The electric motor

HİBRİD ARAÇLAR

«Her tercih bir vazgeçiştir»

BİREYSEL ULAŞIM - GELECEĞİN OTOMOBİLİ - TANIMLAYICI FAKTÖRLER

Artan yakıt fiyatı Kaynaklar/tahrik teknolojilerinin mevcudu

Artan tıkanıklık problemi Değişen müşteri talepleri

Source: Bundesverband Freier Tankstellen

MEVCUT TEKNOLOJİ İLE YAKIT EKONOMİSİ VE EMİSYON AZALTIMI

Üzerinde Çalışılan Teknolojiler

%

Optimize edilmiş motorlar 3-10

Düşük yuvarlanma direncine sahip lastik teknolojisi 2

Aerodinamik

Hacim küçültme

Termodinamik yönetimi

Start stop sistemi

Toplam

2010

98%

2

10

5-7

3-10

25-40

2035

’de

Hala araçlardaki motorların %50’sinden fazlası içten yanmalı motor…

Kaynak: Fehre, N., Schneider, H., “Hybrids and Electric Vehicles: Hype or sustainable investment? The truth about market potential and investment ideas”,

Industrials/Global Autos – Equities, 13 October 2009.

Enerji Kaynakları

Petrol (petrol, gaz)

Kömür

Doğal Gaz

Biokütle

Diğer Kaynaklar

(Güneş, Rüzgar, Hidro)

Nükleer

YAKIT/ENERJİ VE TAHRİK SİSTEMLERİ

Enerji Taşıyıcıları

Sıvı

Yakıtlar

Gaz

Yakıtlar

Tahrik Sistemleri

Konvansiyonel ICE:

Benzin / Dizel

Gaz ICE

ICE Hibrit

Plug-In Hybrid ICE

Elektrik

Hidrojen

Elektrikli Araç

Electric Vehicle

Yakıt Hücresi/Pili

ALTERNATİF YAKITLI ARAÇLARIN BAŞARISINDAKİ KISITLAR

In 2009, the US government announced its new CAFE standard, requiring that all car manufacturers achieve an average fuel economy of 35 MPG by 2020. This is equivalent to 6.7 l/100 km.

Notlar:

MPG = mil/gal

1 gal = 4,54 litre (UK)

1 gal = 3,78 litre (US)

1 barrel petroluen = 42 gal =

158,99 litre (ham petrol) [US]

1 mil= 1609 m

CAFE - Corporate Average Fuel Economy = Birleşik Ortalama Yakıt Verimliliği, Kurumsal Ortalama

Yakıt Ekonomisi

NHTSA - National Highway Traffic Safety Administration = Ulusal Otoyol Trafik Güvenliği

Yönetimi/İdaresi/Komisyonu

Chris Mi, M. Abul Masrur, David Wenzhong Gao, “Hybrid Electric Vehicles - Principles And Applications With Practical Perspectives”, ISBN 978-0-470-

74773-5, 2011.


Dünyamızın doğal yapısının korunmasına yönelik zorlamalar, otomobil

üreticilerini performanstan ödün vermeden daha çevreci arayışlara doğru itmektedir. Bu arayışlar içerisinde; daha küçük silindir hacmi ile daha az sürtünme ve ağırlık, daha az hareketli kütleler, turbo besleme sayesinde torkun geniş devir bandına yayılması, çift beslemeyle (turbo ve kompresör) turbo boşluğunun azaltılması ya da tamamen yok edilmesi, değişken supap zamanlaması, dur-kalk sistemleri, farklı malzemelerle ağırlık azaltılması, gelişmiş direk enjeksiyon sistemleri, motorda sürtünmelerin azaltılması, düşük sürtünmeli yağlayıcılar, silindirlerin devre dışı bırakılması, kamsız supap işletimi, otomatikleştirilmiş manüel şanzıman uygulamaları ve 8-10 ileri kademeli manüel vites kutularının kullanımı, entegre marş-alternatör üniteleri, ultra fakir karışımlı direk enjeksiyonlu motorlar, araçta uzman/akıllı ısı yönetimi, dizel motorlarda piezo-enjektör kullanımı ve bir çevrimde birden çok enjeksiyon (split injection) gibi konular üzerinde yoğun çalışmalar yürütülmektedir [1].


 Alternatif teknolojili taşıtlar için yüksek ilk yatırım maliyeti (High first cost for vehicle)

 Sınırlı yakıt depolama durumları [On-board fuel storage issues (i.e.

Limited range)]

 Emniyet ve yükümlülük konuları (Safety and liability concerns)

 Yüksek yakıt dolum maliyetleri [High fueling cost (compared to gasoline)]

 Sınırlı dolum/şarj istasyonları [Limited fuel stations: chicken and egg problem]

 Mevcut trendlerdeki gelişmeler [better, cleaner gasoline vehicles].

Kaynak: Joseph Romm, “ The car and fuel of the future ”, Energy Policy 34 (2006) 2609–2614.

GELİŞMİŞ ARAÇ TAHRİK TEKNOLOJİ STRATEJİSİ

Geliştirilmiş Yakıt

Ekonomisi ve

Emisyonlar

2009-2020

Hidrojen Yakıt Pili - Elektrik

Enerji Çeşitliliği

Hibrid-Elektrikli Araçlar (Plugin Araçlar dahil)

Batarya-Elektrikli Araçlar

(E-Flex)

İçten Yanmalı Motor ve

Şanzıman Gelişmeleri

Petrol (Konvensiyonel ve Alternatif Kaynaklar)

Biyoyakıtlar (Ethanol E85, Biyodizel)

Elektrik (Konvensiyonel ve Alternatif Kaynaklar)

Hidrojen

Zaman

2020’de tüm yeni araçların

%10 plug-in fonksiyonlu olacak


Şekil 3: 2025 Vizyonu bağlamında elektrikleştirme derecesi [12].


Uluslararası Elektroteknik Komisyonunun

Teknik Komitesi (Elektrikli yol araçları) tarafından verilen tanıma göre: Hibrid elektrikli araç, enerjinin iki ya da daha fazla enerji deposundan sağlandığı ve bu enerji depolarından en az bir tanesinin elektrik enerjisi verdiği bir araç olarak ifade edilmiştir.

Hibrit elektrikli araç daha çok hem içten yanmalı motorun

(İYM) hem de elektrikli motorun kullanıldığı araç olarak kabul edilmektedir.

Honda Insight


74773-5, 2011.


When compared to gasoline-powered cars,

EVs and HEVs:

• were more expensive than gasoline cars due to the large battery packs used;

• were less powerful than gasoline cars due to the limited power from the onboard battery;

• had limited range between each charge;

• and needed many hours to recharge the onboard battery. / Chapter -1

Honda Insight


74773-5, 2011.


History:

The world’s automotive history turned to a new page in 1997 when the first modern hybrid electric car, the Toyota Prius, was sold in Japan. This car, along with Honda’s Insight and Civic HEVs, has been available in the United States since

2000. These early HEVs marked a radical change in the types of cars offered to the public: vehicles that take advantage of the benefits of both battery EVs and conventional gasoline-powered vehicles. At the time of writing, there are more than 40 models of HEVs available in the marketplace from more than 10 major car companies.

[Chapter 1]

Chris Mi, M. Abul Masrur, David Wenzhong Gao, “ Hybrid

Electric Vehicles - Principles And Applications With

Practical Perspectives ” , ISBN 978-0-470-74773-5, 2011.


 İçten Yanmalı Motor

 Aracın Elektriklenme Derecesi

 Elektrik Motoru

 Konfigürasyon

 Transmisyonun Kademelendirilmesi

 Güç Yönetimi


Architectures of HEVs

A HEV is a combination of a conventional ICE-powered vehicle and an EV. It uses both an ICE and an electric motor/generator for propulsion. The two power devices, the ICE and the electric motor, can be connected in series or in parallel from a power flow point of view.

Chris Mi, M. Abul Masrur, David Wenzhong Gao, “ Hybrid Electric Vehicles - Principles And Applications With Practical Perspectives ” ,

ISBN 978-0-470-74773-5, 2011.


Architectures of HEVs (cont.)

When the ICE and motor are connected in series, the HEV is a series hybrid in which only the electric motor is providing mechanical power to the wheels. When the ICE and the electric motor are connected in parallel, the HEV is a parallel hybrid in which both the electric motor and the ICE can deliver mechanical power to the wheels.


ISBN 978-0-470-74773-5, 2011.



In a HEV, liquid fuel is still the source of energy. The ICE is the main power converter that provides all the energy for the vehicle.

The electric motor increases system efficiency and reduces fuel consumption by recovering kinetic energy during regenerative braking, and optimizes the operation of the ICE during normal driving by adjusting the engine torque and speed.

The ICE provides the vehicle with an extended driving range therefore overcoming the disadvantages of a pure EV.


ISBN 978-0-470-74773-5, 2011.



In a series HEV or PHEV, the ICE drives a generator (referred to as the I/G set ). The ICE converts energy in the liquid fuel to mechanical energy and the generator converts the mechanical energy of the engine output to electricity.

An electric motor will propel the vehicle using electricity generated by the I/G set.

This electric motor is also used to capture the kinetic energy during braking. There will be a battery between the generator and the electric motor to buffer the electric energy between the I/G set and the motor.


ISBN 978-0-470-74773-5, 2011.


Architectures of HEVs

(cont.)

In a parallel HEV or PHEV, both the ICE and the electric motor are coupled to the final drive shaft through a mechanical coupling mechanism, such as a clutch, gears, belts, or pulleys. This parallel configuration allows both the ICE and the electric motor to drive the vehicle either in combined mode, or separately.

The electric moor is also used for regenerative braking and for capturing the excess energy from the ICE during coasting.


ISBN 978-0-470-74773-5, 2011.

SERİ HİBRİD ELEKTRİKLİ ARAÇLAR

Series HEV

In this HEV, the ICE is the main energy converter that converts the original energy in gasoline to mechanical power. The mechanical output of the ICE is then converted to electricity using a generator. The electric motor moves the final drive using electricity generated by the generator or electricity stored in the battery. The electric motor can receive electricity directly from the engine, or from the battery, or both. Since the engine is decoupled from the wheels, the engine speed can be controlled independently of vehicle speed. This not only simplifies the control of the engine, but, most importantly, can allow operation of the engine at its optimum speed to achieve the best fuel economy. It also provides flexibility in locating the engine on the vehicle. There is no need for the traditional mechanical transmission in a series HEV.


ISBN 978-0-470-74773-5, 2011.


Güç Çevirici (İnvertör): İnvertör, doğru akımı (DC) alternatif akıma (AC) çeviren elektriksel bir güç çeviricisidir. İnvertör çıkışında üretilen AC güç, kullanılan transformatörlere, anahtarlama ve kontrol devrelerine bağlı olarak herhangi bir gerilimde ve frekansta olabilir.

Fig. 1: The architecture of a series HEV


ISBN 978-0-470-74773-5, 2011.

Reading Text

What is the difference between an AC motor and a DC motor? / July 29, 2011 | Q&A

While both A.C. and D.C. motors serve the same function of converting electrical energy into mechanical energy, they are powered, constructed and controlled differently. 1 The most basic difference is the power source. A.C. motors are powered from alternating current (A.C.) while D.C. motors are powered from direct current (D.C.), such as batteries, D.C. power supplies or an AC-to-DC power converter. D.C wound field motors are constructed with brushes and a commutator, which add to the maintenance, limit the speed and usually reduce the life expectancy of brushed D.C. motors. A.C. induction motors do not use brushes; they are very rugged and have long life expectancies. The final basic difference is speed control. The speed of a

D.C. motor is controlled by varying the armature winding’s current while the speed of an A.C. motor is controlled by varying the frequency, which is commonly done with an adjustable frequency drive control. 2

1.Saeed Niku. Introduction to Robotics: Analysis, Control, Applications. 2nd ed. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2011. Page 280 ↩

2.Robert S. Carrow. Electrician’s technical reference: Variable frequency drives. Delmar Thomson Learning, 2001. Page 45 ↩

Published by Ohio Electric Motors: http://www.ohioelectricmotors.com/what-is-the-difference-between-an-ac-motor-and-a-dc-motor-

673#ixzz2ezsrNvI3

HİBRİD ARAÇLARA - ÖRNEKLER

SERİ HİBRİD ARAÇLARA ÖRNEK

KONFİGÜRASYON UYGULAMASI AÇIKLAMA

Seri (elektrik bağlantılı) Tofaş Dublo Elit-1

Fusion parallel HEV, GM EV1,

Parallel Hibrid-electric Honda Paralel (mekanik bağlantılı)

Insight and Civic

Seri–paralel (mekanik ve Ford Escape series–parallel Hibrid elektrik bağlantılı)

Kompleks (mekanik elektrik bağlantılı) ve

Toyota Prius hibrid, Honda Civic

Civic ve Pruis: Permanent magnet brushless (PMBL) DC motor

[Sürekli Mıknatıslı fırçasız DC

Motor]

(a) Series (electrically coupling), (b) parallel (mechanical coupling), (c) series–parallel

(mechanical and electrical coupling, (d) complex (mechanical and electrical coupling).

HİBRİD ARAÇLARDA TRANSMİSYON

TRANSMİSYON

İki modlu ya da değişken transmisyon

Tek modlu

UYGULAMASI AÇIKLAMA

Sonata Hibrid, 2011 Camry

Hibrid – CVT, 2010 Altima

Hibrid – CVT, 2011 Fusion

Hibrid – CVT, Honda Civic

Hibrid –CVT, ML450 Blue-

Hibrid- İki modlu transmisyon

Toyota Prius – ECVT, bir modlu

Sonata: Tork konverterli/konvertersiz otomatik transmisyon, elektrikli yağ pompası

ECVT: Elektronik sürekli değişken transmisyon (Electronic continuously variable transmission)

İki modlu transmisyon iki elektrik motoruna sahiptir. Şehir içi ve şehirlerarası yollarda yakıt ekonomisi sağlar.

Düzenli bir modlu hibrid düşük hızlarda taşıtın tahriki için bir elektrik motoru kullanır ve hızlanmalarda benzin motoruna yardımcı olur.


Series HEV (Cont.)

Based on the vehicle operating conditions, the propulsion components on a series HEV can operate with different combinations:

• Battery alone: When the battery has sufficient energy, and the vehicle power demand is low, the I/G set is turned off, and the vehicle is powered by the battery only.

• Combined power: At high power demands, the I/G set is turned on and the battery also supplies power to the electric motor.

• Engine alone: During highway cruising and at moderately high power demands, the

I/G set is turned on. The battery is neither charged nor discharged. This is mostly due to the fact that the battery’s state of charge (SOC) is already at a high level but the power demand of the vehicle prevents the engine from turning, or it may not be efficient to turn the engine off.

• Power split: When the I/G is turned on, the vehicle power demand is below the I/G optimum power, and the battery SOC is low, then a portion of the I/G power is used to charge the battery.

• Stationary charging: The battery is charged from the I/G power without the vehicle being driven.

• Regenerative braking: The electric motor is operated as a generator to convert the vehicle’s kinetic energy into electric energy and charge the battery.


ISBN 978-0-470-74773-5, 2011.


Series HEV (cont.)

In this case, as shown in Figure 2, there are four electric motors, each one installed inside each wheel. Due to the elimination of transmission and final drive, the efficiency of the vehicle system can be significantly increased. The vehicle will also have all-wheel drive (AWD) capability.

However, controlling the four electric motors independently is a challenge.

Figure 2: Hub motor configuration of a series HEV


ISBN 978-0-470-74773-5, 2011.


Parallel HEVs

In this configuration , the ICE and the electric motor can both deliver power in parallel to the wheels. The ICE and the electric motor are coupled to the final drive through a mechanism such as a clutch, belts, pulleys, and gears. Both the ICE and the motor can deliver power to the final drive, either in combined mode, or each separately. The electric motor can be used as a generator to recover the kinetic energy during braking or absorbing a portion of power from the ICE.

Figure 3: The architecture of a parallel HEV


ISBN 978-0-470-74773-5, 2011.


Parallel HEVs (cont.)

The parallel hybrid needs only two propulsion devices, the ICE and the electric motor, which can be used in the following mode:

• Motor-alone mode: When the battery has sufficient energy, and the vehicle power demand is low, then the engine is turned off, and the vehicle is powered by the motor and battery only.

• Combined power mode: At high power demand, the engine is turned on and the motor also supplies power to the wheels.

• Engine-alone mode: During highway cruising and at moderately high power demands, the engine provides all the power needed to drive the vehicle. The motor remains idle. This is mostly due to the fact that the battery SOC is already at a high level but the power demand of the vehicle prevents the engine from turning off, or it may not be efficient to turn the engine off.


ISBN 978-0-470-74773-5, 2011.


Parallel HEVs (cont.)

• Power split mode: When the engine is on, but the vehicle power demand is low and the battery SOC is also low, then a portion of the engine power is converted to electricity by the motor to charge the battery.

• Stationary charging mode: The battery is charged by running the motor as a generator and driven by the engine, without the vehicle being driven.

• Regenerative braking mode: The electric motor is operated as a generator to convert the vehicle’s kinetic energy into electric energy and store it in the battery. Note that, in regenerative mode, it is in principle possible to run the engine as well, and provide additional current to charge the battery more quickly

(while the propulsion motor is in generator mode) and command its torque accordingly, that is, to match the total battery power input. In this case, the engine and motor controllers have to be properly coordinated.


ISBN 978-0-470-74773-5, 2011.


Series–Parallel HEVs

In comparison to a series HEV, the series–parallel HEV adds a mechanical link between the engine and the final drive, so the engine can drive the wheels directly. When compared to a parallel HEV, the series–parallel HEV adds a second electric motor that serves primarily as a generator.

Because a series–parallel HEV can operate in both parallel and series modes, the fuel efficiency and drivability can be optimized based on the vehicle’s operating condition. The increased degree of freedom in control makes the series–parallel HEV a popular choice. However, due to increased components and complexity, it is generally more expensive than series or parallel HEVs.


ISBN 978-0-470-74773-5, 2011.


Series–Parallel HEVs

Figure 4: The architectures of a series–parallel HEV


ISBN 978-0-470-74773-5, 2011.


Complex HEVs

Complex HEVs usually involve the use of planetary gear systems and multiple electric motors (in the case of four/all-wheel drive). One typical example is a four-wheel drive (4WD) system that is realized through the use of separate drive axles, as shown in Figure 5. The generator in this system is used to realize series operation as well as to control the engine operating condition for maximum efficiency. The two electric motors are used to realize all-wheel drive, and to realize better performance in regenerative braking. They may also enhance vehicle stability control and antilock braking control by their use.


ISBN 978-0-470-74773-5, 2011.


Complex HEVs

Figure 5: The electrical four-wheel drive system using a complex architecture


ISBN 978-0-470-74773-5, 2011.

The main difference among the various configurations is the series, parallel or mixed interconnection of the power sources.

In the series configuration (1) the individual drive components are connected in series, whereas in the parallel configuration (2) the drive power of both drive sources is mechanically added. The letters M and G indicate whether the electric drive is operating in "motor" or "generator" mode.

Because the diesel engine in the series configuration is mechanically decoupled from the vehicle drive, the diesel engine can be operated at a constant speed, i.e. at its optimum operating point in terms of efficiency and emissions. Despite the advantages of the series configuration, its disadvantage is that energy must be converted several times. Including battery storage efficiency, the mechanical efficiency between the diesel engine and the powered axle is hardly greater than 55 %.

The parallel hybrid configuration (2) has the advantage that when operated in the mode which incorporates an IC engine, it is just as efficient as the engine in a conventional vehicle. In configuration 2, the change-speed transmission required by the diesel-engine drive is also part of the electric drive branch. In this type of drive the speed of the electric motor therefore must be varied only within a specific range above a basic speed, in a manner similar to the way in which the diesel engine is operated. Moreover, in this configuration the electric drive also profits from the torque conversion by the downstream transmission, as a result of which the electric motor must only be dimensioned for low drive torque. This leads to an equivalent reduction in motor mass which is roughly proportional to motor torque.

Bosch Automotiv Handbook, 2002

The mixed configuration (3) represents a combination of configurations 1 and

2, and corresponds to a splitter transmission with an infinitely-variable transmission ratio. On the one hand, the power of the IC engine is mechanically transmitted directly to the driving wheels, while on the other, the rotation of the IC engine is decoupled from the rotation of the driving wheels by the speed overlay in the planetary gear.

Hybrid drive configurations

1 Series configuration,

2 Parallel configuration,

3 Mixed configuration

VM IC engine,

EL Electric drive (operated as a motor or alternator/generator),

BA Battery or external power supply,

SG Manually shifted transmission.

Bosch Automotiv Handbook, 2002

Seri hibrid sistemde tekerlere tahrik gücünü sağlayan bir elektrik motoru vardır. İYM generatöre bağlıdır ve elektrik enerjisinin oluşturulmasını sağlayarak bataryalarda enerji depolanmasına katkıda bulunur. Bataryalarda depo edilen elektrik enerjisi ise elektrik motoruna verilir ve tahrik tekerlerine gerekli olan güç iletilir. İYM ve tekerlekler arasında mekanik bir güç iletimi mevcut değildir.

Paralel hibrid sistemde ise itki için gerekli olan güç, birden fazla enerji kaynağından sağlanır. İYM transmisyon aracılığı ile tekerlere doğrudan güç iletir. Bunun yanında bataryalarda depo edilen elektrik enerjisi ise elektrik motoru yolu ile tekerlere iletilir.

Seri sistemin dezavantajları:

Bu sistemde İYM, jeneratör ve elektrik motoru olmak üzere üç tahrik ekipmanına ihtiyaç duyulur:

• Elektrik motoru gerekli olan azami gücü karşılayacak şekilde, özellikle yüksek eğimler için tasarlanır. Fakat araç çoğunlukla azami gücün altında çalışmaktadır.

• Tahrik ekipmanları, batarya kapasitesinin birinci seviyede dikkate alınarak menzil ve performans için azami gücü karşılayacak şekilde boyutlandırılır.

• Güç sistemi ağır ve maliyeti daha yüksektir.

Paralel hibrid sistemin dezavantajları:

• Gerekli olan güç iki farklı kaynaktan sağlandığı için burada enerji yönetimi önem arz eder.

• İYM ve motordan gelen gücün tahrik tekerlerine düzgün olarak iletilebilmesi için karmaşık mekanik elemanlara ihtiyaç duyulur.

• Sessiz çalışma modu sağlamamaktadır

Elektrikli Araçlar, Enerji Sistemleri ve Çevre Araştırma Enstitüsü, GEBZE - 2003

ATKINSON CYCLE ENGINE

The Atkinson cycle engine is definitely not a new design having been invented in 1882. Because the cycle has advantages when applied to hybrids, the 1882 invention is enjoying a period of popularity. See Figure, which shows the various strokes of a four-stroke engine with intermediate positions as well.

Key features of Atkinson cycle are a long expansion stroke which allows extraction of more energy. The short compression stroke reduces pumping losses. The design allows retaining and designing any compression ratio desired. The results are improved engine efficiency which is provided at the expense of power.

Hybrid Vehicles and the Future of Personal Transportation


That is the good news; now for the bad news. Due to the reduced charge, discussed presently, the power is reduced compared to the same engine of equal displacement.

“Charge” is the maximum mass of fuel plus air in the cylinder; usually this mass occurs when the piston is at TDC and all valves are

(nearly) closed ready for expansion stroke.

Some relevant definitions: as crankshaft angle passes through 0 ° , the piston pauses and stops; hence the word “dead” to describe top dead center (TDC).

Closing all valves for improved regenerative braking. Engine operation is analogous to lowloss motion of a spring with a mass, m.

The minimum loss for an engine is attained with all valves closed.



An open intake valve is like leaving the door open; the charge leaks out. Compression is delayed creating a shortened compression stroke, which is one feature of the Atkinson cycle (see sketch C). Sketch F shows full expansion stroke, which is another feature of the

Atkinson cycle.

Figure provides an excellent way to understand reduced pumping losses from the

Atkinson cycle as applied to a four-stroke engine. The pressure traces enclose two areas, I and II.



Analysis shows that the area enclosed in I is proportional to the energy produced by the engine.

Since the test equipment that yields the pressure–volume curves is known as an indicator , the energy of I is termed indicated energy. Area II involves moving the gases in and out of the cylinder; this is called pumping. Hence, the term pumping loss is applied to II. The net output of energy from the engine is

Net energy = Indicated energy -

Pumping loss

Considerable confusion exists in the popular press about pumping loss.



FIGURE: Pressure shown as function of volume within cylinder as piston moves from TDC to BDC. The four strokes are D–E, compression; E–A–

B, expansion; B–C, exhaust; and C–

D, intake. Pressures within a cylinder are measured as engine is operating at part throttle.

The magnitude of pumping loss depends on the throttle setting .

Consider the ratio of pumping loss divided by net work done by the engine. At full throttle, the pumping loss ratio is 1%–3%. At partial throttle, the pumping loss ratio is much larger being 30%–

40%.



In Figure, pa is the ambient pressure. Point

D, which is below ambient pressure, is a partial vacuum. Also point D is equal to manifold pressure. In the Otto cycle, the intake valve closes at D, and the charge is being compressed. Notice the pressure curve going upward toward point E.

However, with the Atkinson cycle the intake valve remains open. As the piston moves toward TDC from BDC, the pressure remains equal to that at point D. When the intake valve closes, the pressure increases and the curve heads off toward E. Area II is reduced in size by the slice, which is gray shaded. Pumping losses are less.

Figure also shows the shortened compression stroke and the comparatively long expansion stroke. The long expansion stroke yields a greater extraction of energy from the fuel.



ATKINSON CYCLE ENGINE http://m.searchautoparts.com/motorage/training/oldengine-designs-are-new-again

MILLER CYCLE ENGINE

Otto motorlardan farkı olarak, Miller

çevrimi motorlarda, 4 zamanlı motorlardaki sıkıştırma sürecinde otaya

çıkan enerji kaybı daha düşüktür. Patenti

Amerikalı mühendis Ralph Miller tarafında

1940 yılında alınmıştır. İlk örnekleri gemilerde ve güç üretim istasyonlarında kullanılmıştır.


Mazda’s naturally-aspirated MZR 1.3L Miller-cycle engine delays the closure of the intake valves to improve the thermal efficiency (high expansion ratio). Sequential-valve timing (S-VT) is also employed to optimize intake valve timing and ensure sufficient torque for cruising and accelerating.

Miller Cycle | Sequential Valve Timing (S-VT) | Continuously Variable Transmission (CVT) http://www.mechanicalengineeringblog.com/982-miller-cycle-sequential-valve-timing-s-vt-continuously-variable-transmission-cvt/


Miller Cycle | Sequential Valve Timing (S-VT) | Continuously Variable Transmission (CVT) http://www.mechanicalengineeringblog.com/982-miller-cycle-sequential-valve-timing-s-vt-continuously-variable-transmission-cvt/


Diesel Hybrids

HEVs can also be built around diesel vehicles. All topologies explained earlier, such as series, parallel, series–parallel, and complex HEVs, are applicable to diesel hybrids.

Due to the fact that diesel vehicles can generally achieve higher fuel economy, the fuel efficiency of hybridized diesel vehicles can be even better when compared to their gasoline counterparts.

Vehicles such as delivery trucks and buses have unique driving patterns and relatively low fuel economy. When hybridized, these vehicles can provide significant fuel savings.

Hybrid trucks and buses can be series, parallel, series–parallel, or complex structured and may run on gasoline or diesel.

Diesel locomotives are a special type of hybrid. A diesel locomotive uses a diesel engine and generator set to generate electricity. It uses electric motors to drive the train. Even though a diesel locomotive can be referred to as a series hybrid, in some architectures there is no battery for the main drive system to buffer energy between the I/G set and the electric motor. This special configuration is sometimes referred to as simple hybrid.

In other architectures, batteries are used and can help reduce the size of the generator, and can also be used for regenerative energy capture. The batteries, in this case, can also be utilized for short-term high current due to torque needs, without resorting to a larger generator.


ISBN 978-0-470-74773-5, 2011.

PHILEAS – HYBRID / Reading Text




Other Approaches to Vehicle

Hybridization

The main focus of this presentation is on HEVs, that is, electric–gasoline or electric–diesel hybrids. However, there exist other types of hybridization methods that involve other types of energy storage and propulsion, such as compressed air, flywheels, and hydraulic systems.


ISBN 978-0-470-74773-5, 2011.

HİBRİT ARAÇLAR

Other Approaches to Vehicle Hybridization (Cont.)

A typical hydraulic hybrid is shown in Figure 6. Hydraulic systems can provide a large amount of torque, but due to the complexity of the hydraulic system, a hydraulic hybrid is considered only for large trucks and utility vehicles where frequent and extended period of stops of the engine are necessary.

Figure 6: A parallel hydraulic hybrid vehicle (LP, Low Pressure)


ISBN 978-0-470-74773-5, 2011.


Hybridization Ratio

Some new concepts have also emerged in the past few years, including full hybrid, mild hybrid, and micro hybrid . These concepts are usually related to the power rating of the main electric motor in a HEV.

For example, if the HEV contains a fairly large electric motor and associated batteries, it can be considered as a full hybrid . On the other hand, if the size of the electric motor is relatively small, then it may be considered as a micro hybrid.

Typically, a full hybrid should be able to operate the vehicle using the electric motor and battery up to a certain speed limit and drive the vehicle for a certain amount of time. The speed threshold is typically the speed limit in a residential area. The typical power rating of an electric motor in a full hybrid passenger car is approximately 50–75 kW.

The micro hybrid, on the other hand, does not offer the capability to drive the vehicle with the electric motor only. The electric motor is merely for starting and stopping the engine. The typical rating of electric motors used in micro hybrids is less than 10 kW.


ISBN 978-0-470-74773-5, 2011.


Hybridization Ratio

A mild hybrid is in between a full hybrid and a micro hybrid.

An effective approach for evaluating HEVs is to use a hybridization ratio to reflect the degree of hybridization of a HEV. In a parallel hybrid, the hybridization ratio is defined as the ratio of electric power to the total powertrain power.

For example, a HEV with a motor rated at 50 kW and an engine rated at 75 kW will have a hybridization ratio of 50/(50+75) kW= 40%. A conventional gasolinepowered vehicle will have a 0% hybridization ratio and a battery EV will have a hybridization ratio of 100%. A series HEV will also have a hybridization ratio of

100% due to the fact that the vehicle is capable of being driven in EV mode.


ISBN 978-0-470-74773-5, 2011.


Interdisciplinary Nature of HEVs

HEVs involve the use of electric machines, power electronics converters, and batteries, in addition to conventional ICEs and mechanical and hydraulic systems. The interdisciplinary nature of HEV systems can be summarized as in

Figures 7. The HEV field involves engineering subjects beyond traditional automotive engineering, which was mechanical engineering oriented. Power electronics, electric machines, energy storage systems, and control systems are now integral parts of the engineering of HEVs and PHEVs.

In addition, thermal management is also important in HEVs and PHEVs, where the power electronics, electric machines, and batteries all require a much lower temperature to operate properly, compared to a non-hybrid vehicle’s powertrain components.

Modeling and simulation, vehicle dynamics, and vehicle design and optimization also pose challenges to the traditional automotive engineering field due to the increased difficulties in packaging the components and associated thermal management systems, as well as the changes in vehicle weight, shape, and weight distribution.


ISBN 978-0-470-74773-5, 2011.


Figure 7: The general nature and required engineering field by HEVs


ISBN 978-0-470-74773-5, 2011.


State of the Art of HEVs

• In the past 10 years, many HEVs have been deployed by the major automotive manufacturers.

• It is clear that HEV sales have grown significantly over the last 10 years.

In 2008, these sales had a downturn which is consistent with conventional car sales that dropped more than 20% in 2008 from the previous year.

• Another observation is that most HEV sales belong to Toyota, which manufactured the earliest modern HEV, the Prius, and also makes most of the models available (including the Lexus).

• In the case of the Toyota Prius, the comparison is made to the Toyota

Corolla. It can be seen that the price of HEVs is generally 40% more than that of their base models. The increase in fuel economy in HEVs is also significant, in particular for city driving.


ISBN 978-0-470-74773-5, 2011.


The Toyota Prius

Toyota produced the world’s first mass-marketed modern HEV in 1997 , the Prius, as shown in Figure 8. The worldwide sales of the Prius exceeded 1 million units in 2009.

It uses a planetary gear set to realize continuous variable transmission (CVT).

Therefore, conventional transmission is not needed in this system. As shown in

Figure 9, the engine is connected to the carrier of the planetary gear while the generator is connected to the sun gear. The ring gear is coupled to the final drive, as is the electric motor. The planetary gear set also acts as a power/torque split device. During normal operations, the ring gear speed is determined by the vehicle speed, while the generator speed can be controlled such that the engine speed is in its optimum efficiency range.

The 6.5 Ah, 21 kW nickel metal hydride battery pack is charged by the generator during coasting and by the propulsion motor (in generation mode) during regenerative braking. The engine is shut off during low-speed driving.

The same technology has been used in the Camry hybrid, the Highlander hybrid, and the Lexus brand hybrids. However, the Highlander and the Lexus brand hybrids add a third motor at the rear wheel. The drive performance, such as for acceleration and braking, can thus be further improved.


ISBN 978-0-470-74773-5, 2011.


Figure 8: The Toyota Prius (2010 model)


ISBN 978-0-470-74773-5, 2011.


Figure 9: The powertrain layout of the Toyota Prius (EM, Electric Machine; PM,

Permanent Magnet)


ISBN 978-0-470-74773-5, 2011.

Table 1: Partial list of HEVs available in the United States a Comparison to Corolla. b Comparison to Civic. c Saturn Brand vehicle including Vue and Saturn

Aura are not offered. d Chrysler Aspen uses similar platform as

Durango but is no longer offered.


ISBN 978-0-470-74773-5, 2011.


The Honda Civic

The Honda Civic hybrid has an electric motor mounted between the ICE and the CVT, as shown in Figure 10. The electric motor either provides assistance to the engine during high power demand, or splits the engine power during low power demand.


ISBN 978-0-470-74773-5, 2011.


Figure 10: The powertrain layout of the Honda Civic hybrid


ISBN 978-0-470-74773-5, 2011.


The Ford Escape

The Escape hybrid from the Ford

Motor Company (Figure 11) is the first hybrid in the SUV category. The Escape hybrid adopted the same planetary gear concept as the Toyota system.


ISBN 978-0-470-74773-5, 2011.


Figure 11: The Ford Escape hybrid SUV


ISBN 978-0-470-74773-5, 2011.


The Two-Mode Hybrid

The GM two-mode hybrid transmission was initially developed by GM (Alison) in

1996, and later advanced by GM,

Chrysler, BMW, and Mercedes-

Benz with a joint venture named

Global Hybrid Cooperation in

2005. The GM two-mode hybrids

(Figure 12) use two planetary gear sets and two electric machines to realize two different operating modes, namely, highspeed mode and low-speed mode.


ISBN 978-0-470-74773-5, 2011.


Figure 12: The Chrysler Aspen two-mode hybrid


ISBN 978-0-470-74773-5, 2011.


Challenges and Key Technology of HEVs

HEVs can overcome some of the disadvantages of battery-powered pure EVs and gasoline powered conventional vehicles. These advantages include optimized fuel economy and reduced emissions when compared to conventional vehicles, and increased range, reduced charging time, and reduced battery size (hence reduced cost) when compared to pure EVs. However, HEVs and PHEVs still face many challenges, including higher cost when compared to conventional vehicles; electromagnetic interference caused by high-power components; and safety and reliability concerns due to increased components and complexity, packaging of the system, vehicle control, and power management:

• Power electronics and electric machines: The subject of power electronics and electric motors is not new. However, the use of power electronics in a vehicle environment poses significant challenges. Environmental conditions, such as extreme high and low temperatures, vibration, shock, and transient behavior are very different from what electric motors and power electronic converters have been used to. Challenges in power electronics in a HEV include packaging, size, cost, and thermal management.


ISBN 978-0-470-74773-5, 2011.


Challenges and Key Technology of HEVs (Cont.)

• Electromagnetic interference: High-frequency switching and high-power operation of power electronics and electric motors will generate abundant electromagnetic noise that will interfere with the rest of the vehicle system if not dealt with properly.

• Energy storage systems: Such systems are a major challenge for HEVs and

PHEVs. The pulsed power behavior and energy content required for the best performance are typically difficult for conventional batteries to satisfy. Life cycle and abuse tolerance are also critical for vehicle applications. At the present time, nickel metal hydride batteries are used by most HEVs and lithium-ion batteries are targeted by PHEVs. Ultracapacitors have also been considered in some special applications where power demand is a major concern. Flywheels have also been investigated. The limitations of the current energy storage systems are unsatisfactory power density and energy density, limited life cycle, high cost, and potential safety issues.


ISBN 978-0-470-74773-5, 2011.


Challenges and Key Technology of HEVs (Cont.)

• Regenerative braking control: Recovering the kinetic energy during braking is a key feature of HEVs and PHEVs. However, coordinating regenerative braking with the hydraulic/frictional braking system presents a major challenge as far as safety and braking performance are concerned.

• Power management and vehicle control: HEVs involve the use of multiple propulsion components that require harmonious coordination. Hence, power management is a critical aspect of vehicle control functions in a HEV. A optimized vehicle controller can help achieve better fuel efficiency in a HEV.

• Thermal management: Power electronics, electric machines, and batteries all require a much lower operating temperature than a gasoline engine. A separate cooling loop is necessary in a HEV.

• Modeling and simulation, vehicle dynamics, vehicle design, and optimization:

Due to the increased number of components in a HEV, packaging of the components in the same space is a challenge. Associated vehicle dynamics, vehicle design, and modeling and simulation all involve major challenges.


ISBN 978-0-470-74773-5, 2011.

ÖZETLE: HİBRİD ARAÇLARIN KONFİGÜRASYONU

(a) Series (electrically coupling), (b) parallel (mechanical coupling), (c) series–parallel

(mechanical and electrical coupling, (d) complex (mechanical and electrical coupling).

ÖNEMLİ NOTLAR

ÖNEMLİ NOTLAR

A rectifier is an electrical device that converts alternating current (AC), which periodically reverses direction, to direct current (DC), which flows in only one direction. The process is known as rectification .

Güç Çevirici (İnvertör): İnvertör, doğru akımı (DC) alternatif akıma (AC)

çeviren elektriksel bir güç çeviricisidir.

İnvertör çıkışında üretilen AC güç, kullanılan transformatörlere, anahtarlama ve kontrol devrelerine bağlı olarak herhangi bir gerilimde ve frekansta olabilir.

ÖNEMLİ NOTLAR – Doğru Akım

Doğru Akım: Zamanla yönü ve şiddeti değişmeyen akıma doğru akım denir. İngilizce

“Direct Current” kelimelerinin kısaltılması

“DC” ile gösterilir.

DC üreten kaynaklar şu şekilde sıralanabilir:

Pil: Kimyasal enerjiyi elektrik enerjisine dönüştüren araçlara pil adı verilir.

Akü: Kimyasal yolla elektrik enerjisi üreten araçtır.

Dinamo: Hareket enerjisini DC elektrik enerjisine çeviren ünitelerdir.

Doğrultmaç devresi: Alternatif akım elektrik enerjisini DC elektrik enerjisine

çeviren araçlardır.

Güneş pili: Güneş enerjisini DC elektrik enerjisine çeviren elemanlara güneş pili denir.

Doğru akımın yaygın olarak kullanıldığı alanlar:

• Haberleşme cihazlarında

(telekomünikasyonda)

• Radyo, teyp, televizyon, gibi elektronik cihazlarda

• Redresörlü kaynak makinelerinde

• Maden arıtma (elektroliz) ve maden kaplamacılığında

(galvonoteknik )

• Elektrikli taşıtlarda (tren, tramvay, metro)

• Elektro-mıknatıslarda

• DC elektrik motorlarında

ÖNEMLİ NOTLAR – Alternatif Akım

Alternatif Akımın Tanımı

Zaman içerisinde yönü ve şiddeti belli bir düzen içerisinde değişen akıma alternatif akım denir.

Alternatif Akımın Elde Edilmesi

Alternatif akım ya da gerilimin elde edilmesinde alternatör denilen aygıtlar kullanılır.

Not: Bilindiği gibi DC akım/gerilim değeri sabittir. Örneğin 1 V DC dediğimizde DC gerilimin 1 V olduğu anlaşılmaktadır. Fakat

AC’de akım/ve gerilim değerleri sürekli değişmektedir. Bu yüzden AC’yi ifade etmek için

çeşitli değerler kullanılmaktadır. Bunlar ani değer, maksimum (tepe) değer, tepeden tepeye değer, ortalama değer ve etkin değerdir.

Frekans: Frekans, sinüs sinyalinin bir saniyede tekrarlanan saykıl sayısıdır.

Periyot: Bir saykılın gerçekleşmesi için geçen süreye periyot denir.

Periyot birimi saniye (s) dir ve “T” ile gösterilir.

ÖNEMLİ NOTLAR – Alternatif Akım

Sinüs dalgasında periyot

Sinüs dalgasında alternans

ELEKTRİK MOTORLARI


Üretici Firma

Model Numarası

Tip

Sürekli Güç [kW]

Maksimum Güç [kW]

Sürekli Tork [Nm]

Maksimum Tork [Nm]

Maksimum Hız [rpm]

Maksimum Verim [%]

Çap [mm]

Uzunluk [mm]

Ağırlık [kg]

Kontrolcü Ağırlığı [kg]

Kontrolcü Boyutları

[mm]

Voltaj [VDC]

Tırmanma Kabiliyeti

% 15lik Egim [E/H]

%15 lik Eğimde 10km/h

Hıza Çıkma Süresi [s]

Maksimum Tırmanma

Kabiliyeti

Maksimum Eğimde

İvmelenme Zamanı [s]

Düz Yolda 40km/h Hıza

Çıkana Kadar Geçen

Zaman [s]

380x365x11

9

250-400

H

--

11%

10 km/h @

36 s

10 s

Alternatif 1 Alternatif 2 Alternatif 3 Alternatif 4 Alternatif 5 Alternatif 6 Alternatif 7

UQM UQM Ansaldo Ansaldo Solectria Enova MES

SR 218N SR 286 A1H207C

Fırçasız PM Fırçasız PM

Asenkron

30

75

150

240

8000

94

280

216

40

15,9

55

100

550

5000

90

405

241

86

15,9

30

60

130

260

80

14

9000

230

400

A1H256B

Asenkron

70

140

220

450

9000

300

500

130

14

AC55

Asenkron

34

78

55

369

8000

95

343

447

106

14,7

EDM90

Asenkron

30

90

270

362

65

35

239

10000

MES 200-

250 asenkron

30

94,8

100

9000

235

391

61

10

380x365x11

9

250-400

E

8.6 s

29%

5 km/h @

32 s

4 s

430x330x145

260-300

H

--

12%

10 km/h @ 31

9 s s

420x320x180

5 km/h @ 27

5 s

300-600

E

3.5 s

23% s

450x235x240

100-400

606x518x201

250-425

10 s

H

--

11%

10 km/h @ 40 s

326x212x11

5

185-400

E

27 s

15%

10 km/h @

27 s

7.2 s


Senkron ve Asenkron Kavramı

Alternatif akım makinelerinin isimlendirilmesi ürettikleri döner manyetik alanın (stator manyetik alanı), döner mekanik kısım (rotor) ile eş zamanlı oluşu yada olmayışına göredir.

Senkron: Uyumlu Olan, Eş zamanlı olan

Asenkron: Uyumlu Olmayan, Eş zamanlı olmayan

Senkron Makine: Stator manyetik alanı döner kısım devrine eşit olan makine.

Asenkron Makine: Stator manyetik alanı döner kısım devrinden her zaman büyük olan makine.

Asenkron Makine




Table: Typical Electric Motors 20 – 200 kW Parameters


Table: Electric Motors Properties Comparison


Table 1. BEV and PHEV parameters comparison

The electric motor

HİBRİD ARAÇLAR

BİREYSEL ULAŞIM - GELECEĞİN OTOMOBİLİ - TANIMLAYICI FAKTÖRLER

MEVCUT TEKNOLOJİ İLE YAKIT EKONOMİSİ VE EMİSYON AZALTIMI

2010

2035

YAKIT/ENERJİ VE TAHRİK SİSTEMLERİ

GELİŞMİŞ ARAÇ TAHRİK TEKNOLOJİ STRATEJİSİ

2020’de tüm yeni araçların

HİBRİD ARAÇLAR

HİBRİD ARAÇLAR

History:

HİBRİD ARAÇLAR

Architectures of HEVs

Architectures of HEVs (cont.)

Architectures of HEVs (cont.)

Architectures of HEVs (cont.)

Architectures of HEVs

(cont.)

Fig. 1: The architecture of a series HEV

Reading Text

HİBRİD ARAÇLARA - ÖRNEKLER

SERİ HİBRİD ARAÇLARA ÖRNEK

HİBRİD ARAÇLARDA TRANSMİSYON

Diesel Hybrids

PHILEAS – HYBRID / Reading Text

PHILEAS – HYBRID / Reading Text

PHILEAS – HYBRID / Reading Text

Other Approaches to Vehicle

Hybridization

Other Approaches to Vehicle Hybridization (Cont.)

Hybridization Ratio

Hybridization Ratio

Interdisciplinary Nature of HEVs

State of the Art of HEVs

The Toyota Prius

The Honda Civic

The Ford Escape

The Two-Mode Hybrid

Challenges and Key Technology of HEVs

Challenges and Key Technology of HEVs (Cont.)

Challenges and Key Technology of HEVs (Cont.)

ÖZETLE: HİBRİD ARAÇLARIN KONFİGÜRASYONU

ÖNEMLİ NOTLAR

ELEKTRİK MOTORLARI

ELEKTRİK MOTORLARI

ELEKTRİK MOTORLARI

ELEKTRİK MOTORLARI

ELEKTRİK MOTORLARI

ELEKTRİK MOTORLARI

ELEKTRİK MOTORLARI

ELEKTRİK MOTORLARI

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