I \
: :i\ Sc)cict\'. A (l.rse
. \l \ \ t i q o s i c O o n g r c
:: )7 44.
',:rlout:
A Sociotogi:r.ion: F{citrenann.
'l
:.',.'tn .' ht Zttctic l :
: :. \tt/ditt oJ'Sotinl
, . i ri r k ; S t .
,\.Iartin's
- -,rs1l1 1i611.'|,i71,
j)tt
For ,11i) ()icj
CHAPTER FOUR
Cult Formation: Three
CompatibleModels
Wtrr-nr,r Stl,ts B,qtlrgzuDcEAND
RouxEy Sram
:, i: itt rt l,lbrld of' est
:'.: Spirituirl Coun':.t-,ttlthai ottd Mass
-: L'nivcrsitv press.
: ( _<.rntntunitarien
Il7-37 in Rov
..:..,,ts o.l' Rtlillious
:: l)cte r C)rr.cn.
.:.ie lncl thc 'fhirij
'lom
=- rn
\\lrlfb,
, .:tttr nnd
l1iltc.
- . , r P t . t 1 s 1 ,1, 6
1 r5a
' he
l l , rg 1 n g 1 1 1 . T
- ; , ; ; r , / t ,N. e r r , y c l r k :
. .rc origins of the great rvorlcl frritl-rs irrc
. :oudccl bv timc, but cult fbrn-rationrcmains
.rilablc fbr closc ir-rspection. If u'c u-oulcl
.lclst.rrrdhorr rcliqions hcqin. it is tlrc
r\clu'c lncl exotic $'orlc1 of cults thirt
.':]lrlnds orlr irttcntion. Tl-risessa| attempts tc)
. .rthcsizc the mass of ethr-rographicmatcrials
. , i l . r l r l co n c u l t I b n l . r t i o n l a r e r r i n g r l r : r t l . . .
- -.r-ceflr"rdar-ncntalrroclcis of hou' rrovcl re li:.,rlts idcls rrc gcner;ltcd and naclc social catr
-r \ecn dimlr, . . .
I-hc thrcc moclels of cult fbrmation, or re li
--rrLrs ir.rr.rovation,arc (a) tbc pnchopathologt
,;:,trlel,(b) the entrepreneur modtl, arrd (c)
:i'r subcubttre-ct,olutiort ntodel. Whilc tl.re
':rt has bccn prcscntcd in somc dctail bv
'rfrer social scicntists, the second ancl thircl
-..lvcnc)t prcr.ioush' bccn clclir-rcatcdas firrn'ral
::rorlels.
(.ult tbrn'ration is ir t\\'o-stcp process of
i.tr-tovittiolt.First, neu' rcligious idcas n-rust be
:irrented. Scconcl, social acceptarereof these
..lc.rsrnust be gainccl,at lcast to thc extcnt th.lt
.: sm:rllgroup of people cornesto accept them.
fl-rerefbre, onr first neeci is to explain hou. rrnd
'rhv inclii'iclualsinvcnt or discovcr ncu reli- : i , r r r si t l c l s . I t i s i r n p o r t J n t t ( ) r ' c e o g r t i z e .
:ro$er.er, tlrat mirnr. (perhaps nrost) pers()ns
u ho l.rit upon ne\\' religious icleasclo not fblrncl
ncu religions. So long irs onlv one person
irolds a religious iclea, no true religion erists.
The retore. u e elso neecl to uncierstancl the
Pr()cessbv l'hicl-r relieions inventors are llrlc
59
to make their r-icu's social - to conr.incc othcr
pcrsons to sharc their convictions. Wc con
ccptllalize succcssfirlcult innovation irs a social
proccss in uhich innor.ators both invent netv
rcligior,rs icleas and transmit thern to other
persons in exchange fbr renarcls.
Religions
as Exchange
Systems
Human action is gor-erned bv the pursuit <tf
rcu.ards arrd thc avoiclance of costs. Rcu.'ards,
those thir-rgs humans u'ill expend costs t()
obtain, often calr bc gainetl onlr, fiom otl'rer
humans, so peoplc arc fbrced into cxchange
rclatior-rs. F{ou'er.er, manl' ren'arcls are verY
scarce and can onlr' be possesseclbt. son-rc,not
all. Sorne renards ilppear to be so scarcethat
thcv cannot be shou.'n to exist at all. For
cxar-nple, people act as if eternal lifb u'ere a
rcu-arcl of immense valuc. But there is r-ro
tmpirical evidencc that such a reu'ard can be
,...:,-.,1
Sdrllllr
..f
dr
.,..
drr\
^-:...,
f'rrll
Facccl u'itl-r reu'arcls that arc very scarce, or
n()t available at all, humans create and
exchange compensators - sets of beliefi and
prescriptions for action tl-rat substitute fbr the
irnn.rcdiatc acirievement of thc desirecl ren'ard.
Compcnsators postulate thc attainmer-rtof the
clesireclrcu'arc1ir-rthe ciistant firture or in somc
other unvcrifiable contcxt. Compensators arc
treated bv humans as if they u'ere reu.'ards.
Thev l'ravcthc charircter of IOUs, the value of
THE
{
NATURE
O i . N E \ \ ' R E I , I ( ] I O U S N { O V E A , IE N T S
ultich must be takcr-ror-rfiith. prorniscs that
the poor n'ili bc rich fitllori.ing the rcr.olution
or that the rnortal ri.ill be irnr.nortal in enothe r
u'orlcl arc such conrpensators.
f rrst rs rcl'rrrds cjifler in the value accorcicd
thcnt br. humans, so do compensirtors. Fur
thcrntore, contpentstltorsVar\.in thc extent to
uhicl-r tl-revarc s;recific (substitrrting fbr spccific, limitecl rcuarcls of rnocicr:rtcvalue) or
gencrrrl (substituting fbr a grclt rrurntrcr of
l-righlvclesircclrcrrarcls).A magicrrl .,curc" firr
heaclachcsis a spccific compcnsator, u.l-rilc
Heaven is thc rnost gencnl compensator.
prrornisine rrn unlintitccl strctln of firturc
re\\'ilrds t() those humans fbrtllnatc or Virtuous enough to be adrnittecl.Rclrrtir.elvspecific
c()urpeltsrlt()rs rrre oflbrecl bV rr.rnY kincls of'
secular insritutions, as u.cll as bv rclision,
uhilc thc most gencral contpensatorsscc[l to
require the supernatural agencies postuLltecl
bv rcligious ctrctrincs.
\\t cicfinc rcligions as soci;rl cnrerprises
n'hose prir-nrtrvpurpose is to crcatc, maintain,
anci exchirnse supcrnaturtrlll basccl generirl
conrpens:1t()rs(Stirrk ancj Bair.rbricl
ge L979 ).
We thus elir-nin;rte tiorn the ciefinition mant.
n ( ) n \ U l ) c r r ) A t r r r . lsl ( ) r r r c c sa r t ' c o m p c r r s . t l , . ) r r ,
strch as politic.rl ln()\'elnents.Wc rrlso cxcluclc
rnlgic, uhich clcalsonlr.in cluitc sprccificcon.r
pens.ltors ancl cioes tlot of-fcr conpcnsi.Ltors ()lt
the rlrirnd scale of Hear-cn or of religior,rsctrc
trines abour the nteirnir.rsof lifb (cf. l)urkheinr
tmpli'tcd cults but in those rtovel cult ntove _
ntents that arc innrtvatir.c rrlternltives to thc
traclitional svstems of religious compcnsat()rs
that are normal in the envirolrment in l.hiclr
the cr-rltoriginaterl.
Having bricfli' clcscribecl our thcorctical
perspectivc ancl ticfirrerl ker, corlccpts, \\.c ilrc
ncxv rerrcl\'to unclerstiurcl thc tl-rreer-nodelsof
cult innor':rtion ancl t() scc their commorr
propositions.
The Psychopathology
Model
of Cult Innovation
'I'he
pst,chopntholollt,wode / ltas bcen usccl bv
malt\r anthropologists i.Lndcthnopsvchiirtristi,
:rnc1it is relatecl closelv to deprir.ation thcorieb
of revolutions irnd sociill movements (Smclser
1962; GLrrr I970).It describescult irtnovarion
as thc resulr of ir.rdiriduirl ps\,choparhologv
that finclssuccessfuisocial exprcssicrn.Because
of its popularitv among social scicntists, this
nrodel exists in man\. r.ariants,but the main
iclers irrc the fblloiling.
I
2
Cluts are noi.cl cultrrral responscsto per
r < , n : ral r r d s o c i c t a lc r i s i s .
Neri'cults are inventcd bv inciir,iciualssufl
t b r i l r g l i o l r r c c 1 a i l l L r r l t s ' r , fr r r c n t a il l l n e s s
3 Thesc indir.icfi-rtrlsn.picallv lchieve their
novel visions cluring psr.choticcpisodcs.
4 Dr.rrinpgsr.rch an episoclc, tl.rc individual
rels).
irtvents ir neu' package of com;rcr-rsatorsto
Wc tlefir-rccults ls soci:rl enterpriscs primarnteet his o\\.r-tneeds.
'fl-re
ili'engaeecl in the procluction rrnclexchangeof
5
ir.rcliviclual's
illncss contmits him to his
novel rrncl exotic c()llpcnstrtors. f'lrus not trll
neu r.isior.r,either because l.ris hallucir.ra
c u l t \ J r c r c l i g i , r r r rS
. o 1 1 1i 1s 1 1 1o5f l i . r o r r l v r r r . r g t i . . ,
tluts ilppear to clemonstrate its tnrth, or
for exanrpleps\,chiche:rlir.rgof specific cliseases,
because l-ris compe lling r.reeclsdemancl
irrrclclo ncrt oflbr sLtch0eilernl contpcnsrltors as
ir-nmccliate satisf:ctx)r1.
etenral lifb. Nlaeicrl cults fierluentlv cvolvc
6 Afier thc episocle, thc incjir-irju:rl u,ill be
tou rrrd m()re gencrrrl comi)cnsators anci
ntost likclv ro succecd ir-r fbrming a cult
bccorre firll-flcclgecl rcligior.rs. f'hcr. then
arouncl his r.ision if the societv contair-rs
L-reccrnre
tr u e cu lt tn 0t1eil,tr Ltt-t:social er"r
terPrises
ntan\. other persons sLrflerinefiom prob;rrimirrilv ensr,rqccl in the procluction ancl
lems simi[:rr ro rhose originlllv fhcecltrv the
cxchangc of novel rrnc-l
cxotic gcneral compen
cult fbunder, to \\'hose solution, therefore.
sirtors basctl on supentrltrt ral ;rsstrr-npri
ons.
thcv are likclv to responcl.
()ficn a cult is exotic ;rr-rcl
oflers compen
7 Thcrcfbrc, such cults most oftcn succcecl
sators thirt are unfirr-niliar to ntost pcoplc
t'luring times of societal crisis, uhcn large
Lrcc:ruse it rnigratecl fiom anothcr, alien
nurnbcrs of pcrsons suf-fer similirr unre_
sociefi'. Herc n.c arc not intercstecl in thesc
solveclproblcrns.
60
THI-, NATUR}. - t , r v eI c u l t m o v c ., :crn.rtl|cs t() the
:'.ls g9't'),')alts:ttors
r'{)nntc]lt llj \\'hich
--: ()Llr thcorctical
. .')ltcePtS)\\.e arc
.ri fhrcc ln()clcls()f
.- i thelr colntltoll
oST'Model
I'ation
ll.:.\ beclt ttsccl b'
- : :tnops\.chiatristsl
r:ir-i\ittion thcories
. c n t en t s ( S m e l s e r
:i. clrlt innor.atictn
',.\\.hopatholog\.
, : . r . c s s i o nB. c c a u s c
- ..t. scientists,this
:-.:.. but thc n;rin
--\Poltses
to per-
- . :nciiviclulls
suf
. : nrclrtal illncss.
,., .ichieverheir
. : : , fi . e p i s o c l e s .
, :he ir.rclir,idual
' - ,ntPcrlsilt()rs
to
'r:lrrs
him to his
., his hrrllucina..: its tnrth, or
rccrls clemantl
''- i.lLr.rl
u,ill be
-.,rltrlngaCLllt
. - ictt' contains
j ti'om prob' iacecl
bv the
)n. thcrcfirre,
,'
.
-- 'ticn succeccl
,- ' .. s'hcn lrrrge
'- - .intilar
urtrc-
fi
OF NHW
R E L I G I O U S N T O V F , A ,E, IN T S
If thc cult cloes succccd in ;lrrracrin5i
r.nant' firllou'ers, thc incliviclr-ral fbr-rnder
rnav achieve at least a p:lrtial cure of his
illncss,lrccausehis self]gencratcLlcompcn
sat()rs are legitinratcd bv othcr pers()lts1
and becausehc nou' recei\.estrue reu'arcls
fion.r his firllou'crs.
T'he psvchopathologv nroclelis supporteclbv
the tratlitionrrl psvchoanirlvtic vi cu' thirt m:1gic
.urclrcliqion are mere pnrjectior-rsof'neurotic
l'ish firlfillrnent ()r psvchotic clelusions(Freutl
1927, 1930; Ihrl.rein.r1955; t.a llrrrc 1969.
1972). Hou.elcr, the r-r-rodel
clocs not issume
tl-ratcultic iclcasarc necess.Irih'\\'rongor insrure.
ll.ritlrcr, it lclclrcsscstl're que stion of hou' incliviclr-rlls cin ir)\'ent clevi.'rnt perspectivcs ilr1d
thcn hlvc conviction in ther-n,clcspitethc hck
oI Objcctivc, c()nfinnilt()rV eYicleucc.
A1l socictics provide trirdition'.rl compcnsator svstenls ri'hich arc firnrililr to rrll
rncmbcrs of the sr.rcictyiutd \\'hich ltat'e cott
sirlcrablc phusibiliti', both becatrse the ir
Jssunrpti()nsarc fiintilirr artci beclttse of the
nunrbers of pcople ,rlrercli'conrntittccit() thcl11.
\Vhr.,thcn, \\'oulcls()rnepcrs()nsrejcct the colt\ ( n l i ( ) l l . l l r - c l i q i o r rtrr ' . i t l i t i o r tc, ( ) r l ( ( ) r '.tl P P l r cntlv arbitrarv substitLltes,rrntl pttt tl'reir trust
'l'he
in the se novel litrmulationsi
PSi'ciroplthologt' tloclcl n()tcsthirt higl-rlvneurotic
or psvchotic pcrs()ns n'piclllr' do just this,
rihcthcr in r-rrcligious fiameu'ork or tlot. Ilv
dcviirnt.
ciefinition, the mcntrrllv ill are n.rcr.rtr'rllv
Furthcnr.torc, especialh' iu the case of ps\'chotics, the v nristrrhethc procluctsof the ir ourr
nrilrclstbr ertertrirl realitics.Thus thcir prrthologr' ;rrovicles thenr not orth' u'ith lbttortrtll
i,.lcls, but .rlso u'itl.r subjectivc s'iclcnce fbr tl.rc
c()rrectnessof thcir iclcls, uhcther in the fon-u
of l-rrllucinationsor in the flrrm of prcssiug
nccds rr'l'richc.-ulr()t bc clcnicc1.
A nunrbe r of .ruthors l-ravciclentifiecl <lccr-rlt
bchavior uith sprecificpsvcl-riatricsvtttlrorres'
Hvsteria fiequentlv has bect.t blamccl. Cult
tinnclcrs often clo suflcr fi'om app.rrcnt phvsic:rlillucss,finc1a spiritual "cure " for their on'n
ailrrcr-rt, then rlrlmatize that cllre rls thc basis
<>fthe cLrlt pcrtirrmlncc (Nlessing 1958; LeviStrauss I963; Leri'is l97l). A u'ell-kno*'r.r
Ar-ncricln e-rample is NIirrv 13akc'rF.tlclr',s'hosc
6t
invention of Christian Science apparentl\, \\,as
ir successfll personirl responsc to a classiccasc
o1'hvsteria (Z*'etg 1932).
Lr othcr casesa rnanic-c-leprcssive
pattern is
tbuncl. John Hurrphrev Novcs, fbur.rclerof the
Oncidia coutntunit\', hrrd u'r obsessiveneed t<t
be "pcrftct," and in his more clcvated periocls
u'as lble to convince a fb*, dozcn people rhat
he hacl incleetl achicvcd pe rfbction and that l.re
corrld l-rel;rtherr attain this happi'state as n'cll.
Br,rt tl-re times of elation u'crc fbllou.'ed bv
"eternal spins," deprcssive stiltcs in \\'hich
Noves \\'as in.rrlobilize d bv sclf:h:rtrecl
((iarcler.r1969).
(llssicirl p:rranoia irnd prrrirnoici schi zophre nia also have becn blarrccl fitr producing cults.
A persor-rrl'ho founcls a cult lsserts thc irrrogrrnt cllinr tl.r:rt hc (abovc all others) l.ras
achieved l miraculous cultural brcakthrough,
a claim thrt outsiders nlav perccivc as a
clehrsion of gmdeur. For e-rample, L. Rrxr
of
his invcntion
Hubblrd
announced
l)ianeties (later to bccorre Scientologr') bv
is a n-rilcsaving thrrt "the creltion of cliar-reties
stonc firr NIan cornparablc to his cliscovcrv of
lirc and sr.rperiorto his it-n'cntions of thc l'heel
r r n c la r c h " ( H u b b a r c l 1 9 5 0 ) .
Nlartin Garc'lnerhas shcxvlt thlt the positiot-t
of thc cultist or pseudoscientistin his social
cnvironmertt is ne:trlt' idcntical to thilt ()f the
clinical paranoicl.Neitlrer is accorclecithc higlr
socirl strrtr.rshe clentlnds fiom cot-n'cntional
rrutl-roriticsancl is cotrtemPtuoush' ignorccl bv
societal lclclers or harsl-rlvpcrsccuted. Ciardner
notes that plrlnoia actulllv maY be an acit'att
trrge Llndcr these circuntstanccsbecrtttsc$'itl-roLrt
til figl'rt
it the indiviclual "u'oulcl lack the stan.rir.ra
il \'isorous, singlc-hanclecl battle lgainst sut:h
rx erutelming oclcls"(Ciardner 1957 ).
N{anv biograpl.rics of cult firunders colltarn
intbn-nation thtrt u'or.rlclsuPP()rt lnv of these
clirgnoscs, lncl oftcn the st'ncirome appears to
l-.. .. t;+:'
rh..t x111gcl11ccl
the fbulclatigr-r
of the crilt bv a number of t'cars. Flos'cver, the
svmptoms of the se clisorders arc s() closc to the
cult activitv that sirnplistic
features thlt dcJi.rr.r
psvcl.ropatl.rologr.cxplauations approach tautologr'. Lemert (1967) has argr.reclthat social
exclusion and conf'lict over social status crln
producr the st'nr1'rtomsof parattoia. It r-ttavbe
L' L
!l
lrrL
.I'HE
NATURE
OF NEW
R E L I C iI O L i S N { O V E A , { EN 1 ' S
thirt s()lne cult founclers displtv st,ntptornsof
filtrire cult firunclcr reccives his supernrrturill
nrcntal illlrcss rrs.t.result t'f societal rejcctior-rof
vision. "Whar fbllor,s then is the eruption into
tl.reircults. Another problem faceclbv the psr,thc field of attention of a flooc-l of archuc
choprrthologv rnoclcl is the fhct that the vasr
imilscrY and attenclaDt lou.er-orcler refcren ti ll
r-r-rajorin'of mental paticltts hirvc not fbutrclecl
proccsscssuch as occur in dreirms or revcrie
cults.
. . . Icleirs surgc rhrough nith peculiar vivicl_
The sir-nplest versior.r of the nr()dcl states
ncss as though fior.n an outsidc sourcc" (Sil_
thirt tl'rc firundcr.'s psr.cl.ropathologv hacl rr
vernran 1967 28). Lt thc hfth stage, atgnitit,c
pl-ri'siological crruse. Religiotrs r.isions nrirl
reotqanization, tl)c inrliviclual attentpts to
irppear ciurins psvchotic cl.risoclesir.rduceclbr,
share his visiort n'itl-r otl.rer peoplc. If lrc fhilr,
i r t ; r r r r . t l l r r e r , . r r r t li r i g h t i . r ' c r s .I t ' . r n c | i r , , . l t
l.rel:rpsesir.rto chronic mental illncss, bLrt if he
takes plitcc outsiclc iruv ntcdic;rl scttins, tltc
finds social supporr fbr l-rissupcrnirtural clair.r.r",
inclir.iclLrrrl nlitv lir d a sLlperr-rttural c xplrrnatior.r
he crrn bccome ;i sLlcccssflllshaman or clllt
of his expericnce r-r-rostsrttisfircton. (.Sarglnt
leacler.If his fbllou.crs ren.arcl him sufficier.rtlv
1959). Inr.nrrnerable e\illplcs erist. Lor.c
u ith honor, thc originirllv dan.ri.rgcclself'
Isrircl, firLrnclcr of I cult cailecl Thc Lor.c
estcelr that provokcd tl-recntirc scqucncc u,ill
Far.nilr.,tolcl us that his rcligioLrs r-ision u.irs
be repairecl completclr', and rhe cr_rltfbrtr-rcler
triggerccl bv hallr-rcinosenic clrugs njricl.r
mav even become one of the bcst-aciaptecl
enirblecl hint to expericnce I state of firsion
nrenrbcrs of his social group.
'I-hc
nith rrnothcr nran u'ho subscqucntli,beclr-neir
tltcory of rct,itnlizntion mopemettJ pro_
'l'he
stories of somc
;rrontincr-rt firllot cr.
l.roseclbv Anrhonr. F. C. Wallace (1956) rs
persons nho clainr to har.e bcen contactecibv
sinrilar to Silvcrman,s moclcl btrt adcls thc
f l r i t t q s . t t t r c r ss o 1 1 1 1i r1' l1- r 'n t r r c l rl i k c I r 1 1 6 1 ' 1 ' P l - inrportant ingrcclicr-rt
of social crisis. Wallace
siclesof bnin clisorclcr to nhicl-r tl-reinclividr-rrrl
suggcsts that .r t,arien' Of threats to i1 socictv
l)rls retrospcctivclv give n 11 ntore flrrrrablc
can procluce grcatll. incrcasccl strcss oll
rnterprct:1ti()l.r
((irce nlrcre 1979).
rncnrbers: "climatic, floral irr-rcj
fhur.rirlchange;
A.{ore subtle varirrnts of the psvchoptrtl.rol- nrilitirri, clcfbat;
political subordination.
os\- n1()clelprescnt prsvchoclvnrrrnic
cx;rlanaerrreme pl'essllrctou'arcj acculturation resuIJ
tions rrnclplace tl-repr()ccssof cult firrmrrtior-r inq in internal
culturll conflict; econonric dis_
r n a s o c i l l c ( ) n r c \ t . J u l i a n S i l v e r n t a n( I 9 6 2 )
trcss; epiclerr.rics;
and so olt" (\Vallace 1956:
()Lltlinccia fir.c-stepr.nodclclescribingtl.rcelrlv
269). Uncler srrcssrs()me ir.rclividuals
begin tcr
c.rrecr trf a shontan (sorccrer, n'itch cloctor,
s() through the process or.ltlilted bv Silverr.nar.r
r.nasic.rlhcaler) or cult filrnclcr. In thc first
and .,,rJ.r. fli'orable circrirnsranccr, ;h;;
stage, thc ir.rclivicltralis beset br' :r scrious pcrachievc r.aluable culti,rral rcfbrmulations u,hich
son:rl :rncl social problenr, n.l.ricallvscverclt.
thcy can use ts the basis of social actior-r to
cllnrrgecl self:cstecm, tl-ratclcfies practicals()lurevitirlize tl.rcir socictr.. Whilc Wallace advo_
tior-r. ht thc seconcl stirse, the inciir-iclual
cates a pr_rre firrm of tl.rc psvchopath()logv
becorncs preoccupied nith his problem rrncl
rlodel, he conclncles.,th:rt the religious visiorr
uirhdrans fi'on.r rrctive social lifb. Somc cul
cxpcricnce per sc is not psvchopatl-rologicrr,
turcs eveu hirvc firrrnrtlizeclrituals of l,ith
br-rt rather thc reverse, being a svnthesizing
drrrull ir.ruhich the incliviciu:rlmay leavc rhc
ancl ofie n theraper.rtic proccss pe.fonned
s ( ' t t l c t ) l ( ' n l . r r r t l t l u r . l l t c r r r P o l ' . 1 l - i ii1r r t l r c
trnclcr cxtrcme stress br. ir-rdir,iduals alreadr.
n'ildcnrcss.The Bitrlc abounds in exar.nprlcs
of
s i eh " r \ V . r l l . r r c1 9 5 6 : 2 2 3 )
n'ithc-lrau.alto the u.ilc'lcr-ness
t() prepare fbr a
The ir.nportance of the psvcho;ratholog,r,
carccr trs lr prophct. This intn-reclitrtclvleaclstcr
n-rociclis unclerscored bv &llacc's sllegestion
t h c t l r i r t l \ t . l g c i r t r r h i c l rt l r c i r r , l i r i , l r r rcrrl p c r i
thi-rt ntall\i historicallr. influcntial social r-nove_
ences "selflir-ririatetl scnsorv cleprivation,"
nrcnts, anci perhaps nll major relfu1ions,oriet_
ntich cu-r procluce ver\. extrenle psvchotic
natecl accordir.rgto its principles. This r.,ien,is
svmptolls ei'cr-rir-rprcvior.rslv norntal pers()ns.
l.rcltl
bv Wesrot.rL:r Barre (L972) u.ho sar.srhar
'l'l-rus
bceins the tiiurth srage, in rr.hich tl.re
evcri. religion u,ithout exccption originatecl as
62
-
.'al-1\l\
:.llCfgC
.
.1.
- t.l\' .1e..
\ . '
! . : - .
-:-:.itl:Ii--.
"i,::'
\ I S
. i\ his sLtpcrnrlturirl
.' rhe crLlpti()nint()
.: ilooc'l of arcl-raic
l r- orclcr refbrcntiirl
r Jrcilnts or rcvcrie
.,.:th ;reculiar vir.ir-l..::i.iesource" (Sil::i1r strrgc, collnitittt:
..r.rll ilttcntpts to
' :r.()ple
. If Ite tails,
: . . . i l l n c s s ,b r r r i f h e
. ..:-ernrrturalclairls,
',., shltntan
or ctLlt
..:.i hinr sufficientlv
. tlalnrrgerl self-:.::l|c secltrct-tcc
\.ill
.r thc cult founcler
:,_:hc bcst lclaptccl
;. IltolltntrntJ
[tro_
'.','.rll.rce
( 19.56) is
.ri, but lclcls tl-re
- .tl clisis. Walhce
- :'c.rts
to rr s<lcie
n,
:, .rret1 stress ()lt
: r,1 t.runrtlchangei
,. subordination;
. - . . . t u r r i t i o nr e s t r l t ..,:. ecor]orlicclis
-r '.r(trrlls begin t<r
r..i lrl Silr.erntan,
- . :_-t
\tJltces. the r.
: :::Ltletionstrticl-r
: ., r;1;1]licti()lt tO
- \\'lllrrcc ldr<r,
r.', .h()path()logv
-, :-clisirtus
visior-l
' .-loprrthological
"-- .l s|nthesizinq
',-\\
pelfomrcd
-,:.-.r!lLlrrls
llreaclr.
-'. choprrtholop5r,
: :. c's suegcstiou
r: .',i socirrl ntove
, ,'!17ions,origi: .. This r,ior, is
-l
s hg sa\.sthat
: :r originatccl as
'f
H E N A T U R T ' .O F N t l w R E L I C I I O L I S N { O V E I v { E N T S
.r "crisis clrlt," Llsing this term fbr cults thet
crrerge acc()rding to the Pattcm dcscribed bV
\Valllce. Arnot'rg lltirll\' eramPles, 1'respecificrrllr- tlescri[-reseven Christianiti' as a tvPicill
crisis cult. Writing in an orthodor Frertdiln
treditiix.t, l-ir Barre icler.rtifiesthe source of a
cult fbundcr's vision: "A gocl is onlv a
shrlmau's clream lboltt his ft-rtl-rer"(La Barre
1972: 19 l. Hc savsthe shat-ulnis an tmmature
nriln \\'ho clespcratelv tleccls cotnpcnsation fbr
his inlclecluacies,inclucling se\tlirl incirp;rcifi',
rncl in linding t-uasical comPe llsittiolls fi)r
l-regencrates colllpensators for r.rsebv
hir-r-rsclf-,
lrore nonllill Persollsr1s\\'cll (La Blrre 1972:
138).
(lliude I-dvi Strrrr-rss,
Jll exchallge theorist as
$'cll as a structurillist, enlpl-rasizcsthilt the
sltlntart P.trticipiltcs in all ec()llolllv of
nrelnitrg. Nortlal ficrsolls \\-ant lllilll\' kintls of
rcn'irrrls thcv cattnot obtaitl atrcl cln be cot-tVincccl to acccPt conlpcllsltors gclleriltccl bY
tellou'citizer.rslessticc.lto rcalin' than thcr'. "It.r
l nniversc u'hich it strives to ttnclerstrrtlcibr'tt
u'hosc cjltrrtntics it cltluot fullv coutrol,
nr)rtnal thought colttitlLlallvsceksthe nlcirlllllg
of tl.rinesu'hich refusc to reveirl their sigrlificlnce. So-c;rlleclp.rthologicrrlthougl.rt, on thc
otl'rer hlucl, overflou's n'ith crnotiot-rll interprctati()lts alld oVert()lles, iu orcler to sLlpplcmcnt i.lt ()ther$ ise tleficicnt rcallr"'
( l . 6 r ' i - s t r a t r s s1 9 6 3 : 1 7 5 l . I t r s h a n r r l t r i s n trh' c
neurotic prtldLtcer of con-tpensatorsancl the
suflerir-rgnornirl collsunler colnc together in
an exchanqe ber.reflcialto botl.r, particiPlting
in thc erchlnge of conlPellsatorstirr tlngiblc
rcu'rrcls that is tl're basis of all cults.
norrnal, blrt in mant' casescven rather len€!th\'
biographies fiail to ro'eal significant o'idencc
of pathologr'. lVhile the psvchopathologt'
modcl fbcr-rseson cult fituuclers u'ho invent
lle\\' compcllsator-svstcms initiallv tilr their
()\\'n use, the cntrepreneur moclel notes that
crrlt tbr.rrrdersoften mirt' consciouslt'dettelop net'
c|rnpenstttTr-s\tsternsin order to exchnnge tbent
frtr gre nt rewnrds.Innovatic'rt'tpavs otf in n'ranY
()ther irrers of culture , such as technological
invcntiot-r ancl artistic crcativit\:. If s<'rciirlcir
cllmstances providc opportttnitics for profit ill
thc fielc1of cults, theu mant' perfbctlv normal
inclilielr.ralsriill bc attracted to the challcngc.
Nlodels of eutrcpreneurship hrrvc becn prohttt-t'lrttt
;rosecl to explairr man\' othcr kinds of
lclcqttate
ftluncl
tlot
ilctivit\', but $-c hilr-e
ntific moclelsspecificallvclesigncdto
social-scie
erplain cult innovaticin. Journalists have documentecl that sLlch a rrodcl tl'or-rldapplv uell
to nranv cases, aucl ollr o\\'ll obsen'irtiotls ttl
scveral cults anrplv confirm that conclusiotr.
Therefbre, u'c sl'rall sketch the beginnings of
an entreprenettr model, u'ith the utrderstanding tl-rat tluch htture l'ork u'ill bc recluirccl
betirre this anah'tic approach is firlli' clevcl'
opec1.The cl-rieficleas of such a r-nodel rl-right
be the tbllou'ing.
I
2
3
4
Model
The Entrepreneur
Cult Innovation
of
5
The cvftrel)rcneur rttodcl of cult iullovaticln has
not receivccl ls ntttclr lttclltiol'l fiom social sci
erltists rs tl-tc pst'chopnthohyTt'rnodtl. We l.ravc
knou'tr firr clec.rdestl'rrrt tl-rc irsvchopilthologr'
rroclel cotrlcl rtot erplain aclccl.rltclv all cr-rltic
phcnonreu;r(Ackerknecl.rtI943 )' but irttcmpts
to construct altcrllate models havc been clesul
torr'. Of coursc, it is difficult to pro\-e that
anv given clrlt fburtcler s''.rs psvcirologicalli'
6
7
63
(lLrlts arc businesscs s'l.rich provide a
procluct for thcir cttstomers atrcl rccci'n'e
pa\,nlent in retttrn. .
Cults rrc ntainlv in tl're businessof selling
novel compcnsatorsr or irt lcast fieshlv
pachaged c()lrpellsators thilt apPcirr nc\\'.
Therefbrc, ;r sr.rpplvof novcl colrlperlsators mLlst be rnanufacturecl.
Both matrtttrrctrtre and salcs are accolllplished bv eutrepreneurs.
Thcse cntreprcrleurs, likc those it"r tlther
busiuesscs, arc m()tivatccl bv the clcsire
fbr profit, u'hich thev can gain l-rr'
exchanging comPcltsatorsftrr ren'ards.
Nlotivation to enter thc cult busincss is
stimulatccl l-x' thc perccptiorl that such
calt bc profitablc, an impressiot-l
L-rr.tsiness
likclv to bc acqttired through prior
involverrcnt u'ith a succcsshrlcult.
Successhrl cntreprencurs require skills
and experietrce, u'hich are most easilv
]'HE
NATLTRE OF NhW
RF, L I G I OUS
gaincd through r
l.rior cJrcer ts rhe
entplovce of an carlier succcssfillcult.
l'he rnrrntrflcturecif s;rli-rble
ne\\.contpen_
sators (or contpcltsittor_packagcs)
is most
easilv accor-np-rlisl-reci
br, asscnrlrling corn_
l ) {) r t el t t \ ( ) l - p r c - C r i r t i n t l L () n t l ) ( . n \ A t o r _
svstctrlsinto neu. configuratior-rs,or bt.
thc furthcr cler.elopmertr oi succcssfr-Ll
tr,IO\/ENI I] Nf'S
1'he sit-nplcst \.ariant of thc cntreprenelrr
moclel, ancl the one prcfcrrccl br. jotri-r.ralists,
8
Itolds that cult innovators are outrigl.rt fiauds
uto havc no faith in tl-reir orur prcr.iuct
a,rd
scll it through trickerv to fbols lncl clcsperate
persons. \\rc har.c rnanr.ex;rmplcsof culis
that
\\'erc prtre conficlence gantcs, and $.c
shall
nrentior-r examplcs of fiaud in three kir-rcls
ot.
C() lIpClt Siit()r- SvStCnt S.
cult: audiencc cults, client cults, irncl
cr.rlt
9 Thcrefirre, cults tend ro cluster in lin_
lIoYcntents.
-fher.
crrges.
arc lir.rkcd br. ir-rc.liviclLrirl
Attdieuct cttlts ofter vcrv sprecificand u,eak
cltfreprcltellrs tho besin their carcersirr
c()lttpensittors, often lto more than a n_rilcl,
r.ic
orrc cult rrnti then lcrrvc to fbund their
lrious tl-rrill or entcrtrrinr-rrcr-rt,;.rntl ther. lack
.,fhntilv
otn. Thcv bcirr stroug
rescr-n
l r o t l r l o n g - t e n l t c l i ( . r ' t t \. r r r d l i r r . n r l l , l c r r r b . .
blanccs" bccrrLrscthei. sharc n.rirrrvcul
ship. Client cults oftcr r.aluctl bur relativell.
t r r r ' . tIl e . rLt r r . r . s .
spccific c()lrpensirtors, fi-cqu en tlr, :rllegeci cures
I0 Ir'leirs firr contprletclr.nc\\. c()llpenstrtors
firr particular discrrses ar.rclenoriorial prob
cillt c()lle fl-or-nlnt, crrlturirl s()urce or pe r
lerns, :rnd thev nrav possess:r rcl:-rtivcit,itablr
sonal crpcricr-rcc\\'hiltsocVcr,but thc skill
clicr-rtclc u ithoi-rt c()untinq rhenr .rs firll
fLl entrepreneur expcrirlents crrrcfr.rllr.
in
nrenrbers of tirc ore;rnization. Cu/t mottewents
r l t c r ' i r ' r c l o p r l t c l (t , t r ) c \ r p 1 1 r 1 1 1 1 ; 1 , ' , , . , , 1
cleal in a u.ruch rrore elaboratc pilckage
of
iltc()rporittcsthe r-npermanentlv ilt his cult
contpcnsators, inclLrcling the ntost general
t , r r l ri l ' t l r c r r r . r r k et l. c \ l ) ( ) n si ,c l i r r , , r . . r l , l e .
colllpcltsators bascd or.l supern:ltural assum1]
tions, ancl thev possess comrtrittecl nre,.nlrer
(lults c;rn in fict bc vcri,
succcssfirlbusis l r i P . 1 1 1t c t . t n \ ( ) l l l r c i r c o r r r | c r ) \ . l t ( ) r tsl ,) c s ( .
ncsscs. I'he secrccv that surrour-rrisrntrtv of
thrce levels of cults can be dcscribcd colt\.et l r c s r 'o r q . t l r i z , l t i o r r s
P;-11a,llu
\ \ l i o n l r . c l ) { r l . t _ rrientlv in tre-rditionalliugLlage: auclience
cults
irrrrcurrent finrrncialstiltistics,but I tbs.figurcs
prcrvitle m)tth0/o!ft. clicnr cLrlts adc-l seri<tus
hrrve bcen rcvcalctl. Arthur l_. liell's cult,
mry1ic; cult ntovcntcnts give crirnplet c reli1yiort.
NIlnkinrl
Unite cl, r.eccivcd contributions
In 1973, Isracli presticiigiraror Uri (ieller
totalling firur nrillion clollars in the tcn vcrrrs
banrstornreci thc Unitccl States presenting
I r ' c c c c t l i r r .1r9l 4 - l' l ) o l r r r r r r r rI 9 5 l . i :4 1 1 . I n r l r e
hinrsclf irs a psvchic u.ho could rcacl irinc-ls
anj
fbur r.clls 1965-1959, the W:rshirrgton, I)(_-,
bcnd sl.roorrsbt, shcer fbrce of n,ill. As
Iar.ncs
branci.rof Scicr.rtolosvrook in li25g,9g2 anc.l
Rancli (1975) has shou.r.r,(icllcr's fLats u.ere
gavc its firunclcr, L. I{on Hubbarcl, S100,000
achicr ccl through trickcrr,, ancl \,et ur.rtold
plus tlte use of rt Ironc irnrl c;rr (Cooper lgZl:
thousancls of people u.cre firscilraiecl br.
-ft
the
I 09 ).. rd.rl Scientoktgv h:ls lltanv fkrurishi ng
p o s s i [ r r l i trvi r r r rL i c l l c rn r i c . l r lrr l i c r c . i l
1
r
.
r
elri.
'fl.re
brlnchcs, rtnclHubbarc.llir.eson lris urn 32(i
utole afllir n.as a grancl but
l'x)\\'ers.
firot shil'r.ln 1973 r srnall cuk u.c have callccl
sl-rort livccl :tuclicnce cr:lt.
l ' h e P o l r c r n a s g r o s s i n gS 1 0 0 , 0 0 0 a n r o n t h ,
X{eciical client culrs brrscclon intenrional
firur rhousrrnclof this eoiug directlv to tl-re
fir,rucl arc quite comrnor.r. ,\ nurlber of
con
husbancl rrncluifb teant \\.ho ran the operatior-r
irrtists n()t onlv h:rr.e discovcrcd th:rt therr
carr.r
fiont their cornfitrtrrble \\'estchcster Countl
t t s c t l t c I ' c l i g i o r r sl a l r c l t o a p p c . l l 1 , , c . i r t a i , . ,
e\rrlc , B.rirrlrridgc l97g r Irr .rrl.iirion ro
kincls of gLrlliblc rnarlis, b,.,t also have learnecl
obvior-rs llaterial bencfits, strcccssfr-rlcult
titat tl-relabel proviclcs a lneasure of prrotcctior.r
filrnclers irlso rcceivc intrmgible but valtrable
against lcgal pnrsecution (Giick ancl Neu,sont
ren'ards, inclutiing praisc, pol.er, ancl lr.nusc_
1971). In nranv ofthcse casesit ntat, be intposncnt. tr,Ialtvcult leaclcrshave cnjovcd alnrost
sible to prove *'hethcr the culr fbuncler'u.as
Lu-rlintitcclscxLr:Llaccessto .rttractivc firllori.ers
srncere or notl and \\,e can onlt, assume
that
( ( ) r r l n o n t l 9 6 l ; O a r c l e n1 9 6 9 ) .
nnr-rv uncietectecl fiands lurk bchir-rcli1 \,rlrictv
)f clicnt ci
..i.rtlr-rtth,,
: hc r.t.tost
: . ' \ ' c h r c\ u l
i i r - . r s i l i . rcnt
.ric \L1rgc
.1:.iIn!I !r
-.',) .iarri,
::.n tirc\
. -'r'a.ir1 .1:.
-.-
:\ l)l !
I:'..11'r!!:
,..1i:j,
::'-itir:
.'....'.
T H I - - N A T L I R I - - O F N F , \ \ TR E L I G I O U S
-'ntf ePrelleLlr
. joumalists,
tliehr fi'aucjs
trocluct and
rd clcsperate
rrt cults that
rrl n'e sl-rall
rcc kincls of
.. tltc'l cult
ii rrncln.cak
r rnilc.l,r'ic.1 rl-rcv lack
.ri n-rcnrbcrrt re l:rtivelv
ileqcclcurcs
, rnal prob:rrcly st:rblc
n rls firll
il t ()rtvucll tS
p.rckage of
rrt general
-rl .rssur-np
I ntentbcr
tors, thcsc
.c11conve
; c i r c cc u l t s
.1t1 scrior-rs
:c t'c/i11iort.
L'ri Gcllcr
irresentiltg
rrrnclsancl
-\s farncs
tc'ltS were
ct untolcl
:tl bv rhe
:.r1psvcl-ric
:rlnci but
r fc n t i o n a l
cr of con
: thcv can
, r certail
c leantecl
)r()tectlon
\etvsonr
..c inrpos
nticr u'as
ulnc that
J VilrletV
: clicnt cults. In sollc cascstl-retrickcri is so
-..lf.lnt that \\'e ciut have little
cloubt. Among
-.( m()st rccent
c\amples arc tl-re Philippine
.-.rchic srrrseonsT'crte irnclAgpraoa,ancl their
.l:'.rsilirrrr
colleague, Arigo. Tl-resenren pcrfirrr.n
'..kc surgerv
u-itl-r tl-rcir b.rre hancls or Lrran.::'hir-rscrucle .jacl<kr-rives.
In solle ctscs thev
-:.rr' .rctr.rallr'picrcc
the pilrienr's skin, but
:ien thcv ntereli'prctencl to clo so and thcn
-..r'c.rd anir-nal gorc :rbout to sirnulate the
:.'Lrlts of'clcep cuttins. T'hrougl-rr.rshillhrl pcr)rnr.llrccthcr, cortYincctheir patients not onh.
..'.rt rlangcrolls tllnlors har-e been rcrlovcd
:-')r)t tlteir botlies, but rrlso tl'rat tl-re slrrse()lt's
.'\\ chic po\\'ers Itlvc ir-rstrurtaneouslv
healed
. re n'otrrrcl. But their fiilurc lctuallr. to
,-.rt()nlr rcll ope rations in this mrlltncr lltust
..c clclr to the psvchic surgcor-rsthenrsch'cs
F l e n l . n o n c l cI 9 7 ; J .
-\r'thur I-. llell's ctrlt utovenrcnt u-ls a ti;rucl
.'.rscclou thc traclitiorral Rosicruciar-ric{c:,rtlrirt
., \.rst beltc\'olcnt consl-ri|acvprepares to rule
:rtc ri'orlcl lutcl invites ir tcu orclinrrrv peoplc tcr
,,rn its elitc ranlis. Bcll clliurecl onlv to bc thc
\'rr[)criutendcntrif thc Plcific Corst Divisiotr,
:r constiut corlmunicltiort \\'ith his superiors
.:r thc (6ctitious) orgu'tizr-rtionirlhierlrchr'. In
:i.Lisu'lv hc u'as ablc to cor-nincc his folkruers
. ir.rt thev u'crc r-r-rcrlbcrs of irn intntenselt'
..on'elftrl sccrct s()cirt\', clespite tltc tict that
:itc portirin 0f it thev coulcl sec $'its r-r-rotlest
in
.rze. Like ser-cral sintilar fi'autlr,rlctrtmove:rcnts, Bell's cr-rit clirl not originallv clrrinr
:-cligiousstattrs,but onlv becirnte I "church"
.rtter cr-rcountcrir-rg
legll clifficultt' (l)ohrntan
1 9 5 8) .
L'r order t() gl'o\\'j a cult ntoverncltt lnust
'crve rcal reliqious firr-rctionsftrr its comntittecl
rirllou'crs, reg:rrcllcssof the privrrte intcntrons
,rt' tl'rc fbr-rnder.Nlanv olclcr cults proLrablr
n'cre fiaucls in orieir-r, but hrrve becn transionleti into gentrinc religicius orglnizltior-rs
bv firllou'ers u.ho clecplv believccl tl-rc
Iouncler's ileceptior-rs.
But fiaud ncecl not be iuvoli'ell in cntreprcneuriiil cult innovation. trIlrtv orclinirrt
businessrrcn are corrlincctl of tl-re virluc of
thcir proclr-rctsbv tl'rc fltct that cllstonters \\'at1t
to buv thcrn, ancl cult entrcprcncurs mrrr.Iikc
sisc ircce;rttheir rrr.rrkctas tltc ultill.'rtc stan-
65
N{OVEA{EN1'S
clarcl of valuc. Nlirnv cult fbunclcrs clo appctrr
to be conlincecl bv tcstimonials fiom satisfiecl
custolncrs that their contpensator-packagcs
irrc valuable. This *'as probablv thc case u..ith
Franz Arton Nlesmcr, u'ho sau. astonishing
transtorntations in his clicnts, apparentlv the
bcneficial results of his techniqr.res,ancl u.to
firr-urclin thenr am;rlc cviciencc of thc tmth of
his tl.reorics (Zs'eig 1932; l)amton I9Z0).
Practitioncrs of ail clicr.rt cults fieqr_rcr.rtlvsec
sin'rilar er-iclencc in fhvor of their oun ideas,
n() mrltte r l-rrxv illogicril, because all such
cults provicie conrpensators of at lcast sonre
strcrlgth(Frank 1963).
,\lotl'rcr sourcc of confidence fbr the cult
innolator is his c.rpericnce u'ith other cults.
Eirrli' ir-rtltcir cirrccrs,innor.atorstrpicallv join
one ol' lrore successflrl cults, and honesth.
r-r-rlv valuc the cults' proclncts thernselr'cs.
Hos'cver, the innovator ntar, bc disst-rtisfled
u ith the older cults rrnci conre to thc sincere
o;-rinion that he can creatc a ntore satisthctorv
I r ' ( ) ( l L r c ll ). e s P i t ct h c i l o l i e n i r r t e r r scco r 1 l P g 1 i tion, cr-rlt lcaclers fiecprcr-rtlr.cxpress respect
rrnci ac-lnriration firr other cults, inch-rding
the ones u'itl-r n'hicl-r tl-rer, thcn-rselve
s \\,ere
previrtr-rslv associlttc('1.For exarnple, L. Ron
Hubbarcl of Scientolog\. has praisecl Alfied
I(orzvbski's Generll Semantics, lncl lack
Homcr of l)ianologv has prrrliserlHubbarcl's
Scientolog\'.
Oncc s e re altze thirt cnlt fbrnration oftcr-r
irrvohes clttrcprelteLlrial:rctiou to cst:rblish a
profitable ncu org'.rnizittion b:rscd ort novel
culture , \\'e can see that concepts clcr.ekrpcclto
understand tccl-rnologic.rl innovation shoulcl
applv hcrc rrs u'cll. For exirmple, a stnclv of
entreprenerlrship rrncl technolopSr.bV Ed$-lrd
Il. Roberts (1969) cxamined thc culrurll
irryact of thc trIirssachusctts Institute of
'I-echnoloer',
the precrnineltt ccnter of nen,
technokreical cultr-rre. Over 200 neu' high,
tcchnologv cor-npanieshacl bccn tiruncled bv
l i r l n r c r \ l l T c r r r l . l o r c c r i l t o e o r r r l r r t l c dr h c v
.'ottld .rr'lticrc c.rc.itcr pcr:orrrrl rcrr arJs l,i
establishing their orr r'r businesses bascc-lcx-r
ul'rat thev hird leirrr.redar MIf. The current
cult equivalent of N,IIf is Scientologr,,stuclied
bv one of us in 1970. Clultic elttrepreneul.s
hale left Scientologv to fbund countlcss
1 ' H h N A T L . T R EO F N I r \ \ r R E L t c I ( ) U S
N{()VIrN{ENTS
()rhcr cults bascci on n-rotlifier.l Scientologv
comnrercialisrn of man\. such org;rnizations
iderrs, inclucling lrtck Home r's Diat.rologr,, ir-r contenrporart,
Amcric;r. Wcmcr Erharrl.
(lharles Berrrer's Abilitism, Harolci
H.
tburrder of err, lred some cxpcricnce u.itl.r
Thonrpson's Am;rrir.ristics, ancl thc flvinr{
Scicntologv in 1969. l,ater, he u,orkcd fbr rr
saucer cuk clescribecl in tl-re ethnographv
uhile in NIinci Dvr.rarr-rics,
itsclf an ofllhoor of
Wben I'rophccyFails (Fesrir.rgcrct al., 1956).
|os6 Silva's Mind Control. After Erh:rrcl
Scientologr',likc MIl', is a r.ast storchouse ()f
s t a r t c c lh i s o u ' n c u l t i n l 9 Z l , l - r e d e c i c l e ctl o
exotic cultrlre derivecl fiont rtrant, s()Llrces.
emulate Scicntoloer''strenrendous successancl
S o c i . t l s c i c r r t i \ t s\ r r r d \i n g
l ) i l f t ( . r . n ,\ r i c r r i t r u . . r l I.rirc.dnvo .Scicr.rtologiststo aclapt its practices
developnrcut shor-rld bc au'are thrlt irn occa
for his ou'n usc. \\'e sl-roirlclnote that convcn_
sional kei. orgrrnization can bc an infli_rcrrti:rl tional busincsscs,
such as tLtto colniraniesancl
rrerus of innolrrtion ancl clifhrsion.
telcvisiolr ncnvorks, ofteu inritatc cach other
Futlrre rescarch calt deterntillc thc ntost
rrr plrrsnit of profit. L,rharcl's rcseirrch ancl
col]llltolt processcstl]ror,rsh which entrepreclevelopmcnt eflbrts u,ere reu.irrdecl, irncl br.
neurirtl cult fountle rs actuallv rnr.errt f heir
the bcsiruting of 1976. rur estinrarcclseventt.
novel iclcrrs.\Vc suspect the ntain techniques
t l t o 1 1 s . 1 1l1) c. lt ' \ o t ) \ l r r t , l c o l t r I l c t c d h i s S 2 5 0
involve the cultural equivller.rtof recontbinrmf
ir.ritialsentinirr (I(ornblLrth lg26).
DNA gcnetic cngir.re
crine. Esscr.rtialli.,thc
\Ve slrggest thr,rt cult cntrepre ne urs u.ill
irrnovator takes thc culturiil confieurxtion ()f
imitatc those fcatr.rresof other successfil cults
ln existing cull, rcrnovcs solne cornpoltclttsl
n,hich scenr t() thenr m()st responsible fbr
ancl rcprlacesthenr u ith ()thcr conrponents
snccess. Tl-rev nill innovatc eithcr in rron_
taken fi'om ()ther sourccs. C)ften, the itrnovilcssclttial areas or in areas u-here thev believe
tor mav sirnplv splicepiccesof fir.o carlier cults
t l t c v r . r r ri n c r c a r cr l r c i l l a l r i l i t r . r l ' t h c
i.rro.lrret.
fogcthcr. In sornc cases, the innovator preIrr cstablishing rheir ()\\.n cult birsinesscs
scrvesthe supporting skcleton ofpractices and
thev lnLlst innovatc at least suprcrficialli..
Thcv
t'rasicassuntl-rtiorrs
of I cult hc aclmircs, rtnd
cannot selze r significant part of thc rnarkct
rnerelv grafts on neu'svntbolic flesh. Rosicnr_
unlcss thcr' :rchieve procluct cliffercntiirtion.
ci:uisrn aflbrcls ir seclLlenceof nrnr-rvc()nnected
()thern.isc thcv uill bc at a grear
disach,irnrage
crarnplcs (N{clntosh l9Z2; I(ng I9Z0). Lr
in clircct conrpcrition u'ith thc oldcr, m<xe
creirting the AN,l()RCl Rosicmciirn orc.lcr,H.
prosperous cult on u'hich theirs is pattcrneci.
'I'he
Spenccr l-cu'is tcxrk Eunrpeau llosicruciar-r
ilpparcnt nove lt\. of a cult's .,r,-rrp.,]rnt,r._
principlcs of tlre tunr of thc centurr,, inclLrcl_ packagc
|uarr.bc I slles advtrntagc [,hen the
ing the hicrlrchical social srrucrlrre of rn inipublic has n()t vcr cliscor.crcclthe linrirations
ti;rtort' sccret sociefr'. ar-rdg5raftedolt :1 \.ellecr
of the reu,arcls tl-rat mcntbers actualhr u.ill
of st'nrbolism t.rhcn fionr Ancient F_qvl-rt,
tlius
r t ' c c i rc i r r t l r c l t r . \ \ c l t l t r r r r t l u h c r r o l t l e r
capitllizir.rgon public cntilusiasnrfirr Egr.;-rtiirr.r c()trpeltsiltor
pacl(ageshave becn discrcdifccj
civiliz:ttion crtrrent:rt that tintc. His heirrl_
t() s()lltc extcnt. Much rcselrch irnd thcort._
quartcrs in Sat.rfosi, Califbrnia, is ir citv blcick
l r t t i l , l i r r gr c l r r . r i r rl so b r . t i o r r c ,l r r r t t l r c i r r s i g , i r t
o t ' s i m r r l . r t c r iE g l I r r i . r 1l1r r r i l J i 6 q r . L r r t c r . R
, 6sc
that cr.rlrs often ;rre exan-rplcsof skilltul fiec
l)lu'n irnitltccl Lcu is in crcirtins hcr rir,al
enterprise irtrrlecliatclr. explirins ntanv of thcr
Ortlcr of' fhe Ancient Nlllvlns. Ir-r sre at
l c . t t r t r c (s) l 't h c c ( ) l t f c r i t i r c q l r l t i , , 1 ' . . r r l l s .
mcrrsltre, shc simprlr. rcplaced Al,{ORC's
st'nrbols n'ith ecluir,irlentsr.r-nbols.Insteacl ()f
Le lr'is's green biu'eerklv nrail-orcler lessons
The Subculture-Evolution
Model of
cmblazoncci n.ith Egvptirtn rrrchitccture ancl
Cult Innovation
lJgvptian hieroglrphics, she sold recl bit.ceklv
rnail-orcler lessons tlecoratecl u.ith N.lar.an lVhile
the pst,chopatltoloat, and entreltrrneu:,
. t r c l r i t c c t r r r .cl n ( l M . l v J n l r i c r o g l lp l l i i s .
r-noclelsstressrhe rolc of the individual ir.rnoI'he highlv successful rrt cult is derivecl
\-ator, thc subcu bure -eyo/u tiott tn od eI crnptltapartlv fioll Scicr.rtologvand u,ell illustrates the
slzes group interirction processes.It suggests
o6
:lrlt cLtlt
tclrlcr\.,11
:r.lfrl dc\'(
5ll
:lJ.ll\'
.i\\'all()L()!
icr clopir
;, r111p1'g
. . () 1 1 t l l l
, gji11 \\ c
. rl ' \ a l \ e \
.
( Lrit'
\\ \:(:r )I
.l:
.,.::r ,
. .: : :
{ -
THE NA
.
( )f 1I11lIZi1tl()lts
i'crner Flrharcl,
\Periellcc \\'ith
r ri orke cl fbr a
m offihoot of
.\fie r F.rl-rarri
irc clecidetl to
, 'rrssr-rcccss
ltncl
Irf rts prirctices
:c tlttt c()nvel1
;, rnrpltrricsr-tncl
..'.tccach othcr
. rcscarch '.tncl
.irtlcd, irr-rd br'
:lrltecl scvclltv
rtctl his S250
o
'ii.r'enenrs
u,ill
. L r c c e s s f uc lu l t s
"c\p()nsiirlc fbr
.:fhcr itl non:i t]re\r believc
, ,l the procir.rct.
'.rlt businesses
'trticiallr,.-l'hcy
!)t thc ntarkct
.ritiire r-rtiation.
.r: Jislch lnttrse
l oiclcr, rnore
:' r\ Pirtternecl.
. a()lIPe ltsirtor:.rqe nJten tlte
:rc Iimitltior-rs
. ,rctualli. r,r'ill
.' u hcrr olclcr
:lrr t|screclitctl
.r .rncl theorr'rur thc insigl.rt
, ,i skilltul ficc
. nr.rnv of thc
'tJ of cults.
r -N'Iodel of
I
'. ilttre
|,rcntur
rJividualinuo;ttodel cnphacs. It suggests
U R . E O F N E \ \ ' R F , I - I C ] I O L i St r { O \ / t , A ' I I I N T S
th.it cults crn elltcr.!ie \\'ithoitt ilLlth()ritativc
lcaders.;u1dit p()ints ()ttt thilt c\-cn radicll cultrlrrl (lcvelopnlents ci1ll be :rchieveclthrotlgh
luranv sulr-Ill steps. Altl-ror.rgh mttch social
i11
l.rsvcl.rologicallitcrattrrc \\'oLtld be usetul
.ieveloping this rnodel. \\'e rlre llot e\\'arc of a
compre hensir-e statemcllt oll cLllt inllovas()
tior-r thrcugl"r subclrltr-tral evolution'
model
tl-re
.rr{ain \\'e \\'ill iltteltlpt t() olltline
oursch'cs.
I
2
3
(lLrlts are thc exprrcssitlt-l
of novel sociill
svstcnrs,llsr.lalh'sluirlI in size Lrtttctlmpose cl
of rrt lcrrst a f-es- intin-rirteh' illtcracting
inclivirlurrls.
'fhesc
cultic soci.rlsvstcnlslrc most likch'
t() emerlie in populrrtiorls alreidv tlecplv
tl, bttt cltlt cvoinvolr-ccliu thc occr-rltr-nilie
in
elltirelv seculrtr
begirl
t-urli'
also
lirtion
settilr {rs.
Crilts irre the result of sicletracketior failecl
collcctivc rttentPts to obtirit-t scarce or
t i o t t er i s t c r r t t ' c \ \J l ' ( l \ .
'fhc
cvoltrtittt.t bcgins rihcn rr group of
pcrs()us corntnits itsclf to the attr'tinment
of certrlin reu'arc1s.
5 Lr u orkine togethcr to obt;ritr thesc
rs [-regi tr erchrln gi n g otl-rcr
retvartls, t-t'tct-ttl-rc
lcs'arc'lsas ucll, such as aflect.
6 As ther' progrcssivelv come to erperietlce
firilurc in achievir.rgtheir orisin.11 goals'
thcv riill grrrclr,rallt'qcllerate .rucl cxchrurgc
compensators irs n'cll.
7 If the itrtrlerott;-r cxchal-rge of rcn irrcls
ancl competrsators lrecotltes srtfficierrtlr'
irttct-tsc.the group uill beconle rclrrtivcli'
encapsulated,itr thc ertrcnle case ttndcr
going cont;rlete social implosion.
8 ()nce sepJrlte cl to some clegrec fi'olt-t
cxtenr;rl coutrol, the er-olving ctrlt dcvel.r uovel cLtlttlrc.encrops atrclcot-tsolidatcs
gizeclbv the rteed to facilitrrtcthe erchirnge
of reu'trrc'ls:rtlclcompeustrtors, alld illspiretl
bv esscntilllv accidental firctors.
'I'he
9
cntl poirtt of strccesshrlcttlt cvrh-ttion
is rr novel rcligioLtscultltre enbocliec'lin ir
distinct sc.rcillgrou;r u'hich nlust ll()\\' c()pc
u'itl-r the problent of ertrrlcting rcsources
(including tten' ntembcrs) fionr the srtr
-t
In n'ritinc lbottt juvcrrile tlclinqtrcncr',
Albcrt I(. (.oher-r(1955) clescribcclthe process
of ntutttnl contursion through u'hich iuteracting indivicluals coulcl graclualh' crcate a cleviant
normative strLlcture. This proccss tlat' resr.tlt
in crinrinal bchavittr, but it mat' also rcsr.rltin
the stimr-rlationof ttnrcalizable l'ropesarlcl of
firith in the protlise of irnpossible re*'ards.
Thtts, trttrtual convtrsion can dcscribc thc
social process through s'hich pcople prc)grcrs
siveh'commit cach othcr to a packageof conlpensat()rsu hich the v sinrnltancouslvrrssernblc.
It begins uLrcn peoplc n'ith sinrillr ncccls aucl
clesircsureet rucl begin comn-rr'llticatins alrout
thcir mutu'.rl problct.ns. It takcs placc in tirlr',
elen ir-uperceptiblecr;rloratc)rv stePs, as olle
individual c\presses a hop'rc ctr rr platl rrncl
reccivcs 1-rositive fbcclbrtck itr the firrn.r of
sir.nilarhopcs lntl plar.rsfi'onr his fcllorvs. "The
final product . . . is likeh' to be a cc'rt.upror-nisetorrn;rtion of r,rllthe participants to u'hat
\\'c nril\r call a cultural process, '.t iirrrn;rtiotl
pcrhll-rs Llnilnticipatcd bt' '.rtrv of thcn.r. L,ach
rrct()rmav contribute something clircctlvto thc
grouinq proc'luct.but hc n'tr1\'als() contribttte
inclirecth' bv encourrrging othcrs to adr':rncc,
them to rctreat, end suggcstiltg lle\\'
ir-rdLrcir-rg
rrvenuesto be exploreci. The proclttct cilllnot
bc ascribcrl to i'ur\rone of the participar-rts;it is
'crnergcnt' on il sroup level"
a rertl
i(lohcn
1 9 5 5 :6 0 . )
Cohen sirls all hutnan action "is r1l1ollgolng
s c r i e s o f c f k r r t s t o s o l v e p r o b l en l s " ( 1 9 5 5 :
50). All hr.rman bcings tirce tl.rc problerl of
copir.rguith fiustrltion beclttsc sonle highlr'
clcsircclrel'artls, such rtseverlastinglifc, cio rlot
cxist in this u.orlcl. Throtrgl-r ltltltttal coll\'ersion, ir-rclivirlualsbartcl tcxlether to solvc ()llc ()r
nrore shared probleurs, ancl tltc ()utconle Presurnabh' depcncls on a uunrber of firctors,
ir.rcluclingthc trature of thc problct.nsancl thc
grou;r's initial cor.rceptualizatiorlof them. We
sLrspccta cLtltic solutiot't is t.trtlstlikcli' if the
peol.rlc begin bv attemptiltc to intprove thct.t.lrclrcr '.ir itt pslch,rtltcrlpi ) ()r t() lllll)rovc
thcir relationsl-ri;-rto the natural u'orltl, ancl
thcr.r firil in their effbrts. Crinrinal or politicrrl
()utc()mes irfe nlore likelv if people be lieYc tl'rat
othcr persons or social cot'rditionsare rcspoll
sible for tl'reir problems.
rounciit-tg cttvirortrtlet-tt.
67
THE
NATUI{E
O F N F , \ , \ ' R E T , I G I O [ ] S N IO V E N { E N 1 ' S
'I-he
quest firr trnlvailablc rcu'arcls is not
lltto tn authoritarian cult rnor,.er-nelttthit
rescri'cd fitr poor iutd cftxvntroddcn firlk
recruits persons n'ho nevcr suflbrcd tiom clruo
alone. Manv elitc social ntoventelttshar.eLrecr-r problents.
tleciicatccl t() the tttaintrent of goals thrrt
T\\'o inrp()rtaut f:ct()rs rcnder cultic er.olr,r_
r-rltintatclr. provecl Lrnattainirblc. Or-re u.ell
tron nore
likelr'. First, the proccss u,ill
c'locurnentcclcxalnple is l'he Cor-nrnittee for
progrcss most easilv if tl.rere are no binding
the Futurc, an institutiouallv clctachcd little
cxtcnral constraints.For examplc, psvchiatrists
organizltior-r that fbrr-ncclt.itl-rin thc nenr.ork
and psvcl.rologists n-ho l.ork in institr.rtional
of techrrological social mo\.cmcnts orienterl
settmgs (such ls hospitirlsor universities)mar,
tol'arcl spaceflight. Fotrnded in l9Z0 bv a
be prevented bv their con\.cntion.rl comnrit_
r i c l l t l r r c o r r | l g .t h c C F F \ \ . 1 \( l c ( l i c J t c (rl, , i h c
ments firrrrt pirrticilrtting in the cvolution of r-r
inrnreclitrte cokrnizatiorr of thc ntoon irnc.l
cult, *'hilc inclcpcndenrpr.lctiri(rlterstrc llore
pllnets ancl to bcginning il nc\\' irge in uticl-r
ficc. Scconcl, rhe process *.ill bc ficilitated if
the fieki of nr:rn's lctilitv rrrtuld Lrcthc entire
tl-re
thcrapist rectit,csc()ntpcnsltors as u.ell as
'fhe
Lrnivcrsc.
biggest cffirrt of thc CFF,
givcs then ;rncl thus llarticipiltcs firllr, in the
I)roject Hrtn'est Nkr<trr,u.as intenr.leclto estabiuflation ancl prolifbration of coffrpenstltors.
lish thc first clcmonstrrti()n colortr. olt the
A good cxarrtprlcis Thc pou,er, flrundecl ir.r
nr(x)lt, plantcclusing I surplus Satunt V launch
Lorrckrn in 1963, nlticlt beqan as an indepcn_
vcl.ricle.L-llrirn:rtclr',
high cost anclquestionable
clent psvchothcrr'Lpvscrr.ice clcsignccl ro hcl;r
fLasibi liti' prc\-entcc'lanv p racric;11accorr.r
plish norrnal irrdivicluals lchie r,c supcr-nonnal
rnents. In struggling fo :lrouseprrblic support,
levels of firnctior.ring. Thc thcrapv u,as basccl
thc (lFF hcld I series of open convenri()ns
on,{Jficc1 At.llcr's thcorr. that cach hunran
11t \\'hich prlrticipiutrs collcctir,eiv clcvclopccl
bcing is ir.npellcc'lbr, subconscious 70rl.r, anLl
sru.rcl schenrcs fbr a bcttcr norlcl. Blockcd
lt attenlptcd to bring thesc eotrls to colt_
li-onr .ruv success ir.r tl.ris dircctior-r, thc CFF
scroLLslrcss
sO the person coulcl prlrsllc thcm
'I'he
crolvcd to\\'irrd cultisr-r-r.
convcntion semntorc cflbctir.elv ancl esc:rpcinner conflict. 'I'he
in;rrs beclr-nc encountcr sr()ups. llvsticism
fbr-rndersof f'hc Pou.er rcceir.cd the fherapv as
irncl parapsvchokrgv reirlacccl spacefligl.rtas thc
$'cll as elYc it, illtd fieqLleltt group sessions
to1'ricof conicrsltion. Rituirls of psr.chicfiLsiorr
brougl.rt all participlr.rts r()getltel. to scrr.c e.rch
\\'cre clttcted to rclisiolrs r.rl_rsic,rtncl thc pre
other's clroti()nil ncecis. fhe pon.cr recruitecl
viouslv fiicnclli' acr()space contpranies ancl
clicnts through thc fbunclcrs' prc-existir.rg
agcrlcics brokc off u.ith the Cor-rtn.rittee
.
fiicnclsl.rip ncru.ork, ancl the therl;rv sessions
l)cnieci successin its original purproses,ancl
grcatl\.intcnsified thc strength anclir.rtirnao,of
unfcttcrccl b\, strong ties to cortventionirl insti
thcir socirrl bor-rcls.
tutions, the (.FF tLtrncd cvel. nt()rc stronglv
As bonc'ls strengtheneLl, thc soci:rl nettvork
to$'arcl c()llpensiltors etrcl tcxvard thc strper
bcclnre lr()rc thorougl-rlv intcrconncctctl as
rrrtrrral (Bair-rbridge197 6).
prcviouslr. clistant persons \\,erc brought
Clults rrrc particulxrh' likeli' to enrcrqe
t()eethcr. Thc ruclinrents of a group culture
n'herevcr nLrmbcrs of peoplc scek l-relp for
evolr,ecl, anr'l nranv individuals contriburecl
intrlctrrble personal problcms. The bro;rd
icieas aboLrr hou tl.re therirpi. migl.rt bc
Iicl.ls of psvchothcrapr,, rehirbilitltion, and
inrpnx'ccl ancl erpandeci. participrrrts cilnrc to
pcrsonrrl cler.eloprlent har.e becn cspecialh,
fbel that (nlv other participants uncicrstoocl
lLrtilc firr ctrlts. A nLurbcr of psvchotheraprv
thern cornpletclv, and fbuncl contmunication
services h:rvc cvolr.cd ir-rto cult rnovcments,
nith outsiders progrcssir.elr,rnorc cjifficult. A
includine thosc created bv sonrc of Freud's
ncinl itnplosiozztook place.
irnnrcclirrtefirllon.crs ( Ricff I 968 ). ()the r incleIn a social in.rplosion,part ()f an extcnded
pendcr-rthunran scrr,iceorganizations nrav alscr
social ncr\\.ork collapsesas social tics u.ithin it
bc susccptiblc to cultic cvolution. l"hc beststreltgthelt ancl, reciprocalll,, tl-roseto pcrsolts
knon-rr rcsirlerrtirtl pr()srar.n clcsignccl to treat
outsiclc it u-eirkcn.It is a step-br.-stepproccss.
drug aridiction, Srrranor-r,hirs rccentiv evolr.ccl
Social irnl-rlosionsrnav be set ofTbv rnorc thatr
68
()nc clfcu
the in'rplt
tiot't oi:t
lccltllirlLl(
l . cl . t t i o n s
( ot'rel:ttt
Jottt cfsitr
: ( JC \ P I - C \
:.lcr cOtli
:' subctrl
: t ( ) L l \ el ( J
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T H I ' - - \ . - A 1 ' L I R EO F N E \ \ r R I ' . l . I C i l ( ) L I S N I O V E A . { E N T S
( )\'el)lent th:tt
'rcc1fiom clrug
:- cultic evolupr()ccss tvill
r.e no bincling
c. psvchiatrists
n ir-rstittrtionll
rr ersitics) mly
r,rn.tl cot-t-trttit
ir olution of l
)ncfs are ntorc
,c tircilitltctl if
, , r ' sa s u e l l i r s
,' lullv in thc
nPe ltslltors.
:r. toundecl in
i\ Jn incj(]pclt
lgncclto hcll)
'ttpcr- norntll
rp\'\\'irs b:-ISe(i
clch hirr-nalr
)Lr\Jr/(rtA,irllcl
:().li5 tO C()n
Purslle thcllt
. cor.rflict.'I'l.rc
rirc thcrapv as
l-,rr.tl'rsessiot-t-s
: r I S C r t ee : r C l t
ri cr rccruitcd
pfe -cxistin€{
':,tPv scsst()ns
..iintirlacr.of
,crel ncfurrrh
- ( )lltectecl ts
irc brought
loup culture
contributcd
nright bc
.11rtS
Ctntc t()
runde rstoorl
1rntulllcatloll
e .lifficulr. A
.in ertcncled
tics n'itl.rir-rit
c to persons
\rcp Proccss.
'\' ntore thillt
\)nc circlllrlstance.In thc casc of Tl-re Po$'cr,
ihe inrplosion urrs initiatccl bi' tl.re introducrron of a ne\\' element of cultr.rre
, rr "therap\'"
of
icchnicluc that increasecl thc ir-rtin-rrrct'
lclrtions arouncl a point ir-r thc ltet\\'ork.
(.orrelatccl u'ith the iurplosion \\'as a ltr.rtltal
.onvcrsion irsmcml)ers encourirgcderlchothcr
i() cxprcsstheir cleepestfintasics anclto belicr-c
thev coulcl be hrlfillecl. Tl.rc Acllerian anah'sis
,ri'subconscir)r.ls
goals s'ls iclcalh' designeclttr
.rlolrsc longiltqs iurcl l-ropcs firr all the unobt.rincci rrncl unobtlit-t;rblc rcu'arcls the p:rrtici-I'he
Iiiltts hirclever privateh'n'isl-rccit() receiYe.
i.owcrflrl affLct and social invoh'crnent pro
.iuccci bv thc inrpkrsion \\'erc tanqible re*'arc1s
thirt conYinccci prrrticipirnts thilt the othcr
req'rrds soon n-oulcl be achicved. (lonconri
tJltt cstrtltgclnellt fiorl-l outsiclc ettachmcnts
lccl Thc Pou.cr to escrrpeLot-tcion t() the is()la
rion of a minccl serrsicleYucatatt ;r1antl.-ttiotr.
Remotc fion'r the restraining influencc of
its
.onvcntional sociefl',Thc Po$'cr cot-nlrletccl
oolution fiom psvchotherapr-to religion bv
inVentine supcrnrltrlral cloctrincs to erpla.ill
hon' its irnpossible, absohrte goals migl.rt ulti
nrateh'bc,rchievecl. lVhcn the neu cttlt
rctumerl to civilizrrtion ir-r 1967, it becanre
legallv incorp()ratecl rs rr church (B.iinbriclgc
t978).
Since non rcligious groLrpscau cvttlve int<r
relisiotrs cults, it is not strrprising that cLrlts
r'Llsocirn arisc fiom religious sccts - extrcmc
rcligious gr()ups thrt accept the stanclardreligious traclition of the societr', rurlikc cults thlt
;ire revolutionarv breaks u'ith the culturc of
past churches. An intrr-nous crirmprle is The
'fcnrple
Pcoprlc's
of Iim Jor.rcsthrrt destrovcd
itself ir.r thc jur.rgles of Ciulanir. Tl'ris grou;r
began as an cnrotionallv extrenrc but cultur
allv traclitional Cl'rristiar-rsect, thcn evolvecl
into rr cr.rlt as Jones progressivelv becamc ,t
propl-rct s'ith rrn ever nrore raclicll lisiorr. Of
corlrsel cithcr the psvchoparthol()gvor entre
prenellr nrociclsnrav rr1-rplv
in this case. Brrt thc
nrclnbers of the scct probablv concor-r-rr-nittccl
tributccl t() thc trrursfbrmation bv encouragine
Jones stc1.rbv stcl'r, rrncl l-x' dcn'randing of hint
golls. Fiveu
of irr.rpossible
thc irccon'rplishrnent
nhen a singlc indiric-lualdorninirtes a grouP,
the subculturc er'olution n-roclclu'ill applv tcr
the extent that the firllon'crs also participatc
in pushir.rg the group tou'irrcl cultism. In tl'ris
crse, the r-reeds
of the firllou'ersancl thcir social
relationsl'rips n'ith thc lcadcr nrav have scn'ccl
27s.7 p:ychlpfttbology ampliftr,
reflecting back
to Jones his onn narcissismmultiplied by the
strength of their unrcasonable ho;res.
Conclusion
F-;rchof thc thrce models iclcntifics a svstem of
production and exchange of compensators.
In tlre pst,chopnthologt,
rnodel, a cult foundcr
crertes compensators initialh' for his ou'n usc,
ther-r gives them to fbllou.ers in return for
ren'arcls. In the entrepreneur modcl, rhe cult
fbr-rnclersets olrt to gair-rreu'ards L-r1,
tt-t"ttt-tr,,.
turing compe nsators inter-rded fbr salc tcr
tbllor"'ers. Tl-re subcubute-epolution tnodel
clescribcs tl.rc interplav of manr, ir-rdir.idual
actiorls in l'hich r-arioi-rsindividr-rals at diflbrent times plav tl-rerolcs of producer and corrsumer of novel compensrrtors.
\Vhile tl-re models mi1\, appear to compete,
ir-r firct thev cor-nplement eacir other and can
be cor.r.rbir.rec'l
to explain the emergence of par
ticular cults. After a cult fbr-urder has escapcci
a periocl of psvchop:rthoiog,r,,he n.ra1'act as an
entrepreneur in promoting or improving his
cuit. Ar entrepreneur threatcned u'ith loss of
his cr-rltmirv bc drivcn into an episode of ;rs','chopatl-rologv tl-rat provides ne\\' r-isions that
contribute to a ne\\' success.The sr,rbculturc
cvolutior.r model mav inc|-rde manv little
episodes of pst'chopirthologl' ancl entrcprcncuriirl cntcrprise prlrticipatcd in brr various
me mbers, \\'oven together bt' a complex
neftr'ork of social exchangcs . . .
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