COMMITMENT, SUPPORT, AND TURNOVER INTENTIONS AS
OUTCOMES OF WORK-FAMILY CONFLICT IN NEW ZEALAND
Jarrod M. Haar
Aotearoa Business School
Te Wananga o Aotearoa
PO Box 24
Hamilton
New Zealand
Phone: +64 7 839-0740
Fax: +64 7 839-0741
Jarrod.Haar@twoa.ac.nz
and
Aotearoa Centre for Research Limited
PO Box 19313
Hamilton
New Zealand jarrod@nzresearch.com
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COMMITMENT, SUPPORT, AND TURNOVER INTENTIONS AS
OUTCOMES OF WORK-FAMILY CONFLICT IN NEW ZEALAND
This study explored the relationship between work-family conflict and job related outcomes in a New Zealand local government organisation. Studies of work-family conflict outcomes based in New Zealand are rare. This study explored work-family conflict bi-directionally (work-family and family-work conflict), as predictors to a number of attitudes about the organisation. Findings indicate work-family conflict is a significant and negative predictor of organisational commitment, and perceived organisational support. Work-family conflict was also found to significantly and positively predict turnover intention. Family-work conflict was not significantly associated with any of these attitudes. The findings offer support for the notion that the negative influences of conflict found in the work-family literature is generalisable to New Zealand employees. Explanations for a lack of family-work conflict relating to job outcomes are explored.
Key words: work-family conflict, job related outcomes, turnover intention, organisational commitment, perceived organisational support.

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INTRODUCTION
Work-family conflict is among the most commonly studied outcomes in the workfamily literature (Kossek, Colquitt, & Noe, 2001). Frone and Yardley (1996) indicated several demographic trends are reshaping the composition of the workforce in most industrialised nations, including increased workforce participation rates of women, mothers, dual-earners and single-parent families. These changes are reflected in New Zealand (Pringle & Tudhope, 1997). This paper is motivated by the lack of work-family conflict outcome studies on New Zealand employees. While similarities and generalisability of findings are often assumed among Western countries, a recent study by Elloy (2001) found both similarities and differences with the international literature. This encourages exploring work-family conflict within the New Zealand context. In addition to the demographic issues noted above, changes in the nature of work can also impact on conflict. In many modern work environments, boundaryspanning employees continually face role conflict and role ambiguity (Sager, 1994).
A body of research suggests work-family conflict can affect the attitudes of employees toward their job (Good, Sisler, & Gentry, 1988; Sager, 1994). According to Boles, Johnston, and Hair (1997), the inter-relationship of these work-family related constructs has become a major issue for US employers. This paper explores the outcomes associated with work-family conflict in the New Zealand context to determine whether similar negative outcomes occur here.
THE DIRECTIONAL NATURE OF CONFLICT
Greenhaus and Beutell (1985) suggested the field of work-family conflict needed to examine the presence of role pressures from both work and family domains. This is because earlier work-family conflict studies typically focused on the workplace and not the home. Kinnunen and Mauno (1998) have supported this division, stating
“previous research has mainly relied on assessing interference from work to family only” (p. 158). According to Frone, Russell, and Cooper (1997), there is a serious methodological limitation in studies that measure work-family conflict from a singledirection focus. In a positive response to this challenge, recent studies have examined work-family conflict as a bi-directional construct representing two distinct types of conflict (e.g. Adams, King, & King, 1996). There is also strong evidence of the importance of examining work-family conflict and family-work conflict separately
(Frone, Barnes & Farrell, 1994; MacEwan & Barling, 1994). In this paper, conflict has been separated into work to family conflict (WFC) and family to work (FWC).
According to Frone et al. (1997), it is important to examine both types of work-family conflict, because a relationship between one type of conflict does not allow one to infer that the other type of conflict is also related.
HYPOTHESES OF JOB RELATED OUTCOMES
Work-family conflict has been linked to a multitude of negative aspects, including heightened psychological distress, lowered life satisfaction, and poor physical health
(Aryee, 1992; Frone, Russell, & Barnes, 1996). Boles et al. (1997) noted that conflict between work and family concerns can be found across all work environments. The focus of this study is to explore the relationship between work-family conflict and job related outcomes. These are now hypothesised individually below.
Organisational Commitment
The links between work-family conflict and organisational commitment have been less explored than job satisfaction, with a few exceptions (Good et al., 1988; Good,

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Page, & Young, 1996). Mowaday, Porter, and Steers (1982) defined organisational commitment as a willingness to expend personal resources on behalf of a particular domain. Taylor, Audia and Gupta (1996) asserted that organisational commitment is about an employee’s obligation to the organisation. According to Shaffer, Harrison,
Gilley, and Luk (2001), organisational commitment relates to social exchange theory, where the organisation expects employee commitment in return for a range of benefits and support. However, when employee conflict levels increase, they might perceive the organisation is failing to provide adequate benefits and support, and thus react with reduced commitment. Similarly, Wiley (1991) noted that commitment to a particular domain might worsen the power of conflict originating from that domain.
Hobfoll (1989) further suggested the more committed an employee, the more severe the potential detrimental effects when resources are inadequate. This suggests a strong link between organisational commitment and WFC. What is less clear is whether we can expect a link with FWC. Since Cohen (1997) found no link between work and nonwork conflict, and there is little theoretical support for a link between organisational commitment and FWC, I do not hypothesise in this direction.
Hypothesis 1: WFC will be negatively related to organisational commitment.
Perceived Organisational Support
While the concept of support has been well studied within the work-family conflict literature (e.g. manager support, Anderson, Coffey, & Byerly, 2002), few studies have focused upon the relationship between work-family conflict and perceived organisational support (POS). Unlike organisational commitment, there is more theoretical support for a conflict-POS relationship. Eisenberger, Huntington,
Hutchison, and Sowa (1986) suggested that POS reflects the quality of the employeeorganisation relationship, and stated “employees develop global beliefs concerning the extent to which the organisation values their contributions and cares about their well-being” (p. 501). Masterson, Lewis, Goldman, and Taylor (2000) stated that POS
“develops through employees’ assessment of their treatment by their organisations”
(p. 740). In addition, Shaffer et al. (2001) maintained that low POS means employees feel their organisation is not reciprocating their organisational commitment by providing them with needed support resources. Therefore, when conflict levels increase, employees may perceive the support mechanisms from the organisation are inadequate, and thus lead to lower support perceptions. Since POS relates to employee perceptions of the organisations care about their well-being, and this might include well-being at home, increased conflict from the home (FWC) as well as the office
(WFC) might be negatively linked with POS.
Hypothesis 2: WFC will be negatively related to perceived organisational support.
Hypothesis 3: FWC will be negatively related to perceived organisational support.
Turnover Intention
A common work-family conflict study outcome is employee turnover (Anderson et al., 2002; Cohen, 1997). While work experiences have established a link with turnover (Mowday et al., 1982), Cohen (1997) suggested work-family conflict could cause employees to quit their job. Good et al. (1988) found managers with higher work-family conflict levels were more likely to leave their organisation. However, the link between WFC, FWC and turnover attention has been mixed (e.g. Anderson et al.,
2002; Shaffer et al., 2001). While support for a WFC-turnover intention link is strong,

5 it is mixed with regard to FWC. Despite this, there is enough theoretical support and past evidence to test both types of conflict associating positively with turnover intention.
Hypothesis 4: WFC will be positively related to turnover intention.
Hypothesis 5: FWC will be positively related to turnover intention.
METHOD
Sample and Participants
Data was collected from a local government New Zealand organisation with 206 employees. The survey was conducted by e-mail through the organisations Intranet, which all employees had access to. The survey was done at two times, with questionnaire one containing demographics and predictor variables and questionnaire two the criterion variables. A one-week time lag between surveys was to minimise common method variance. A total of 100 responses to both questionnaires were obtained (48.5% response rate). The average age of the respondents was 41.7 years
(SD=10.1), with the majority married (77%), and female (69%).
Measures
Work-family conflict was measured using the 14-item Inventory of Work-Family
Conflict (Greenhaus, Callanan & Godshalk, 2000), coded 1=strongly disagree,
5=strongly agree. Sample questions included “On the job, I have so much work to do that it takes away from my personal interests” (WFC), and “My family takes up time I would like to spend working” (FWC). Cronbach’s alpha for these scales were .89 for
WFC, and .72 for FWC.
Organisational Commitment was measured using 15-items (Mowday et al., 1982).
Responses are coded 1=strongly agree and 7=strongly disagree, with six items negatively worded. A sample question is “I feel very little loyalty to this organisation”
(reverse coded). The Cronbach’s alpha for this measure was .88.
Perceived Organisational Support was measured using 15-items (Eisenberger et al.,
1986). Questions included “The organisation is willing to help me when I need a special favour” and “The organisation strongly considers my goals and values”
(Coded 1=strongly disagree, 7=strongly agree). This measure had a Cronbach’s alpha of .92.
Turnover intention was measured using a single item scale used by Grover & Crooker
(1995), “I am confident that I will get a new job with another employer in the next 12 months” (coded as 1=strongly disagree, 5=strongly agree).
I controlled for gender (1=female, 0=male), as Fu and Shaffer (2001) stated “there is a significant body of research linking work-family conflict with gender” (p. 507).
Similarly, I controlled for marital status (Herman & Gyllstrom, 1977) and number of children (Keith & Schafer, 1980), as they have been found to link significantly with work-family conflict. I also sought to control for the effects of total hours worked, as a recent study (Major, Klein, & Ehrhart, 2002), found the effects of time on workfamily conflict were considerable.

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Analysis
Hypotheses 1 to 5 were tested by hierarchical regression analysis. Step 1 contained the control variables (gender, marital status, number of children, and total hours worked). Step 2 consisted of the predictor variables (work-family conflict and familywork conflict). Three regression models resulted, one for each criterion variable
(organisational commitment, POS, and turnover intention).
RESULTS
Descriptive statistics for all variables are shown in Table 1.
_________
Insert Table 1 about here
__________
Table 1 shows WFC and FWC are significantly correlated (r=.70, p< .01). WFC is significantly correlated with all the criterion variables: organisational commitment
(r=-.37, p< .01), POS (r=-.37, p< .01), and turnover intention (r=.27, p< .01). FWC is significantly correlated only with POS (r=-.31, p< .01). The three criterion variables are also all significantly correlated to each other (all p< .01). Overall, Table 1 suggests work-family conflict, particularly conflict originating in the workplace, is likely to be useful predictors of job related outcomes.
Results of the regressions for Hypotheses 1 to 5 are shown in Table 2.
_________
Insert Table 2 about here
_________
WFC was significantly and negatively related to organisational commitment (p<
.001), and POS (p< .05). These results support Hypotheses 1 and 2. WFC was also significantly associated with turnover intention (p< .001), which support Hypothesis
4. However, FWC was not significantly associated with any of the criterion variables, and thus there is no support for Hypotheses 3 or 5. The control variables offer some interesting findings, with total hours worked significantly and positively associating with organisational commitment (p< .05), and POS (p< .05). Therefore, respondents who worked longer hours are more likely to feel more committed to their organisation, and feel they receive greater support from their organisation. From
Table 2 we can also see that WFC and FWC explain a sizable proportion of the criterion variables, once the demographic variables had been controlled. WFC and
FWC account for 22.6% of the variance for organisational commitment (p< .001),
15.1% for POS (p< .01), and 21.9% for turnover intention (p< .01). Overall, the three regression models are significant: organisational commitment F=3.714 (p< .01), POS
F=3.257 (p< .01), and turnover intention F=3.223 (p< .01).
DISCUSSION
The work-family conflict literature suggests many job related outcomes associated with conflict, and this study provides evidence that there are strong similarities of these negative outcomes in New Zealand. This study found that New Zealand employees experiencing greater work-family conflict were more likely to have reduced organisational commitment, lower POS, and were more likely to consider leaving the organisation. However, an interesting finding is the lack of any link to job related outcomes from family-work conflict, despite many studies offering support in

7 these areas, particularly for turnover intention (Shaffer et al., 2001). However, the work-family literature has many studies that find a sole WFC link with job outcomes at the expense of FWC (Anderson et al., 2002; Adams et al., 1996; Boles et al., 2001).
Consequently, we should not necessarily make this finding too significant. In addition, the lack of a significant relationship between FWC and organisational commitment supported the organisational commitment theory, which does not suggest that family related incidents influencing the workplace would affect an employee’s obligation to the organisation (Taylor et al., 1996).
The lack of FWC influence on organisational outcomes might be specific to this organisation and its employees, especially given the levels of conflict found. In this organisation, WFC had a mean value of 2.6, below the mid-point 3, while FWC was even lower at 2.0. Therefore, employees in this organisation had very low levels of family-work conflict, and therefore conflict from the home might make little intrusion into the workplace, and hence make little impact on job related outcomes. These findings also lend support for a bi-directional examination of work-family conflict, as these two forms of conflict predict job outcomes differently. The results here suggest more New Zealand studies should examine the outcomes of work-family conflict, including both work and non-work outcomes (e.g. job and life satisfaction). Also, further studies in new environments (e.g. private sector) can only improve the generalisability of these findings to New Zealand. Another reason for the lack of family-work conflict effects might be the location of the organisation. It was located in a rural area, in a city with a population of less than 75,000, and might have represented a ‘lifestyle’ choice of employees. These findings, coupled with Elloy’s
(2001) remarks about the Australian informal lifestyle, offer a future direction for work-family conflict research in New Zealand, in examining lifestyle perceptions
(informal vs. formal), which might be a moderator of the relationship between workfamily conflict and job related outcomes.
The findings do, however, offer evidence that employee balance of work and family roles can have significant influences on the workplace. The findings show that for this
New Zealand local government organisation, conflict originating in the workplace that interferes with the home, can have significantly negative outcomes. Therefore, when work takes up time, and leaves the employee tired and irritable at home, the outcomes are negative over a wide range of job related outcomes. Therefore, the need for employers to address work-family conflict aspects should be an important area for
New Zealand businesses. Kossek and Ozeki (1998) stated “managing conflict between work and family role demands is a critical challenge for individuals and organisations” (p. 139), and the findings concur.
The findings here provide evidence of major negative effects from WFC. Workfamily conflict linked positively to turnover intention, and employee turnover has been noted as one of the most studied aspects in organisational research (Cohen,
1997). The costs associated with turnover can be immense, for example, an Australian study into turnover of management women due to work and family conflict estimated the cost at A$75,000 per employee (Abbott, De Cieri, & Iverson, 1998). In addition to the likelihood of turnover from conflict, the other significant findings here of organisational commitment and POS are all associated with employee turnover
(Cohen, 1997; Shaffer et al., 2001). Therefore, the influence from work roles intruding into family might increase the likelihood of turnover, which is further

8 compounded by turnover’s link with organisational commitment and support perceptions, which can further encourage resignation from the organisation. Turnover intention has been shown to be a causal predictor of actual turnover, as shown in meta-analyses of turnover studies (Steel & Ogalle, 1984). Thus, the cost of employee retention could be used as a major driving factor for New Zealand employers to address their employees’ ability to balance work and family role demands. Further studies into generalising these findings in the private and public sectors would aid
New Zealand employers in establishing the need, and potential cost-benefit for programmes aimed at balancing work-family conflict. For example, work-family practices such as flexitime might aid in reducing actual turnover, and lowering the cost to the organisation.
Limitations
As with most studies, there are some limitations inherent in the sample and methodology that necessitate caution when interpreting these results. Among these would be the use of self-reported data, the use of a single organisation, and the low number of respondents. However, the sample size limitation is a function of New
Zealand studies, where 98.9% of organisations have less than 50 employees (New
Zealand Statistics, 1998). Therefore, the present organisation actually represents a
‘large’ sized organisation by New Zealand standards, although not by international standards. Consequently, I argue that sample size issues (n=100) are a reality of conducting this type of research in New Zealand.
To address self-reporting bias, in particular common method variance, surveys were separated into two time periods, with a one-week gap. However, I acknowledge that common method variance could still be a concern. Podsakoff and Organ (1986, 536) stated that “perhaps the first statistical procedure to be used in an attempt to control for common method variance is Harman’s single-factor test”. As such, a global factor analysis (unrotated) was conducted, in order to test for common method variance. If a single dominant factor emerges, Podsakoff and Organ (1986) stated this is likely due to common method variance. The global factor analysis resulted in 13 components, with the first two accounting for 28.2% and 10.7% of the variance respectively. The remaining components accounted for between 5.9% and 2.4% of the variance. Given the high number of components, without a single dominating factor, the findings cannot be explained simply in terms of common method variance. However, I do concur with Podsakoff and Organ (1986, 536), who noted that while this method is straightforward and easy to apply, for factor analysis “the likelihood of finding more than one factor increases as the number of variables increases”. Despite this point, there appears little support that the findings are due to common method variance.
Another limitation is the use of a single item measure for turnover intention. While single item measures have been used in the literature (Lounsbury & Hoopes, 1986;
Grover & Crooker, 1995), this does limit the construct validity of the measure, and encourages a multi-item measure for turnover intention to be used (e.g. Cohen, 1997;
Shaffer, et al., 2001). Finally, it is worth remarking on the high correlation between
WFC and FWC. While conflict has conceptually been separated into WFC and FWC, these two measures are typically significantly correlated, for example r=.30, p< .01
(Adams, King & King, 1996), and r=.28 and .26, both p< .05 (Frone et al., 1997).
However, this study’s correlation between WFC and FWC is much higher at r=.70
(p< .01). Despite this, WFC and FWC were distinct and not similarly correlated

9 towards the criterion variables, with WFC significantly correlated with all criterion variables, while FWC was significantly correlated towards only one. In addition, the results showed that WFC alone was a predictor of the criterion variables and FWC was not. While this provides strong support for a significant distinction between WFC and FWC and the criterion variables, it does suggest the conflict measure used in this study (Greenhaus et al., 2000) might need further refinement to provide greater differentiation between work to family and family to work conflict.
Conclusion
In conclusion, the present study offers strong support for negative outcomes associated with work-family conflict, albeit specifically with regard to WFC. A surprising finding was the lack of any significant relationships with FWC and outcomes, which may suggest a direct work conflict – work outcome relationship, although this is not always the case in the literature. Further studies are needed to determine whether New Zealand employees hold significantly low FWC levels as found here, as this factor might be significant in examining job related outcomes.
Overall, the findings here do indicate New Zealand employees, at least in this local government organisation, do hold similar responses to conflict as their international colleagues. Of particular note is the positive association between WFC and turnover intention, which might be further intensified by the negative relationships between
WFC and organisational commitment and POS, which also encourage turnover.
Consequently, New Zealand local government employees who have higher levels of
WFC are more likely to leave the organisation. The cost of employee turnover is a resource burden for all organisations, and the findings of this study encourages organisations to examine the work and demands of its employees, otherwise the loss of productive, highly skilled employees, may become a reality. This is especially prevalent, as it has been noted that job hunters are increasingly asking recruiters about organisations with work-family practices (Shellenbarger, 1997).

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Table 1 Correlations and Descriptive Statistics
Variables
1. Number of children
2. Total hours worked
3. Work-family conflict
4. Family-work conflict
2.4
40.3
2.6
2.0
5. Organisational commitment 4.6
6. Perceived organisational support 4.4
7. Turnover intention 2.2
N=100. *p<.05, **p<.01.
Mean SD
1.1
5.3
.91
.61
.83
.98
1.3
1
--
-.02
-.09
-.17
.03
.04
-.11
2 3 4 5 6
--
.23*
.11
--
.70** --
.05 -.37** -.18 --
.16 -.37** -.31** .69**
-.04 .27**
--
.18 -.30** -.25*
7
--
12

Table 2 Regression Analysis: Conflict Outcomes
Predictors
Step 1:
Gender
Marital status
Number of children
Total hours worked
R 2 change
F change (3, 96)
Organisational
Commitment
.142
.076
.033
.275*
.058
.899
Criterion Variables
Perceived
Organisational
Support
.125
-.151
.021
.341*
.108
1.748
Turnover
Intention
-.088
-.072
-.115
-.163
.037
.561
Step 2:
Work-family conflict
Family-work conflict
R
2
change
F change (2, 94)
-.535***
.055
.226***
-.347*
-.082
.151**
.558***
-.106
.219**
Total R
2
Adjusted Total R
2
F statistic (5, 94)
8.857***
.285
.208
3.714**
5.707**
.259
.179
3.257**
8.267**
.257
.177
3.223**
*p<.05, **p<.01, ***p<.001. Standardised regression coefficients. All significance tests were single-tailed.
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