Shantava Inabinet
Prof. Jon Acedo
English 103.0863
21 November 2006
The Struggle: In Search of Liberty and Justice for All
Due to the discrimination and brutal racism that African Americans faced in the mid 18th
to late 19th centuries in various institutions, African Americans were pushed to form their own
institutions. Realizing acceptance into “American” institutions was nonexistent: The logical
decision to form facilities that will most definitely include African Americans marked the
beginning of Black America. American founding fathers were not African American founding
fathers.
American founding fathers contradicted everything they declared in the legal documents
that founded America. The rights to own property and bear arms, and political freedom, justice
and liberty obviously did not include non- white landowners. By grafting European culture
(Christianity, written media, and educational facilities) with African culture African Americans
were able to begin the formation of Black America.
According to Bennett Jr., between the years 1787 and 1837 are the most important years
in African American history. It is between the previous years that six major institutions were
created. The initial institution constructed was a religious one named The Free African Society.
The founders Richard Allen and Absalom Jones established the church on April 12, 1787 in
Philadelphia. The formation of the church resulted from a racist experience he encountered in a
house of prayer:
1
“A number of us usually attended St. George’s church in Fourth
street; and when the colored people began to get numerous in attending
the church, they moved us from the seats we usually sat on and
placed us around the wall, and on Sabbath morning we went to church
and the sexton stood at the door, and told us to go to the gallery….We expected
to take the seats over the ones we formerly occupied below, not knowing
any better…. Meeting had begun and they were nearly done singing and just
when we got to the seats, the elder said, ‘Let us pray’ . We had not been long
upon our knees before I heard considerable scuffling and low talking. I raised my
head up and saw one of the trustees…. Having hold Rev. Absalom Jones, pulling
him up off his knees , and saying, “You must get up- you must not kneel here’
Mr. Jones replied, ‘Wait until the prayer is over’[The trustee] said, ‘No you must
Get up now or I will call for aide and take you away’. Mr. Jones said, ‘Wait until
The prayer is over, and I will get up and trouble you no more’. With that
[the trustee] beckoned to one of the other trustees….to come to his assistance. He
came, and went to William White to pull him up. By this time prayer was over
and we all went out of the church in a body, and they were no more plagued with
us in church”(125)
Jones and Absalom were the prototype for African American religious institutions. Out
of Jones and Allen’s institution spawned two of the first black churches; Bethel A.M.E. (the
mother church of the A.M.E.) and the first African church of St. Thomas. In 1796 the first
A.M.E. Zion congregation originated in N.Y.C. Soon after in 1809, there were black churches
2
exploding all over Boston, Philadelphia, and New York. In 1816 sixteen ministers meet in
Philadelphia to form the African Methodist Episcopal Church. The church served as not only a
place of worship, but a community center as well. People in the neighborhood were able to join
together, socialize and assist one another with various issues.
Schools were another institution that developed because of the deliberate denial of
African Americans rights to receive an education. As a result, African Americans took matters
into their own hands. In Boston 1787, Prince Hall opened up his home so young boys and girls
could learn. In Philadelphia around the same time period Richard Allen opened up a day school
for children and a night school for adults. In New York with the help of the N.Y. Manumission
society the African free schools were formed. The opening of the first school marked the
beginning of free secular education. James Weldon Johnson called the school, which received
aide from the local state government “the precursor to the New York City public school system”.
By 1831 there was an outburst of African American schools in Philadelphia. More than 43 were
in service at that time. In addition with the help of wealthy white philanthropist, some black
colleges established for higher education opportunity came to be.
Media such as newspapers and magazines were very important because it allowed
African Americans to voice their concerns and talk about the black experience from their point
of view. The first black newspaper Freedom’s Journal, was published on Friday, March 16,
1827. The editors were John B. Russwurm and Samuel E.Cornish( both were two of the first
black college graduates). A significant fact about Russwurm is that he later migrated to Liberia
(the country made for the use of repatriation to Africa for African Americans) and served there
3
as a governor of Maryland County. While carrying out his political duties he managed to edit the
Liberia Herald simultaneously. David Ruggles was the editor of the first black magazine, Mirror
of Liberty which was published in August, 1838 one month before the publication of another
black magazine entitled National Reformer. The editors of Freedom’s Journal , Cornish and
Russwurm stated in their first issue QTD in Bennett:
“ to make our Journal a medium of intercourse between our brethren in the different
states of this great confederacy; that through its columns an expression of our sentiments,
on many interesting subjects which concern us, may be offered to the publick: that plans
which apparently are beneficial may be candidly discussed and properly weighted:, if
worth, receive our cordial approbation; if not, our marked disapprobation” (128)
According to Russwurm and Cornish, producing a newspaper was an excellent
opportunity for African Americans to voice their concerns. Schools, churches, newspapers and
magazines were formed as a result of a racial exclusion problem. Formatting the previous
institutions did not mean that the racist ideology that was documented in the Constitution and the
Declaration of Independence ceased to exist. African Americans also wanted a social revolution
to occur. The political revolution was carried out by gaining independence from King George.
However, the social revolution was started but never finished. Next I will show how African
Americans resisted proactively by starting a social revolution.
In the time period of 1817 to 1837 was the time when African Americans resisted the
establishment more militantly by protesting, using petitions, pamphlets, guns and fire. Two
prominent figures representing militancy from this era are David Walker and Nat Turner. There
4
were many African Americans whom lashed out by killing their masters, setting fires to
plantations, and the most common form of resistance running away. David Walker and Nat
Turner were men who were able to fearlessly let their resistance be known.
David Walker published his famous revolutionary Appeal in 1829. His militant doctrine
was the first of its kind and as a result, it shocked and alarmed many white readers nationwide.
Walker’s insistence that white racism is a national problem and slavery was a great manifestation
of the racism made him public enemy number one. Many plantation owners black listed his book
and went to extreme measures to ensure that it did not come across the hands of their slaves
because they feared rebellions. The masters wanted to keep their slaves submissive and ignorant
so that they could continue to make huge profits off of the slave’s free labor. The following is an
excerpt from Walkers Appeal in Four Articles as QTD in the Gates:
“ Can our condition be any worse?-can it be more mean
and adject? If there are any changes, will they not be for the better
though they may appear for the worst at first?
Can they get us any lower? Where can they get us?”(229)
Many slaves became educated, and as a result were able to read the laws of the land and
challenge them in court. Abaslom Jones the same man who was the co-founder of the A.M.E.
church and various black schools in Philadelphia filed an anti slavery petition with the House of
Representatives. On some plantations slaves rose up and rebelled by setting fire to the houses
and crops of their masters. African Americans even back then were constantly fighting to prove
themselves worthy. David Walker put into words the unrest of enslaved African Americans and
was though to be responsible for Nat Turners revolt of South Hampton in 1831.David Walker
5
was willing to conform and wanted to start a social revolution. He was mysteriously murdered by
food poison.
Nat Turner became famous for his highly organized and executed rebellion in South
Hampton Virginia in 1831. After so many years of being beat down, dehumanized and striped of
his freedom, Nat Turner formed a group of rebels. He and his followers successfully carried out a
mass homicide and killed fifty seven whites. Following that incident he immediately became the
number one enemy of the state. The law wanted Turner dead or alive. Although he was later
found and put to death, he instantly became an African American hero for his courage to actively
retaliate. Turner was aware of the consequences of his actions. However, he was so dedicated
and determined to change the unjust social order of America that he willing gave his life for the
cause.
All of the previous men have laid the foundation and some even put their lives on the line
for black America. According to Bennett Jr. American founding fathers were not African
American founding fathers. Never before in any history book did this author see the phrase black
founding fathers until reading The Shaping of Black America. The institutions that were created
were created by force not choice. Instead of accepting exclusion the brave African Americans
formed their own churches, media, and schools. The black founding fathers wanted liberty,
freedom, and equality for all Americans: Unlike the American founding fathers who wanted
liberty, justice, and equality for white wealthy landowners only.
6
Works Cited
Bennett Jr., Lerone. The Shping of Black America. New York : Penguin Books USA Inc, 1993.
125, 128, 129.
Cornish, Samuel and Russwurm, John B. Freedoms Journal. 16 Mar. 1827.
QTD in The Shaping of Black America. Bennett Jr.128.
Walker, David. Appeal. Rpt in The Norton Anthology of African American Literature Second
Edition. Gates Jr, Henry and McKay, Nellie Y. New York: Norton, 2004. 229.
7
8
9