
2. Percentage 1. men and 2. women who save cash in co-operative
savings (S+L):
1. There is high level of both seasonal and permanent migration 1. Percentage male interviewees who left village in the last twelve
in Longborizu
months to find work:
21%
2. Most migrants are young men, whose absence creates social
1. Most common duration of travel for seasonal migrants:
issues
1-3 months
3. Migration is an issue stemming from historical circumstances
150 years ago and it has become a cultural norm, thus it may be
difficult to counter migration practices to a large extent
1. 3%
2. 55%
3. % of men and women not saving:
10%
88
NLRDP: NEEDS ASSESSMENT REPORT
BLANK PAGE
KOUNKUEY DESIGN INITIATIVE
89
08 HEALTH
01 introductions
8.1
8.2
8.3
nutrition
medical facilities
and access
health conditions
8.4
summary
8 HEALTH
08 HEALTH
District Nutrition Programs
The Nadowli-Kaleo District Health Directorate
(DHD) state that there is an, “unsustainable
nutritional status of children and nursing mothers”.
On the basis of Body Mass Index (BMI), which
measures height to weight ratio and judges if a
person is underweight, between 2011 and 2013
the nutritional status of mothers and children
deteriorated from 82.0% to 74.0% respectively.
The situation improved in 2012 but deteriorated
again in 2013 to 88.7% (MTDP 2014-17, 2014,
p.82). The DHD do not propose reasons for
these annual fluctuations. KDI would put forward
that the nutritional status of individuals is highly
dependent on yields, and therefore climate, as
we have observed the varied nature of meals
according to what is available in the fields and
fallow areas. In the long run, there is a downward
trend in nutritional status that the DHD believes
is the result of rising food prices in comparison to
the value of the currency.
A healthy varied diet of sufficient daily quantities
is the basis for good preventative health – a
strategy that is much more efficient in ensuring
district-wide health than curing people who are
already sick. Hence, there is a district school
feeding program as well as a program that gives
out food at ante-natal care units. Longborizu
benefits from the school feeding program to an
extent (more information on the school feeding
program is given in section 6. Education). Dr.
Martin Morna, who visits the village an average
of twice annually, believes that the school
feeding program has already made a difference
to the general health of the Longborizu children
in the 18 months that it has been running. He
noted that the children seemed plumper, that
the children no longer had bulging stomachs (an
indication of kwashiorkor) and that fewer of them
had fungal skin infections.
Due to the sensitivity of health and nutrition with
relation to the seasons, it is important to note that
C
29%
A
FIGURE 8.3.$
Source: NL
NB: scaled fr
38%
UNDERWEIGHT
NORMAL WEIGHT
71%
62%
UNDERWEIGHT
NORMAL WEIGHT
in 100
E
FIGURE 8.2.1 NHIS REGISTRATION
FIGURE 8.3.1 HH MOSQUITO NETS AND SPRAYING
Sources: NLRDP HH Survey 2014
Sources: NLRDP HH Survey 2014
100
80
100
85%
88%
80
60
60
40
40
20
20
0
0
3% (1 HH) NO NETS
97% HAS NETS
SPRAYED
30% BY PRIVATE
COMPANY
SPRAYED
70% BY GOV.
PROGRAM
HH SPRAYED IN
LAST 12 MONHS
Nutritional Status
Source: NLRDP HH Survey 2014 (results to be
cross verified against Ghana BMI curves)
HH WITH
MOSQUITO NETS
8.1 Nutrition
A sample of 35 children aged 0 to 5 were
measured and weighed, of which 71% are within
a normal BMI range, 29% underweight (a BMI of
less than 18.5) – slightly less than the average
district-wide. For children 7 -16 the initial
figures are worse, showing 62% underweight
(NB: these figures have to be checked against
standard BMI curves for Ghana for specific
ages). In conjunction, foods that these children
were recorded to have eaten on a typical day
lacked gravely in nutritional variety. It is a similar
situation for adults, who in most cases eat
identical meals to the children between ages 1
and 5. Surveys conducted by the GHS in the
markets also indicate iodine deficiency in salt on
the market, which is a contributory factor to the
nutritional deficiencies.
Source: NLRDP HH Survey 2014 (results to be
cross verified against Ghana BMI curves)
WOMEN
the NLRDP Household Survey was undertaken
in early June of 2014 – at the peak of the typical
hungry season in a year when the heavy rains
began 6 weeks after the normal start date. Thus,
all results pertaining to BMI measurements and
nutrition are to be considered as worst case
scenarios.
FIGURE 8.1.2 LONGBORIZO 7-16 BODY MASS
INDEX
MEN
The health sector was studied in a few focused
areas within the NLRDP Household Survey
conducted in June of 2014. Particular health
questions on health services and access were
posed and the survey similarly undertook to
create a broad picture of nutrition during the
dry season. Specifics regarding diseases and
injuries suffered, however, could not accurately
be ascertained from direct queries, since often
people cannot identify what ailment afflicted
them and at times community health workers
misdiagnose patients. As a result, the bulk of
general health information was gathered from
secondary sources. The Nadowli-Kaleo District
Medium Term Plan offers data from the Nadowli
District Health Directorate and KDI conducted
interviews with community health workers and
nurses at each of the neighbouring Community
based Health Planning and Services (CHPS).
Using the information given in this section the
NLRDP may recommend focused points of
testing by medical professionals, for which the
Morna family is able to provide volunteer help.
FIGURE 8.1.1 LONGBORIZO 0-5 BODY MASS
INDEX
However, KDI believes (and the district also
recognizes) that these programs need to be
paired with basic nutrition education to increase
KOUNKUEY DESIGN INITIATIVE
91
08 health: con’t
people’s understanding of a balanced diet. There
could be an opportunity for the NLRDP to raise
awareness about nutrition using the N-L school
as an entry point. The SMC and PTA feel that
the meals are not up to the standard they would
like to set for the school. A program to improve
the school meals through planting a diverse
garden could indirectly inform community
members on nutritional health. The topic could
also be incorporated in posters and classes with
the children (a process which has already begun
and which is described in further detail in the
NLRDP Pilot Report, Education Pilot section).
Another project that has been discussed in the
Agriculture section that could have a marked
effect on nutrition is a dry season water source
for farming. This could help to bridge the hungry
season between April and August when there
is neither food stores, nor money available to
purchase food and people reduce the amount of
food they consume.
8.2 Medical Facilities and Access
Health Facilities and Services
The GHS recognizes government provided and
private facilities that offer western medicine as a
primary treatment. Traditional and herbal healers
are for the most part not included in tallies of
services available aside from “traditional birth
attendants”, who have since 1978 formed part
of the Primary Health Care (PHC) strategy
in the District providing reproductive health
care services (ibid, p.83). This is important to
consider when studying data collected by the
DHD because KDI has observed and measured
in surveys that in fact traditional healing is
most commonly resorted to, especially in nonemergency cases (for example, 27% of mothers
interviewed of mothers did not take their children
to a government facility in the most recent case
of their children falling ill). In the local village
area of Nator, community health workers were
aware of five traditional healers. KDI knows of
one soothsayer within Longborizu who is also
consulted at times of ill health.
NLRDP has not yet undertaken to study the
effectiveness of practices of these traditional
92
NLRDP: NEEDS ASSESSMENT REPORT
A
healers but it is clear that the government services
that are offered district-wide are not sufficient to
meet the need whatsoever. Considering that a
population of about 67,000 people in 2013 had
access to 1 broken-down ambulance, 1 district
hospital, 2 registered pharmacies, 1 pharmacist,
2 nurses, 4 midwives, 1 bone-setter, and only
1 medical doctor, it is beyond doubt that any
medical cases of an urgent or severe nature will
almost always result in death, without means to
reach outside of the district for assistance (ibid,
p.84).
The district attempts to bridge the vast gap
between demand and supply by providing
intermediate first aid service points and
providers. There are 17 CHPS zones in the
district with between 2 and 6 student nurses,
medical assistants, community health workers
and mental health officers. In Nator’s local village
area, there are four such facilities, in Nator,
Sankana, Takpo, Goli, with one new facility
earmarked to be built in Nanvili (ibid, p.84).
They offer slightly varying levels of services but
informed KDI of normal procedures.
A
B
B
At these facilities, patients can receive basic
drugs, wound dressing, rehydration drips and
basic disease testing. The facilities receive
patients on a 24 hour basis – on average 30 to
40 people per day – but may not host people
overnight. They are instructed to send people
on to Nadowli District Hospital. In the past years,
there was one government ambulance available
that could transfer patients for free if they were
on the health insurance scheme. But since
it broke down, CHPS staff have tried to form
alliances with local car and van owners to act in
place of ambulances. In this case, patients would
have to pay for fuel for the car (about 30GHC –
$10), which is often a sum beyond their means.
The staff’s biggest concern at these clinics was
that they often run out of the materials and
medications to do first aid treatments and it takes
too long for their supplies to be re-stocked once
reported.
Occasionally, a group of student medical doctors
from Cuba, who are linked with the Upper East
District hospital in Tamale for long periods, will
come to the Upper West for short stints. During
A Nator CHPS zone is Longborizu’s nearest health facility
offering first aid and basic medication. Credit: Michelle Sintaa
Morna
B Sankana CHPS zone provides improved services to Nator
CHPS and is better staffed. Credit: Michelle Sintaa Morna
08 health: con’t
this time, they conduct many surgeries for people
who could not be provided for by the district
hospital previously. Since the Cuban doctors are
students, it is suggested that they do not provide
a high standard of services.
“[The volunteer doctors] use us as guinea pigs.
They practice on us.”
– Longborizu native living in Wa
Aside from these options, if one can afford it,
there is a private hospital of an improved standard
situated in Kaleo town called Ahamaddiya
Moslem Hospital (built through Iranian aid).
Unfortunately, no Longborizu residents have
ever spoken to KDI of using this facility, likely
because it is too expensive to be considered an
option.
Access to facilities
All in all, the number of medical facilities districtwide computes to an average distance of 9km
from any point to a health service point – a
number that has been improved from 16km in
the past 3 years. However, this achievement still
lags behind the national target of 5km maximum
distance. (ibid, p.85). Longborizu does meet the
national target in terms of distance to the Nator
CHPS zone. Nonetheless, residents find it highly
inaccessible during the rainy months due to the
wide and deep water crossing that must be made
to reach the facility, not to mention the effort of
making the crossing when ill. Usually, if a case
is serious enough, a Longborizu local with a
motorbike will drive the patient to the appropriate
facility. This can be problematic as these
individuals may use a lot of their time helping
others reach the hospital and at times there is a
difficulty in covering the cost of the fuel between
the driver and the patient. Indeed, Longborizu
village elders named an ambulance as one of
their two top priorities.
A second issue regarding access of medical
assistance is the National Health Scheme
(NHS). On a national level, it should be stated
that the Ghanaian National Health Insurance
Scheme is easy to register for and relatively
cheap considering the services that can be
received (15GHC, about $5 per year). All civil
servants are automatically adopted into the
scheme and the amount is subtracted from their
annual salary. Similarly pharmaceuticals from
registered dealers are affordable as compared
to international prices. Longborizu Household
Survey recorded that only 88% of women and
78% of men were registered on the scheme.
Because we witnessed a group of older women in
Longborizu being assisted by one of their “sons”
to register, KDI assumes that those who have
not signed up for the scheme are simply lacking
the amount of money required in one lump sum.
Providing assistance for the remaining people to
register would be a relatively easy first step for
NLRDP to take in the health sector.
A
On whole, the medical services are lacking
to a degree that would involve a large input to
improve. Accessibility to quality health services
is an obvious need and perhaps a scheme
of smaller steps that could accumulate over
the long term to a greater combined effect
would be the best approach. At the same time,
supporting nutritional health should also not be
underestimated in its value to reduce health
problems in the first place.
b
A
8.3 Health Conditions
Common Medical Conditions
The DHD measures the top 10 causes of OPD
(Out-patient Department) attendance annually.
In 2013, in order of number of cases, these are
malaria, acute respiratory Infections (ARI), skin
diseases and ulcers, acute eye infection, acute
ear infection, pneumonia, acute urinary tract
infection, rheumatism, accidents and injuries, and
hypertension (ibid, p.85). This list is consistent
with that given by interviewed local CHPS staff,
who listed malaria, ARI, fungal skin infections
and diarrhoea as their most common cases.
They also mentioned that these diseases each
had their season – malaria and ARIs in the rains
and fungal skin infections and diarrhoea when it
is warm. In general, they see more patients in the
rainy season than the dry.
KOUNKUEY DESIGN INITIATIVE
93
8 HEALTH
08 health: con’t
each section within each village to conduct a head
The number of cases of Malaria is about 5 times
count, measure each persons’ height and ask
greater than the next highest number of cases,
some
basic
questions regarding
the symptoms
ARI (69,9410-5
andBODY
16,451
respectively). This FIGURE
8.1.2
LONGBORIZO
7-16 BODY
MASS
FIGURE 8.1.1 LONGBORIZO
MASS
of guinea worm, tap worm and intestinal worms
may in part be a result of numerous mosquitoINDEX They will also mount
– all parasitic conditions.
breeding
INDEXgrounds of stagnant water and lack of
informational
posters
around (results
the community
mosquito net use, but there may also be a level Source:
NLRDPtheHH
Survey
to bethe
Source: NLRDP HH
Survey 2014that
(results
be has witnessed
regarding
three
worm2014
types. From there,
of misdiagnosis
occurs.toKDI
representative
is able Ghana
to administer
drugs to treat
more than
onceBMIresidents
verified against
BMI curves)
cross verified against
Ghana
curves)being treated for cross
the parasite if they diagnose any local with the
malaria without having had a malaria test.
condition. Apparently, the drugs are quite mild,
Almost all households in Longborizu reported
thus the risk of misdiagnosis is not particularly
to own a mosquito net, but at times, these nets
concerning. This outreach program appears to
are not used because people find them hot and
be quite successful in that it maximises outreach
uncomfortable to sleep with.
while minimizing cost.
It is inferred that the top afflictions are a clear
HIV/AIDS has in the past two years become a
manifestation of poor environmental hygiene,
priority for the Nadowli-Kaleo District. Although
hygiene practices, sanitation and water
the prevalence
treatmentUNDERWEIGHT
(ibid, p.86). This is of particular import NORMAL
WEIGHTrate was relatively low in 2013 at
7.4%, it was three times as high as the previous
in the context of a recent outbreak of a highly
year. The majority of cases were of males
infectious virus of Ebola in the region of West
falling in the 15-39 age range. The high growth
Africa. At the time of writing this report, no case
in infections has pushed
the district to begin
of Ebola within the country had been confirmed,
UNDERWEIGHT
NORMAL WEIGHT
awareness campaigns, which they fear are as of
but there is considerable concern that it may
yet not reducing infections (ibid, 86).
make its way to Ghana. One positive spin off
of the outbreak is that there has been a recent
Finally, health issues related to a lack of antecampaign of hygiene awareness programs of
natal and post-natal care are noted as a concern
television, radio and by text message, informing
for both mothers and babies. The under-five
people, for instance, how to wash hands properly
mortality rate is 86 deaths per 1,000 live births
and interact with other people safely. CHPS
(based on a data set of 78 births). This is slightly
zone workers also report that they run health
higher than the national rate of 80 deaths (in
talks on occasion in nearby villages.
2008).
Government Programs
Education and awareness programs around
hygiene
andMOSQUITO
pre- and ante-natal
care,SPRAYING
appear to
Additionally,
GHS
offer
a
free
immunization
FIGURE 8.2.1
NHISthrough
REGISTRATION
8.3.1
HH
NETS
AND
necessary
in the sector
of Health.
In taking
service
outreach programs, of whichFIGURE be
preventative
measures,
community
Longborizu
taken
part. August of 2014
Sources: NLRDP
HH has
Survey
2014
Sources: NLRDP
HHtheSurvey
2014members
can reduce the number of visits needed to
was the most recent immunization drive. Each
the already under-staffed and under-serviced
mother or guardian is given a “weighing card”
(1 HH)The
NONLRDP
NETS will look for ways
health3%
facilities.
at the birth of the child. They must bring the
100
100
to combine the efforts of the community
health
card with them at all medical visits and health
SPRAYED
personnel and successful outreach programs
officers determine which immunizations are next
NETSto maximise
PRIVATE
with planned
projects
The Household
Survey records that 80
97% HAS
30%ourBYcombined
88%
80
85% needed.
effect.
the majority of children have been immunized
COMPANY
against all 6 of the government identified “child
killer diseases” as a result of this program. 60
60
These are measles, yellow fever, polio, tetanus,
pneumonia, rotavirus (causing diarrhoea).
SPRAYED
29%
70% BY GOV.
40
PROGRAM
0
ED IN
ONHS
20
WITH
NETS
NLRDP: NEEDS ASSESSMENT REPORT
OMEN
94
MEN
0
83
deaths
62%
Through a separate outreach program, GHS
annually hires one temporary representative from
20
Source: NLRDP HH Survey 2014
NB: scaled from data set of 78 births
38%
71%
40
FIGURE 8.3.$ UNDER 5 MORTALITY
in 1000 LIVE births
summary: 08 health
RESOURCES
8.1 nutrition
CHALLENGES
KEY INDICATORS
1. There is an opportunity to support nutritional awareness pro- 1. Some children in Longborizu are currently underweight
1. APercentage children (0-5) whose BMI is below 18.5
grams through N-L School
2. Generally, adults’ and children’s meals are not fully covering nu(underweight):
29%
2. There is an existing school feeding program in N-L School
tritional bases in the dry season
2. Percentage children (7-16) whose BMI is below 18.5
3. The nutritional health of N-L School children has improved since
(underweight)
the beginning of the school feeding program 18 months ago
62%
8.2 medical facilities and
access
1. Longborizu is within the national target of maximum distance 1. Access to health facilities is made difficult by rainy season water 1. % men and women coverage by government insurance scheme:
86%
5km to the nearest health facility
courses that are especially difficult to cross when sick.
2. Most cited reason for lack of access to health facility
2. Local CHPS zones can only provide basic first aid
flooding (36%)
3. Accessing the district hospital to treat more serious cases is difficult because there is not ambulance.
4. Medical staffing of health facilities is severely under supplied
8.3 health conditions
1. Effective government outreach program for immunization of 1. Insufficient local knowledge regarding hygiene
1. No. children reported to have died in family within 2 years:
pending
children
2. High prevalence of Malaria, Acute Respiratory Infection, and
1. Percentage children under 5 who have received all 6 national
2. Effective government outreach program for treatment of comskin fungal infections
recommended immunizations against child killer diseases
mon parasites
3. Lack of ante- and post-natal care
(Polio, BCG, Penta, Measles, yellow fever TT1):
pending
KOUNKUEY DESIGN INITIATIVE
95
09 EDUCATION
01 introductions
9.1
child and adult
education
9.2
existing facility
9.3
9.4
household
surveys
pilots
9.1 CHILDREN AND ADULT EDUCATION
09 EDUCATION
FIGURE 9.1.1. LONGBORIZO/GHANA EDUCATION
Sources:
1. Ghana Deomgraphic and Health Survey (2008)2.
2. NLRDP HH Survey 2014
0
20
Longborizo
40
40.4
60
Upper West
54.0
Rural Ghana
Urban Ghana
Men
Women
25.8
PRIMARY
4.8
SECONDARY
ABOVE
21.0
20.0
55.0
NONE
PRIMARY
SECONDARY
ABOVE
63.0
8.0
13.0
15.0
NONE
PRIMARY
4
SECONDARY
ABOVE
39.4
NONE
PRIMARY
35.1
17.4
PRIMARY
20
40
60
0
SECONDARY ABOVE
43.6
NONE
0
0.8
ABOVE
SECONDARY
44.0
Men
25.8
33.0
NONE
0.9
SECONDARY ABOVE
33.0
PRIMARY
40.3
Women
14.8
PRIMARY
NONE
0.5
SECONDARY ABOVE
30.3
40.3
100%
18.8
PRIMARY
NONE
GHANA
80
41.3
NONE
LONGBORIZO
Able to read whole
sentence
Able to read only
parts of sentence
Cannot read at all
(DHS, 2008). Drop-out levels are thus high
Education has been a key point of study and
both in Longborizu and in the country. Though
activity in the NLRDP research phase due to
9.1$ CHILD
the fact that the N-LFIGURE
KG School
was LITERACY
the initial(7-16) the largest expressed interest from adults has
Sources:
1. NLRDP
HHcommunity
Survey 2014 (32 kids)thus far been for vocational training, there may
developmental point
identified
by the
yet be many cases where an adult returning to
and then supported by the Morna family three
school may have to attend primary, JSS or SHS
years ago. Close60work with the organisations and
classes. Thus, issues of education access affect
staff members of the school has led to a detailed
both age groups similarly.
understanding of50 needs 56%
and the education pilot
has made significant headway in assisting to
Education Access
attend to these needs.
The Longborizu household
40
survey as well as district, regional 38%
and national
The district only offers a total of 177 educational
data has helped30 inform an understanding of
facilities – the vast majority being KG and
education of children in primary, junior secondary
Primary institutions. There is a dearth of SHS
school (JSS) and20 senior high school (SHS), as
well as adult education.
10
6% and vocational colleges (3 and 1 respectively)
(Nadowli-Kaleo District, 2014, p.79) that is likely
the effect of a cyclical problem; there is low
9.1 Child and Adult
Education
0
demand for higher level education, so there a
few schools offering the course, and there are
A primary objective of the Morna family in
few schools offering the higher level courses, so
working with Longborizu and Nator communities
there is a low level of demand for the courses. The
is to improve access to education at all levels.
district boasts a significantly high enrolment rate
From the perspective of declining agricultural
of over 100%, but this could also be interpreted
productivity, lack of occupations in the dry
as suggestive of under-supply of facilities, as
season and the precarious reliance on a
well as over-crowding.
changing climate, the opportunity that education
could offer residents is critical; it could create
Nator village has 5 KG schools, 2 Primary
a greater ability for people to conduct diverse
schools, only 1 JSS (all shown on the following
forms of income-generation, whether through
map) and no SHS. Within a walking or biking
employment or through self–owned businesses.
distance of about two hours, there are two more
On a global level, one must consider that with
JSS and SHS facilities.
continued inaccessibility to education could in a
sense leave places like Longborizu “behind”. For
All young people who live permanently in
example, while many children in the global north
Longborizu and are enrolled at school attend
may have experienced the internet (benefits and
Nator RC School. Those who attend schools in
detriments) for the first time over a decade ago,
Takpo or Goli will move to live with relatives in
some people in Longborizu are still unaware of
those villages and only come home for vacations,
the internet and the benefits it has the potential
if that. Further afield, a handful of boys at JSS
to offer. As a result of the undeniable importance
level and beyond whose families can afford it
of this sector and at the request of the Rotan
will attend boarding colleges in other districts.
Trust, KDI has taken an early focus on education
In this way, education is a contributing factor to
both in research and implementation.
the depopulation of Longborizu. Few who attend
boarding colleges outside of Longborizu would
The questions of child and of adult education are
ever return to live there (proven by the fact only 1
conjoined due to the fact that a high percentage of
permanent resident of Longborizu have attended
Longborizu people drop out of school long before
tertiary schools outside and returned).
they complete their high school diploma. Highest
level of education of residents as compared
A second obstacle to accessing education
to national levels are shown in the adjacent
is affordability. GES does not endorse any
figure. Country-wide, education figures are also
government facility between KG and JSS
dismally low; 46% of people reach SHS level
charging school fees whatsoever. But schools
but only 12% of people complete their diploma
21.3
1.1
SECONDARY ABOVE
80
100%
KOUNKUEY DESIGN INITIATIVE
97
09 education: con’t
will often charge students uniform fees, printing
fees, PTA/SMC fees and charge parents for
photocopies of books or notes as well as
learning equipment. These vary a lot depending
on the school, but it is clear that at times and
especially in the dry season, parents feel they
cannot afford these items. The schools do not
allow much leeway in most cases (although
there is an allowance available in all school’s
capitation to support “needy”, should the school
request for it). On one occasion, KDI met a small
child crying in the road returning from Nator RC
School who said that he had been sent home
from school because his mother had not bought
him a maths set. His mother said she could not
afford it for another month and he would have
to remain out of school until then. KDI has also
seen a few cases of young people who study
outside of Nator suddenly return during the
school term because they had not been able to
pay their fees. It seems that these short stints
where funds are low have the potential to cause
disruption and set children back in their studies.
A third limiting factor to education access is that
the courses that people want to do may not be
offered at the secondary schools or may not be
accessible to a student due to their failure in
a particular subject in previous years. One 23
year old secondary student informed KDI that
he had wanted to take history (to become a
teacher) but wound up at a vocational training
centre in the neighbouring district that only offers
construction, tailoring or mathematics. So he
took construction. “Besides”, he said, “where will
I find a job with history? I will rather make my
business of building. There are jobs here for that
…though people don’t always pay.”
Perhaps this thinking (that trade work is more in
demand in the area) constitutes the reason for a
much larger interest among adults in vocational
training. The Young Men’s Association
suggested that if possible, they would want
to learn things like motor-vehicle mechanics,
butchery, carpentry, welding, masonry and
construction. On some rare occasions, in oneon-one conversations adults have expressed
a desire to learn computer skills, how to use
98
NLRDP: NEEDS ASSESSMENT REPORT
A
B
B
F
A TNator RC KG, Primary and JSS School has 8 classrooms
like this one. Credit: Michelle Sintaa Morna]
B Nator RC School has a teacher’s compound that helps the
school to commandeer large numbers of government teachers
and trainees for the school
09 education: con’t
the internet, mathematics (for summing market
sales), English language, and technical drawing
(for construction).
The NLRDP has an opportunity to support
a culture of learning at all ages by using the
existing school facility for classes, reading and
study hours in the library and apprenticeship in
vocational training. Access would be drastically
improved, not only for Longborizu but for all of
Nator village and even beyond, by realising the
vision of the stakeholders of basing a quality
educational facility in Longborizu that offers all
levels to high school, boarding facilities, as well
as adult classes in various formats. If reachable,
ultimately the school would be a model to the
wider district – a wish that the Nadowli-Kaleo
DDE expressed to KDI and the chairperson of
N-L School SMC.
A
B
Education Quality
The quality of education that Longborizu young
people are receiving is to an extent not up to a
standard that both KDI and the SMC/PTA of N-L
KG School consider to be adequate, based on
observed student-teacher ratios, development of
students, literacy levels and school feeding.
District-wide, the student-teacher ratio (of trained
teachers) is 50:1 (Nadowli-Kaleo District, 2014,
p.80), which is less than desirable. GES ideally
recommends that a ratio of no more than 40:1 be
permitted. KDI would estimate that the studentteacher ratio at Nator RC School is about on
par with that of the district. This may in part
explain the difficulty students find in reading
comprehension and writing skills that KDI has
observed. For instance, one 12 year old girl in
Primary Class 5 asked for assistance with her
homework one evening. The task that had been
set was quite complex – a description of how the
Ghana judicial system operates. The child had no
text book or class notes to refer to in answering
this question. Furthermore, she could not read
the entire question and had to ask what “judicial”
means. The way in which the homework was set
seemed to lack effort and attention and despite
the girl’s eagerness to get help, she was put in
a position that would make it difficult for her to
excel.
F
KOUNKUEY DESIGN INITIATIVE
99
55%
60
50
40
30
20
10
09 education: con’t
While the literacy of the adults was of Longborizu
was not tested (due to a question of potential
embarrassment), regional data states that only
34% women literate and 55% men literate in
Upper-West Region. Our observations would
suggest that the Longborizu literacy level is likely
to be below the regional level for both men and
women. As previously mentioned, some interest
in English classes has been expressed among
adults.
rvey 2014
of 78 births
“When they don’t eat, you have to stop teaching
at 11[am], because they are just looking at you
and nothing is happening in their head anymore.”
– Mary Yelfaari, volunteer teacher at N-L KG
School
s
‘If I pay one cedi in a month, I expected my girl
to come home and tell me once in a while, she
took egg at school.” – Pastor Gabriel Yagasoma,
Parent of N-L KG School
rths
Bank
Assets
NO
SAVINGS
HH
Coop
0%
0%
Bank
Assets
3%
NO
SAVINGS
A
History of Nator-Longborizu Kindergarten School
In 2011, Longborizu community faced a tragedy,
when a young girl was drowned crossing the
Longbori river to attend school in the neighbouring
community of Naayiri. The community leaders
decided it was necessary for Longborizu to have
its own school. Two local students (taking parttime teacher training) volunteered to teach the
classes and one community member donated
the space of the veranda of their compound to
the school.
Within a year, one community leader, Mr. Ken
Zorre, was promoted to the position of Nator
Supervisor. This gave the school access to the
Ghana Education Services (GES), who were
called on to visit and officially register the school.
Ghana Education Services required that the
school have its own building. The community
pulled together to try to gather the necessary
materials to build a mud building with a straw
roof.
d
9.1 CHILDREN AND ADULT EDUCATION
FIGURE 9.1.1. LONGBORIZO
Sources:
1. Ghana Deomgraphic and
2. NLRDP HH Survey 2014
FIGURE 9.1$ CHILD LITERACY (7-16)
Sources: 1. NLRDP HH Survey 2014 (32 kids)
0
60
50
Longborizo
56%
N
40
38%
Upper West
30
N
20
0
Rural Ghana
6%
10
Able to read whole
sentence
Hearing of the efforts that had been made, the
Morna family offered to donate materials to
build a sturdier structure, if the community could
volunteer their time to construct the building.
Though construction began in April of 2012 at
the start of the rainy season, the partnership
was fruitful. Michelle Sintaa Morna designed
the building, a contractor was hired to oversee
the construction and the community arranged
themselves into three construction teams that
would work on the site in rotation. Since the
school opened in September of 2012, GES
has registered the school, and desks, chairs
and Kindergarten 1 and 2 books were granted,
a School Management Committee and ParentTeachers Association was formed, and the
school was embraced by in the District School
Feeding Program. Additionally, the parents
C
Able to read only
parts of sentence
100
Coop
9.2 Existing Facility
Cannot read at all
Thus, the quality of education offered is also
something the be considered as a part of NLRDP.
The organizational groups of N-L School have
suggested that the only way a school can achieve
a level of quality is if they register themselves
as private, since government under-provides in
many areas. Being private, they believe, would
allow a school to charge higher fees, thereby
using the money to attain better services. There
HH
b
A N-L KG School in September 2013. Credit: Martin Tanganaa
Morna
B SN-L KG School in September 2013. Credit: Martin
Tanganaa Morna
N
Urban Ghana
4
NO
c N-L KG School receives a donation of school supplies.
Credit: Martin Tanganaa Morna
d N-L School on opening day of the new school year,
September 2013. Credit: Martin Tanganaa Morna
Women
NLRDP: NEEDS ASSESSMENT REPORT
21.0
NONE
Men
13.0
NONE
O
MORTALITY
School feeding is also important for a quality
education. Both Longborizu and Nator RC
Schools are a part of the district school feeding
program. While KDI cannot speak for the feeding
at Nator RC, it may be deduced that they have
found their stocks similarly low in comparison to
what is needed for a full term. N-L School has
found it difficult to make school lunches through
to the end of term and has required help in the
form of donated ingredients. The SMC/PTA have
also identified that the meals are not as rounded
as they may like – usually being a starch and a
legume.
0
3%
GHANA
Moreover, the literacy rate (in English) among
Longborizu children aged 7 to 6 was tested using
a simple sentence in like,” the child is reading a
book”. 56% were unable to read the sentence.
3%
a
remains a question as to what level of school
fees can be considered affordable and what
can be achieved with that level on money. The
education pilot will investigate further what
the pros and cons are of turning the existing
education facility into a private one.
16%
10%
09 education: con’t
arranged for uniforms to be sown and cleared an
outdoors area behind the school for the children
to play in. The school has continued to function
with two full time female volunteers, a cook and
a security guard.
There are 46 students who make up the KG1 and
KG2 classes and vary in age from 3 to 9 years
old, since some of the students began attending
school late. There are a significantly higher ratio
of girls to boys enrolled at the school – about
4 girls to every boy. This imbalance might be
explained by the fact that generally families with
many children often send some away to relatives
in the south. Since they are able to do farm work,
often those sent away are young boys.
Progress
In a region where only 51.9% of children
aged 36 to 59 months are included in formal
education (Ghana Statistical Services, 2011,
p.184), Longborizu can boast that almost all
children in the same age range are enrolled in
kindergarten class. However, the SMC and PTA
spoke of some shortcomings of the school in its
role as an early developmental agency for the
children. Particularly, they felt that at this stage
the children ought to be able to say a few things
in English, say their alphabet and count to ten,
which the parents were finding their children
unable to do.
“The children come home and they can’t say any
word in English… When I ask what my daughter
has been doing at school, she cannot tell me
anything.” – Pastor Gabriel Yagasoma, SMC
Chairperson and parent.
The NLRDP will propose to study as a part of
the education pilot the developmental level
of the school children in further detail using
tests prescribed by Ghana’s Early Childhood
Development Index in the four domains of,
“literacy-numeracy, physical, socio-emotional
and learning” (Ghana Statistical Services, 2011,
191). These may be able to indicate areas of
improvement, which will need to be factored
into the curriculum and staffing decisions of the
school organising groups.
Several aspects of the school are considered to
contribute to the children’s intellectual growth.
The SMC and PTA met with KDI at three
planning meetings in April and May of 2014 to
identify and prioritise areas in which the school
needed improvement in order to reach their
ultimate goal of building a model school that the
entire region can look to. Achieving these aims,
they believe, will bring the level of education to a
standard on par with the private, urban schools
in neighbouring Wa.
Priority 1: Income and Volunteer’s Motivation
Income refers to the monthly revenue of the
school and Volunteer’s Motivation refers to a
proposed stipend for the school staff teachers,
cook, security guard that will encourage them to
work diligently. The problem identified is that the
monthly income cannot cover all of the current
costs, let alone the costs that the school would
incur if it functioned at a level the SMC and PTA
are envisioning for its future.
In theory, government are mandated to provide
delivery of food items as a part of the school
feeding program, as well as a grant of about
300GHC per term. In practice, however, the
volunteers of the school have found it challenging
to access the “capitation” grant on time and in
full due to miscommunication and disagreement
among the account signatories. They have also
protested that the food items brought are too
basic (consisting solely of starches and beans)
and that the quantity has not been enough to
feed all the children for the entire 3 month period.
As a result, at the start of the NLRDP project, the
majority of the income was sourced from a per
term fee charged to school parents of 1.00GHC
per month (about $0.33), a village-wide tax
charged to Longborizu residents of 0.50GHC
(about $0.17) and spontaneous donations from
a Longborizu natives living abroad.
The expenditure of the school at the start of the
NLRDP project covered additional ingredients
for the canteen, a regular salary for the security
guard, teaching equipment, administrative costs
and uniforms. The discrepancy between the
costs and expenditure have habitually been
covered by underpaying the security guard, and
by additional
made by SMC members
a donations
and a Longborizu
native living outside the village,
which applied unfair pressure onto these few
individuals.
Since government registered schools are
not allowed to charge school fees to children
at nursery and primary levels, it is of utmost
importance to creating a regular, reliable and
sustainable source of funds to supplement the
meagre government grants. After debate, the
SMC/PTA placed this item as the top priority
because they believe that a lack of funds is the key
reasons why all other prioritised items could not
and have not been achieved already. The group
sees the school building as vital resource that
could be utilized to create business opportunities
when empty. This idea has been taken further in
the education pilot, which is detailed in the Pilots
B
Report,
section 2. Education.
Priority 2: Students for Primary 1 Class
Students for P1 class refers to the effort to
register new pupils to N-L School in order to
qualify for official status with Ghana Education
Services. Currently, teachers have identified 17
students who are ready to move on to P1 class
within the school. For efficient use of resources
granted, GES has a rule that no new class
can be officially registered unless they have a
minimum number of 30 students and maximum
of 50. Finding the remaining 13 students would
mean N-L KG School would be eligible for
capitation grants of a larger sum (in proportion
to the total number of students) to cover costs
of school equipment, building and compound
improvements and administrative costs.
The Nator communities neighbouring Longborizu
– Bayaro, Tamaapoa, Banoare and Baazu – all
lack facilities for primary school education, while
Nator RC School is already full with between 40
and 50 students in the Primary 1 class. Thus,
opening the N-L school to the wider Nator
community would serve a doubtless need.
However a large obstacle that is being assessed
currently with help from the Arup CAUSE team is
that all of the aforementioned sections of Nator
are across one of the two rivers from Longborizu.
In any instance, the short route requires a water
crossing that is significant for a small child must
be made. Ways in which longer routes that do
not require river crossings can be used are under
investigation – for instance, if a school bus could
be commandeered in a way that is sustainable
for the SMC/PTA, that could be a necessary
course of action for the education pilot to take.
A
Priority 3: Canteen – Ample and Nutritious
Canteen refers to the improvement of the free
meal provided so that it is sufficient in quantity
as well as covers the nutritional bases of the
children. The school cook typically creates
simple meals using the ingredients granted
through the school feeding program that tend to
have a high carbohydrate and protein content
from starched and legumes but lacking in
vegetable and fruit content for a rounded macroand micro-nutritional diet. A lack of dry season
fresh food sources, capital and a need for a
gardening group were identified as obstacles to
the enhancement of the canteen.
Priority 4: Human Resources
This refers to the teacher(s), librarians(s) and
replacement volunteer(s) that are required by
the school. Due to the limited capital resources
available to the school, it is important to find
ways to fill the positions required with quality
staff in an affordable fashion. The group
believed this would be possible by looking for
recent high school and college students to fill the
places of volunteer teachers who need to leave
Longborizu, since they may take a small stipend
for to teach for a few hours per day. Similarly it
was thought that JSS school girls may be willing
to take on the librarian job in the afternoons for
a small motivational sum. With regards to the
teacher, the group made an aim to have the P1
class registered (once the required number of
students was found) in order to make an official
request for a teacher.
The education pilot sort to assist in this regard
and has. The P1 teacher has been granted to
the school and student librarians and volunteers
have been organised for 2014 school year,
beginning mid-September.
KOUNKUEY DESIGN INITIATIVE
101
09 education: con’t
Priority 4: Teaching equipment
Teaching equipment refers to all of the necessary
books and utensils that the teachers need in order
to do a good job. The group listed texbooks and
teacher’s guidebooks, syllabus and curriculum,
as well as chalk, crayons, chalkboards and
exercise books for the students. These items are
normally provided by the government through
the capitation grant, thus the group endeavoured
to make an application for them.
In July of 2014, two representatives from the
SMC were successful in budgeting for the list,
getting the budget approved, drawing the sum
from the school account and purchasing the
necessary items.
Priority 5: Space and Equipment for Play
This refers to the purchasing of playing equipment
like educational toys and sports equipment as
well as the construction of a designated play
area. In the future, the school hopes there could
be a jungle gym included in the play space,
since they recognize that the one at Nator RC
School is a success. They recognized that any
such intervention would need to be implemented
along with a strong maintenance plan.
The group believed that most of the work and
capital for this could be provided by the community
and the captitaion grant. Two representatives
succeeded in getting some soccer balls and goal
posts through the capitation grant, but as yet the
volunteer labour has been spent to upgrade the
exteriors on whole and plant necessary trees
and bushes. Thus focused attention on a play
space has not yet been made.
Priority 6: Toilet and Urinal
This facility would be exclusively for the school’s
use. At the moment the children are using a
designated area next to the river that is not safe,
since it poses hygiene concerns and since the
rainy season water channel could be hazardous
for young children who are alone.
This construction work could be done by the
community for the most part. However, from past
experience, members of the group suggested
102
NLRDP: NEEDS ASSESSMENT REPORT
that the building would be much safer and last
a longer time if they could have some donated
materials to build a sturdier structure.
No progress on this priority has been made yet,
aside from identifying a potential site for the
building.
Priority 7: Borehole
This point refers to access to water on the school
property. The District Chief Executive(DCE) and
District Director of Education (DDE) upon visiting
agreed that it is very important for the school
to have, since the community borehole is too
far away and since GES does not endorse for
children to be used to convey water to the school
property.
The group suggested that there was a willingness
for the community to offer land and maintenance
of the borehole. But, since previously two attempts
to advocate for a second community borehole
failed, they could not offer any suggestions as
to how to arrange for the new borehole. The
education pilot has attempted to provide water
at least through the rainy season by attaching
a simple rain catchment system to the building.
(More information on this is available in the Pilot
Report, Section 2: Education Pilot.)
Priority 8: Upgrade current building and create
space for new classes
These two were separate priorities that in the
end were lumped together after the group
realised that there was already enough room
for a P1 class to be accommodated (with some
adjustments) by using the covered open air hall
for the youngest children to have their class.
The group offered up a list of problems that they
had encountered with the building design over
the past two years but felt that in the context
of all the priorities, these problems were not
debilitating and could be considered a final
priority. These problems were; that the carpentry
on the doors and windows was not of a high
standard, and as a result, they are difficult to
open and close and often slam; that the metal
sheeting of the roof was noisy when it rained
since there was no ceiling; that at some times
ofAthe year, the building was too hot and at other
times it was too cold. They also raised a concern
that soon the roof rafters may need support since
the contractor used timber of an inferior quality.
Again, the group felt that the community could
offer labour voluntarily, but in order to do a good
job, they would need a donation of materials.
Thus far, no progress has been made on this
priority.
Priorities Summary
Now that this list has been drawn up, the group
are slowly but surely working to get all the items
to a level of quality as befitting a model school.
Progress has been made since KDI’s arrival but
there is still a long way to go and there are priority
items, such as a new borehole, that it appears
the school organisations cannot tackle on their
own. NLRDP will create a long term strategy with
the group that will implement high priority items
as soon as feasible, but also create intermediate
plans for tasks that are unachievable in the
near future. The education pilot has been most
needed so far in helping the SMC/PTA to build
their capacity by having regular meetings, linking
with local authorities more efficiently and offering
technical advice and the group has showed
promise in their ability to deliver with the support
that can be offered.
A
summary: 09 education
RESOURCES
CHALLENGES
KEY INDICATORS
9.1 child and adult
education
1. There is an existing kindergarten facility in Longborizu
1. Accessibility to SHS and tertiary institutions is low due to the 1. % of HH members completing secondary school s:
11%
2. The stakeholders of NLRDP are dedicated to creating high qualdistance to these facilities the cost of boarding schools further
2. Affordability of educational facilities
ity, accessible education for the whole village area
away
not affordable for everyone
2. The quality of the education the local area is not very high
3. People cannot always take the courses that they want to because at times it is not offered at the secondary schools or they
cannot take part due to their failure in a particular subject in
previous years
9.2 existing facility
1. Strong and active SMC/PTA
2. The SMC/PTA have laid out a list of eight priorities to focus on
3. They have achieved 2 of eight priorities without outside help
1. The school is in dire need of regular, reliable, sustainable funds 1. Enrolment at start of most recent school year:
46
2. The developmental progress of the children at the school must
2. Student teacher ratio (including volunteer teachers):
be assessed
46:1
KOUNKUEY DESIGN INITIATIVE
103
10 ENVIRONMENT
10.1
10.2
10.3
10.4
10.5
10.6
biodiversity
energy demand
air quality
de-forestation and
desertification
solid waste
water
contamination
10 environment
In the context of Longborizu, where the
population density is approximately 2 persons
per hectare, environmental issues have a
less apparent effect than in the urban areas of
Ghana (Accra’s population density for instance
is 10 persons per hectare). Consequently,
the NLRDP research efforts were minimal in
efforts to measure baseline environmental
conditions. Rather, an approach of observation
and querying locals regarding their perceptions
of the changing and current environment led
to an outline of challenges that affect daily life
as a result of environmental factors. With this
baseline understanding, NLRDP endeavors to
ensure that no negative environmental impacts
are caused as a result of future interventions,
and that wherever possible integrate restorative
programs.
10.1 Biodiversity
Currently, there are over 266 legally constituted
forest and wildlife reserves in Ghana, which
cover about 17% of the total land surface
area. These have been categorized into: forest
reserves, national parks, nature conservation
reserves and wetlands sites, which are globally
significant biodiversity protected areas (NadowliKaleo District, 2014, 84).
Longborizu is fortunate to still benefit from
approximately 50 square kilometres of
surrounding relatively untouched areas of land
shared by the village of Nator and its neighbours
(an area of about 3 times the size of Nator village
itself). On the whole these spaces increase the
level of biodiversity of the area in terms of both
flora and fauna. Unfortunately, these areas are
limited in their contiguous size since farms are
laid out in a patchy manner over the landscape
due to farmers searching for new land with better
fertility every three years (please see Section
3. Agro-economy for information on fallow
farming systems). Moreover, it is understood
from conversations with elders that the forest
used to be far more dense and wide – that it has
gradually been shrinking over the years. There
are no official rules regarding land conservation,
however there are two instances in which old
growth bush will be left untouched. Firstly, some
areas are not farmed because they are far away
from the existing inhabited areas. And in a few
cases, areas of forest are left to grow because
they are graveyards of old and people believe
that ancestral spirits reside there.
These fallow and untouched areas continue to
offer a variety of local edible plants, as well as
useful medicinal, construction and craft plants.
It is noted that Longborizu residents still have
a distinctly strong common memory of uses of
local plants and that it is still ingrained culturally
to use these plants whenever available . These
items help to support a dwindling variety of
foods and other useful plants that are grown
on people’s farms. As explained in Chapter 3.5
Crop Diversity, residents have described how
there were more local varieties of seeds in the
past but over time they have been replaced by
higher-yielding varieties that were recommended
by agriculture extension workers. A few residents
spoke of how they now think that the local seeds
were better, because although they were low
yielding, they were more reliable in instances of
drought, and grew even without the addition of
fertilizer.
C
A
E
The animals that are typically in the wilder areas
surrounding Longborizu are a variety of reptiles,
birds, rodents and small buck. These too are
used by locals. People typically hunt them for
sale or for eating but rarely for hides. The types
of animals that can be found in the surrounding
national wildlife reserves, such a hippopotamus,
elephant, large buck and buffalo suggests that
the savannah had large migratory herds in the
past. Elders have memories of some of these
large animals interacting with the community but
even when they were young, these occurrences
happened rarely, so it is likely that these animals
were already over-hunted in the colonial period.
While we gather that there is a level of biodiversity
in the local region, it is clear that the bio-diversity
in both flora and fauna is decreasing. The
Nadowli-Kaleo district views this issue as one
key focus to be attended through agricultural
programs. Areas deemed most appropriate for
immediate action are in protecting hot-spots of
biodiversity – wetlands and forests.
With regards to wetlands, rice farming has
KOUNKUEY DESIGN INITIATIVE
105
10 environment: con’t
taken over river banks across the entire district
(Nadowli-Kaleo District, 2014, 82). These are
almost always sprayed with weedicides that
reduce the wetlands plant variety, which can
pollute the water for animals. No wetlands
projects have been undertaken by the
government as yet. It would be difficult to reduce
rice-farming in the area, since it is one of the
more valuable crops that are grown.
With regards to forest biodiversity, there are
a handful of GSOP nurseries started by the
district assembly that simultaneously create
jobs, educate and afforest areas of land. KDI
was fortunate to visit one high-functioning site in
the Vogoni community about a forty minute drive
from Longborizu. The project has been a success
over the past four years and demonstrates the
possibility of community custodianship over bio
-diverse areas.
Though biodiversity is on the decline, there
is space for NLRDP to incorporate programs
that support biodiversity in the area while
simultaneously answering the other “needs”
raised by residents.
10.2 Energy Demand
Energy is currently used in Longborizu for
cooking, after-dark,charging of mobile devices
and radios, machine-grinding grains and nuts
and occasionally to power PA music systems.
These energy needs are met by using firewood
and charcoal, petroleum-based fuels, disposable
batteries and (only for 5 small households) solar
power. According to the LDC, if electricity were
available, there are a host of activities that they
would do in addition to the aforementioned (for
a full list, please review section 2.4 Electricity.
Thus, even though there is currently quite a low
level of usage of non-renewable energy, NLRDP
must consider that in the future, the demand for
energy may increase rapidly, and the pressure
on the local cash economy and natural resources
may become an issue.
There is a small potential that Longborizu
may be included in the electricity supply of the
national grid in the next few years. The market
centre and main school of Nator will likely be
106
NLRDP: NEEDS ASSESSMENT REPORT
A
connected by December of 2014. However, in
the short term, the connection seems unlikely
due to Longborizu’s 2km distance from the main
feeder road, upon which the cables are being
installed and lack of village-wide public centre.
Thus, urgent needs of the community, such as
night-time study and gathering and charging of
electronics will need to be met by other systems.
The Arup CAUSE team along with KDI are
currently investigating the most feasible, efficient
and sustainable ways of creating an opportunity
for public access to power. More information on
investigations into energy will be made available
in the pilots report.
A
10.3 Air Quality
Ambient air quality is an important factor of
health. Surrounding clinics report a high level
of ARI (Acute Respiratory Infections) and some
cases of pneumonia (more specific information
is given in section 5. Health), which suggests
that air quality is low in the area. Given the small
population and that there is little access to typical
urban air polluters, like exhausts from motorized
vehicles and industrial fumes, it is likely that
people are exposed to pollution in concentrated
areas, and especially in unventilated rooms from
cooking and food processing. KDI has noticed in
particular that cooking on wood fires or charcoal
indoors is common (all households cook this
way), and that there are three households that
use diesel-powered generators to run their
businesses (grinding mils and phone charging)
– also indoors. The NLRDP must endeavor
to ensure that polluting practices are not
extended as a result of project implementation,
and furthermore that they may be reduced by
improved access to renewable energy sources.
One air quality factor that is less controllable
is ambient dust caused by the sandy nature of
the uncovered soil. This problem is especially
bad in the dry season and in Harmattan period,
when for two to three months it becomes dry,
cold and windy and red dust blows in from the
Sahara Desert. There is little that can be done
about the current situation. Still, the NLRDP
will keep in mind that new projects have the
potential to create uncharacteristic dust by
attracting more traffic through the village and in
b
B
A Fumes from diesel powered grinding mill.
Credit: Michelle Sintaa Morna
B Cooking indoors on fire is typical and creates smoke that can
cause respiratory health issues. Credit: Michelle Sintaa Morna
10 environment: con’t
large construction projects. Thus, in these areas,
NLRDP must ensure to mitigate the problem
wherever possible.
7.4 De-forestation and Desertification
Longborizu is about 240km from the nearest
national reserve. There are hence no areas of
forest that are protected by law in the typically
travelled vicinity. Without any designated
protected areas, de-forestation is exacerbated in
Nator’s surrounding bushveld by people cutting
firewood and timbers for construction regularly,
by land clearing for farming and by out-of-control
bushfires. Desertification on a localized level is
created by patches of concentrated tree-cutting
and intensified by quarrying for building soils and
stones and by mineral extraction.
In Nator villages and its neighbouring villages,
there is a considerably high level of use of
firewood and charcoal. As described in Section
2.5 Cooking Fuel, LDC members were queried
about firewood collection and their answers
were unexpected. Apparently, they do not see
the effort of collecting firewood as something
that has become worse over the years; in other
words, sources of firewood in the dry season
have been ample for the Nator, Takpo and
Goli communities within the surrounding fallow
areas and on people’s farms annually. However,
people do have to walk further to collect their
firewood if they start late in the dry season; which
suggests that the source is almost at maximum
output annually. Indeed, the group spoke of
how they would meet Takpo people somewhere
halfway between the two villages when collecting
late in the season. Further to this observation,
Longborizu elders have said that when they were
young, the forest was thicker and wider. It can be
deduced that though locals are not experiencing
the day-to-day effect of a reduction in tree stock,
the forest is indeed depleting.
There are currently limited alternatives for
cooking fuel in Longborizu since Liquid Petroleum
Gas is expensive and difficult to transport without
a
a motorized vehicle, and since the village will
not likely be connected the national grid in the
near future. The practices of land clearing and
land burning are age-old and would require a
shift in cultural farming practices to adjust to notill, no-burn farming techniques. Currently, all
households have trees growing on their farms
that are used for firewood and 82% have grown
trees for timber and fruit. These three area –
alternative cooking fuel, farming techniques
and wood-lot planting are all areas that for both
reasons of the environment and living standards,
the NLRDP hopes to integrate into long term
planning with help from the community.
The Nadowli-Kaleo has seen success in the
GSOP afforestation projects. KDI has visited one
of several GSOP sites where local government
has created jobs through nursery planting of
local and climate appropriate species (like, Red
Mahogony, African Teak, Cassia Alata, Cassia
Spectabilis, Palm Tree and Moringa). These
nursery plants are used to extend existing old
growth forests. At the GSOP site in Vogoni,
KDI experienced, along with some community
members, old growth forest that had been
extended by twenty acres over the past four years.
Both KDI and the community representatives
(who had never been to or heard of the site)
were surprised by how the micro climate was
dramatically more humid than the neighbouring
village even before the heavy rains had begun.
From early in the rainy season, pits of up to 100
square metres and quite deep had been dug-out
that collected water and the staff of the project
claimed these never run out completely due to
the lush, shady cover in the area. The pits had
even attracted a pair of permanent crocodile
residents.
The reaction of Longborizu residents upon seeing
the old growth forest was emphatically positive.
As a part of the Education and Agriculture pilots
further links with the project in Vogoni were made
and the community has planted 75 seedlings
in the N-L School grounds, donated by the
Nadowli-Kaleo District. Longborizu leadership
A
A
b
A Fallow land on the Eastern edge of Longborizu. Credit:
Chelina Odbert.
B At Vogoni GSOP Site, pits of about 100sqm and quite deep
are dug and last through-out the year due to the lush forest
c
coverage. Credit: Michelle Sintaa Morna
c Vogoni GSOP Site has an unusually humid micro-climate
as a result of the natural old growth forest that has been
extended to 20 acres over the past four years.]
KOUNKUEY DESIGN INITIATIVE
107
10 environment: con’t
explained to KDI how forest-planting for the
long-term made a lot of sense to them since they
always need construction materials, like African
teak poles, and since some of the species, like
the palm tree, can provide income in a shortterm, thus there appears to be strong interest
to continue to push the afforestation project that
began in the pilots phase. More information on
the Agriculture and Education pilots will be made
available in the Pilots Report.
Quarrying is an activity that Longborizu land is
commonly used for by both residents and nonresidents. Large trucks will load up and pay
individual land owners to take river sand for
block making, and mortar and broken sandstone
is used in place of gravel for local housing
styles. However, there are no areas where
people extract minerals within Longborizu or
Nator village land currently. Young men speak
of an area of slightly raised land within a two
hour walk where people have found “valuable
crystals” before. KDI has not investigated this
area any further but Nadowli District and Upper
West Region are both known for having valuable
mineral deposits that galamsey workers mine in
conjunction with foreign mining companies. On a
district level, illegal mining activities are seen as
a concern in the question of desertification and
pollution because these individuals and small
groups do not follow necessary pre- and postimpact mitigation.
10.5 Solid Waste
There are very few places within Ghana that
are serviced by municipal trash collection,
even in very large cities. While Wa employs a
small private solid waste company, Zoomlion,
to conduct trash collection, there are no places
around Nator that receive the service. Despite
this, solid waste in Lonborizu has not yet
become markedly problematic, in part due to
the low population density (about to persons per
hectare) and in part due to the fact that people
rarely buy items packaged in non-biodegradable
packets. Items at market are often packed
108
NLRDP: NEEDS ASSESSMENT REPORT
a
in leaves or baskets and wherever a person
receives a plastic bottle of plastic packet with
their purchase, they will likely keep it and re-use
to package their own items for sale. However,
there is a presence of small amounts of litter in
and around Lonborizu that are noticeable.
The question of what is done with solid waste
in the village was discussed in detail with LDC
members. The group generally agreed that
the community did not have an organized way
of dealing with the waste and that the waste
was generally a nuisance that caused issues
in various areas. From observation and from
composting workshops run with farmers, it
appears that there is little understanding of the
differentiation between bio-degradable and nonbiodegradable solid waste. Thus generally a
household will deal with both in the same way.
The top methods of disposal were; first, to throw
all of the waste into the pit near the ones house
that one dug in order to collect soil to make their
building blocks (almost all houses have these
and since they are often in the way, people wish
to fill them up overtime); second, people will
discard small packets full of waste outside, just
away from the house; and third, people will burn
the trash near their home. There is no designated
are for dumping of trash, thus, small vestiges of
dumped items can be found in on people’s farms
and in public spaces.
a
A
B
B
“At times you will sweep the rubbish out of your
house and then if it is windy you will find the
same rubbish back inside your house” – Evelyn,
LDC Representative
The areas that the LDC recognized as problematic
as a result of careless dumping were reasoned.
Some members complained that the “rubber
bags” (plastic packets) will sometimes be found
under the garden soil and will prevent seeds from
growing. The same “rubber bags” were blamed
for increased numbers of mosquitoes, since
they breed in collected pools of water. Other
members complained that their animals could
A Vogoni GSOP Site employs many people at times when
they plant out these nursery plants of indigenous and climateappropriate trees.
B Both locals and non-locals quarry river sand for building
from Longborizu area. Credit: Louisa Brown
10 environment: con’t
a
die from eating the rubbish (aside from dogs
who always survived this affliction). In general
the group found that the rubbish made the place
“look bad”. All agreed that it was high time for the
community to organize how the rubbish is dealt
with.
A
A
The NLRDP may well spark new businesses
in the area and it will be crucial to ensure that
these businesses do not attract further nonbiodegradable and non-reusable waste forms
to the village. Wherever possible, it will be
necessary to connect business owners with
existing re-usable packaging to maximize the
good habit that already exists of re-using waste
materials.
10.6 Water contamination
Without empirical data on underground water
systems and river systems, it is difficult to
ascertain the level to which contamination may
be occurring in the area. It is deduced that water
contamination is relatively low by the fact that
people are not commonly sick with waterborne
diseases and that the level of chemical use is
low due to a small population density. One water
area in which there has been noticeable use of
chemicals is in the rice paddies along the edge
of the river. Almost all rice farmers use weedicide
on their crop, inevitably contaminates water for
the native plant species that grow in wetlands.
However, since the river water is not typically
used for household needs, the contamination
does not likely make direct contact with humans.
b
As a result, the NLRDP will endeavor not to
increase water contamination by any new
projects, but does not view water contamination
reduction as a priority in the program.
A Trash is collected in some areas of Nadowli district by these
Zoomlion bicycles. Credit: Michelle Sintaa Morna
B Trash is often burned in small piles outside of the house.
Credit: Michelle Sintaa Morna
KOUNKUEY DESIGN INITIATIVE
109
summary: 10 ENVIRONMENT
RESOURCES
10.1 BIODIVERSITY
10.2 ENERGY DEMAND
1. Existing biodiversity in fallow and untouched areas
2. Persistent culture of knowing uses of local plants
3. Local government afforestation project success
CHALLENGES
KEY INDICATORS
1. Anecdotal evidence suggests fallow and untouched areas are 1. No. native and/or appropriate drought resistant species (re)
on the decline
introduced in the past year:
1
2. Agricultural bio-diversity has been reduced by favouring foreign
high-yielding seeds over local varieties
1. Current usage of non-renewable energy is relatively low
3. Usage of non-renewable energy is likely to increase in the near 1. No. households who use charcoal or wood as cooking fuel
100%
2. Nator central will likely be connected to the national electrical
future
grid by December 2014
4. The likelihood of Longborizu being connected to the national 2. No. of solar power “stations” and/or solar powered devices that
are accessible to the public:
electrical grid in the near future is low
1
10.3 AIR QUALITY
1. Ambient air pollution is likely to be low because of a low popula- 1. There is nothing that can be done about ambient dust that is 1. No. Households using diesel powered generators:
33
tion density.
naturally occurring in the village
2. A high level of Acute Respiratory Infections are reported in
neighbouring clinics
3. People cook on fires indoors and sit in fumes of diesel generators that may be causing them health problems.
4. The NLRDP will need to mitigate any further air polluters that
may be attracted to the village as a result of increased traffic
and construction
10.4 DEFORESTATION AND
DESERTIFICATION
1. Good example of a successful afforestation site close by
1. The forest has been depleted over the years
1. Perception of availability of trees for firewood during the past
1. Leadership has shown interest in continued tree planting pro- 2. Practices that lead to forest depletion, like firewood cutting and
year
AVAILABLE BUT WITH DIFFICULTY
grams
agricultural practices will require a long term effort to change
3. Quarrying of building soils and stones is conducted in Longbo- 2. Percentage households who planted trees for firewood or fruit
in the past year
rizu by both locals and non-locals
10.5 SOLID WASTE
1. General pollution by solid waste is currently low because people 1. There is litter in and around Longborizu that is agreed to be an 1. Impression of general litter around public spaces in Longborizu
generally package items in bio-degradable wrapping and people
eyesore
minimal
re-use bottles and plastic packets
2. The litter causes some seedlings not to grow
2. Number of representatives under the age of twenty one in
2. The community recognises this is an issue that could be dealt 3. The litter can kill animals when it is eaten
Longborizu committees:
0
with by making a common decision about waste removal on a
community level
100%
10.6 WATER CONTAMINATION
110
NLRDP: NEEDS ASSESSMENT REPORT
1. Level of chemical use low for personal or industrial purposes
2. Density of sanitation facilities low and not close to river
1. Open defecation
2. Perceived limited knowledge of risk of contamination
1. Noticeable chemical seepage to underground water:
none
BLANK PAGE
KOUNKUEY DESIGN INITIATIVE
111
CHAPTER III | NEXT STEPS
a
NEXT STEPS
In the Dagaare language, there is no way to
say goodbye forever. Upon taking one’s leave
for several years or just a day, people will fare
you well with, “Gaa wa na” – Go and come. KDI
embraces this idea. We have now completed
the first phase of this engagement and have
an intimate understanding and appreciation of
Nator-Longborizu and its people, and we look
forward to returning for the next phase. The
Nator-Longborizu Rural Development Plan (due
December 2014) will draw from the breadth and
depth of the six month exploration laid out in this
report and synthesise this wealth of knowledge
into a concise set of recommendations for next
steps. These recommendations will be closely
aligned with Rotan Trust’s vision for the coming
years, and we look forward to engaging with the
Trust to develop the planning process.
The first steps towards the overall goals of
the plan are already underway in four pilots
that began in April of 2014, overlapping in the
sectors of Agriculture, Education, Infrastructure
and Business. Through these, the community
has been motivated to keep up a high level of
engagement with the investigation process, the
project team have been able to test appropriate
implementation styles as well as understand
community leadership and team work dynamics.
A full status report on the pilot projects will
be included as an interim report between the
Baseline Conditions Report and the NLRDP final
report. In the mean time the adjacent photos
gives a brief snapshot of the activities that have
been completed, are in progress or are in a
planning phase that are linked to pilot programs.
A
B
We look forward to submitting the full pilot report
in the coming months and the final NLRDP report
and its accompanying documents in December of
2014. Thanks again for the amazing opportunity
to work and live with the Longborizu community
- we see a lot of challenges and a lot of potential,
and look forward to meeting them together!
THANK YOU!
A A list of objective ways in which subjective happiness may
be improved. Source: World Happiness Report 2013
KOUNKUEY DESIGN INITIATIVE
113
A
A
b
114
NLRDP: NEEDS ASSESSMENT REPORT
BLANK PAGE
KOUNKUEY DESIGN INITIATIVE
115
CHAPTER IV | BIBLIOGRAPHY
12 BIBLIOGRAPHY
11.1
bibliography
chapter I
11.2
bibliography
chapter II
BIBLIOGRAPHY | CHAPTER I
Chapter One, Section 2
Ethan C. Roland & Gregory Landua (2013), Regenerative Enterprise: Optimizing for MultiCapital Abundance. Version 1.0.
Chapter One, Section 3
McLaughlin & Owusu-Ansah (1994) The Pre-Colonial Period
McLaughlin & Owusu-Ansah (1994) Early European Contact and the Slave Trade
McLaughlin & Owusu-Ansah (1994) Britain and the Gold Coast: the Early Years
Dery, M. (2014), Interviewed by Michelle S. Morna and Louisa Brown for KDI
Rademacher-Schulz, C. and Salifu Mahama, E. (2012) Where the Rain Falls Project. Case
Study: Ghana. Report No. 3. United Nations University for Environment and Human Security
(UNU-EHS)
Association of Church Based Development NGOs (ACDEP) (2010), The Upper West Region.
[Online] Available from: http://acdep.org/wordpress/acdep-operational-regions/the-upperwest/. [Accessed 2nd of September 2014]
Wumpini, H. S. (2012) John Dramani Mahama and Ghana’s Presidency: A Test or a Testimony. [Online] Available from: http://www.modernghana.com/news/415407/1/john-dramanimahama-and-ghanas-presidency-a-test-o.html [Accessed 2nd of September, 2014]
Nadowli-Kaleo District Assembly (2006), District Information. [Online] Available from: http://nadowli.ghanadistricts.gov.
gh/?arrow=dnf&_=111&r=9&rlv=climate [Accessed 28th of August 2014]
Government of Ghana (2014), Upper West, [Online] Available from: www.ghana.gov.gh/index.php/about-ghana/regions/upper-west [Accessed 2nd of September 2014]
Government of Ghana Ministry of Local Government and Rural Development (2014), Nadowli-Kaleo District Assembly
District Medium Term Development Plan (MTDP), 2014-2017
BIBLIOGRAPHY | CHAPTER II
Chapter Two, Section 4
Rademacher-Schulz, C. and Salifu Mahama, E. (2012) Where the Rain Falls Project. Case Study: Ghana. Report No.
3. United Nations University for Environment and Human Security (UNU-EHS)
African Initiatives (2013) Ghana Project: The Hand that Rocks the Cradle also Rocks the
Boat. [Online] Available from: http://www.african-initiatives.org.uk/issues/womens-rights/womensrightsghana/. [Accessed 1st of September 2014].
McLaughlin & Owusu-Ansah (1994) Britain and the Gold Coast: the Early Years
Helliwell, J., Layard, R. and Sachs, J., (ed.) (2013) World Happiness Report 2013
Chapter Two, Section 5
Rademacher-Schulz, C. and Salifu Mahama, E. (2012) Where the Rain Falls Project. Case
Study: Ghana. Report No. 3. United Nations University for Environment and Human Security
(UNU-EHS)
Public-Private Partnership in Infrastructure Resource Center (April 2012). ). Rural Electrification. World Bank
Government of Ghana Ministry of Local Government and Rural Development (2014), Nadowli-Kaleo District Assembly District Medium Term Development Plan (MTDP), 2014-2017
Chapter Two, Section 6
Bridges, E. M. (1997). World soils, 3rd ed. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK.
Kotschi, J. (2013). A soiled reputation. Adverse impacts of mineral fertilizers in tropical agriculture. Heinrich Böll Foundation and WWF Germany. Berlin.
Chapter Two, Section 7
Ghana Statistical Service (2008), Ghana Living Standard Survey 2008
World Bank (2013), Ghana Statistics. [Online] Available from: www.data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.PCAP.CD.
[Accessed 8th of September 2014]
Al-Hassan, R. M. and Diao, X. (2012). Regional Disparities in Ghana: Policy Options and Public Investment Implications. IFPRI
Chapter Two, Section 8
Government of Ghana Ministry of Local Government and Rural Development (2014), Nadowli-Kaleo District Assembly
District Medium Term Development Plan (MTDP), 2014-2017
Chapter Two, Section 9
Ghana Statistical Services (2011) Ghana Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey 2011 [FR262]
Chapter Two, Section 10
Government of Ghana Ministry of Local Government and Rural Development (2014), Nadowli-Kaleo District Assembly
District Medium Term Development Plan (MTDP), 2014-2017