Managing Protected Areas
-some pnas are what are called “paper parks”, existing only on maps, with
no management
-many pnas have habitats formed from hundreds of years of human activity
and support high numbers of species because of the management
-if not actively managed they will undergo succession and lose many of their
characteristic species Figure 17.1
17.1 Bison originally grazed the tall grass prairies of the midwestern U.S. increasing plant species
Managing Protected Areas
Management practices can also be detrimental1.
Game management that eliminates predators increases herbivores and
rodents often causing the collapse of the ecosystem
2. Park managers that remove elements of the habitat to “improve” park
appearance
Exs. Hollow trees, dead standing trees are nesting and denning sites
Rotting wood provides germination sites for orchids
3. Lack of fire
4. Lack of grazing
Managing Protected Areas
Management requires adaptive management (monitoring components of the
ecosystem and use results to adjust management )
-requires accurate data to develop management plans and monitoring of
results of management Figure 17.4
Ex. Placement of new shipping lanes in Boston Harbor to minimize whale
strikes Figure 17.5
-drones are being used in
management Read Box 17.1
17.4 Model of an ideal adaptive management process for protected areas
17.5 Ships coming into Boston harbor pass through a new shipping lane to protect baleen whales
Some major threats to pnas that are managed
1. Invasive species
-particularly a problem in pnas with wetlands, grasslands, and islands
-need to be removed while at low densities
2. Loss of habitat types
-must maintain all stages of succession to provide habitats for all species
Ex. Forest ecosystem Figure 17.6 and Figures 17.7 & 17.8, Box 17.2
3. Loss of water resources
-not as likely a problem if pna is in upper portion watershed but in lower
portions, may be losses due irrigation projects, residential and
industrial water supplies, flood control, and hydroelectric dams
Ex. Caribbean National Forest in Puerto Rico loses ½ water in its streams
to residential and industrial uses Figure 17.9
4. Loss of keystone resources
-food, water, minerals, natural shelter may need to be supplemented if
these keystone resources are not part of habitat Figure 17.9
17.6 Model of change in species diversity during forest succession following a major disturbance
17.7 Conservation management: intervention (Fire for wildflowers) verses no human disturbance
17.8 Conservation management: intervention—”A” had heavy cattle grazing, “B” cattle removed
17.9 The Caribbean National Forest have numerous intakes for drinking water, power generation,
and private-use sewage treatment plants and water filtration plants
17.10 (A) Winter food to red-crowned cranes in Japan (B) Artificial rafts for rare pond turtles
Managing Parks and People
-oftentimes the greatest threat to parks comes from the policies of the
same government that manages them
Policies should consider:
1) commercial harvesting of fish, game, plants
-regulated and sustainable over time Figure 17.12
Ex ginseng collecting in Great Smoky Mountain National Park
2) illegal logging and farming
3) mining and drilling practices Ex. PINS drilling procedures, Box 17.3
4) fire
- some regulated logging, farming, and fire may be useful to maintain
successional stages and to preserve traditional agriculture
5) zoning for recreational activities
-hiking, camping, motorcycles and off-road vehicles, mountain bikes, etc.
must be controlled and restricted to certain areas Figure 17.11, 17.13
Figure 17.13 The Great Barrier Reef Marine Park off the coast of Australia is zoned.
17.12 On Apo Island in the Philippines, large reef fish had been overharvested so a reserve was created
17.11 (A) Zoning to protect nesting birds. (B) Area zoned for recreational vehicles
Managing Protected Areas
Problems in managing protected areas (ranked from major to minor for North
and Central American data):
-in many cases, there are not enough well-equipped, motivated park
personnel to carry out park policies