THE CHEMISTRY
OF ARENES
A guide for A level students
KNOCKHARDY PUBLISHING
2015
SPECIFICATIONS
KNOCKHARDY PUBLISHING
ARENES
INTRODUCTION
This Powerpoint show is one of several produced to help students understand
selected topics at AS and A2 level Chemistry. It is based on the requirements of
the AQA and OCR specifications but is suitable for other examination boards.
Individual students may use the material at home for revision purposes or it may
be used for classroom teaching if an interactive white board is available.
Accompanying notes on this, and the full range of AS and A2 topics, are available
from the KNOCKHARDY SCIENCE WEBSITE at...
www.knockhardy.org.uk/sci.htm
Navigation is achieved by...
either
clicking on the grey arrows at the foot of each page
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ARENES
CONTENTS
• Prior knowledge
• Structure of benzene
• Thermodynamic stability
• Delocalisation
• Electrophilic substitution
• Nitration
• Chlorination
• Friedel-Crafts reactions
• Further substitution
ARENES
Before you start it would be helpful to…
• know the functional groups found in organic chemistry
• know the arrangement of bonds around carbon atoms
• recall and explain electrophilic addition reactions of alkenes
STRUCTURE OF BENZENE
Primary analysis revealed benzene had...
an
a
a
empirical formula of CH
molecular mass of 78
molecular formula of C6H6
and
and
STRUCTURE OF BENZENE
Primary analysis revealed benzene had...
an
a
a
empirical formula of CH
molecular mass of 78
molecular formula of C6H6
Kekulé
and
suggested that benzene was...
PLANAR
CYCLIC and
HAD ALTERNATING DOUBLE AND SINGLE BONDS
STRUCTURE OF BENZENE
HOWEVER...
• it did not readily undergo electrophilic addition - no true C=C bond
• only one 1,2 disubstituted product existed
• all six C—C bond lengths were similar; C=C bonds are shorter than C-C
• the ring was thermodynamically more stable than expected
STRUCTURE OF BENZENE
HOWEVER...
• it did not readily undergo electrophilic addition - no true C=C bond
• only one 1,2 disubstituted product existed
• all six C—C bond lengths were similar; C=C bonds are shorter than C-C
• the ring was thermodynamically more stable than expected
To explain the above, it was suggested that the structure oscillated
between the two Kekulé forms but was represented by neither of
them. It was a RESONANCE HYBRID.
THERMODYNAMIC EVIDENCE FOR STABILITY
When unsaturated hydrocarbons are reduced to the corresponding saturated
compound, energy is released. The amount of heat liberated per mole (enthalpy of
hydrogenation) can be measured.
THERMODYNAMIC EVIDENCE FOR STABILITY
When unsaturated hydrocarbons are reduced to the corresponding saturated
compound, energy is released. The amount of heat liberated per mole (enthalpy of
hydrogenation) can be measured.
When cyclohexene (one C=C bond) is reduced to
cyclohexane, 120kJ of energy is released per mole.
C6H10(l) + H2(g) ——> C6H12(l)
2
3
- 120 kJ mol-1
THERMODYNAMIC EVIDENCE FOR STABILITY
When unsaturated hydrocarbons are reduced to the corresponding saturated
compound, energy is released. The amount of heat liberated per mole (enthalpy of
hydrogenation) can be measured.
When cyclohexene (one C=C bond) is reduced to
cyclohexane, 120kJ of energy is released per mole.
C6H10(l) + H2(g) ——> C6H12(l)
Theoretically, if benzene contained three separate
C=C bonds it would release 360kJ per mole when
reduced to cyclohexane
Theoretical
- 360 kJ mol-1
(3 x -120)
C6H6(l) + 3H2(g) ——> C6H12(l)
2
3
- 120 kJ mol-1
THERMODYNAMIC EVIDENCE FOR STABILITY
When unsaturated hydrocarbons are reduced to the corresponding saturated
compound, energy is released. The amount of heat liberated per mole (enthalpy of
hydrogenation) can be measured.
When cyclohexene (one C=C bond) is reduced to
cyclohexane, 120kJ of energy is released per mole.
C6H10(l) + H2(g) ——> C6H12(l)
Theoretically, if benzene contained three separate
C=C bonds it would release 360kJ per mole when
reduced to cyclohexane
Theoretical
- 360 kJ mol-1
(3 x -120)
C6H6(l) + 3H2(g) ——> C6H12(l)
2
Actual benzene releases only 208kJ per mole when
reduced, putting it lower down the energy scale
3
- 120 kJ mol-1
Experimental
- 208 kJ mol-1
THERMODYNAMIC EVIDENCE FOR STABILITY
When unsaturated hydrocarbons are reduced to the corresponding saturated
compound, energy is released. The amount of heat liberated per mole (enthalpy of
hydrogenation) can be measured.
When cyclohexene (one C=C bond) is reduced to
cyclohexane, 120kJ of energy is released per mole.
C6H10(l) + H2(g) ——> C6H12(l)
Theoretically, if benzene contained three separate
C=C bonds it would release 360kJ per mole when
reduced to cyclohexane
Theoretical
- 360 kJ mol-1
MORE STABLE
THAN EXPECTED
by 152 kJ mol-1
(3 x -120)
C6H6(l) + 3H2(g) ——> C6H12(l)
2
Actual benzene releases only 208kJ per mole when
reduced, putting it lower down the energy scale
It is 152kJ per mole more stable than expected.
This value is known as the RESONANCE ENERGY.
3
- 120 kJ mol-1
Experimental
- 208 kJ mol-1
THERMODYNAMIC EVIDENCE FOR STABILITY
When unsaturated hydrocarbons are reduced to the corresponding saturated
compound, energy is released. The amount of heat liberated per mole (enthalpy of
hydrogenation) can be measured.
When cyclohexene (one C=C bond) is reduced to
cyclohexane, 120kJ of energy is released per mole.
C6H10(l) + H2(g) ——> C6H12(l)
Theoretically, if benzene contained three separate
C=C bonds it would release 360kJ per mole when
reduced to cyclohexane
Theoretical
- 360 kJ mol-1
MORE STABLE
THAN EXPECTED
by 152 kJ mol-1
(3 x -120)
C6H6(l) + 3H2(g) ——> C6H12(l)
2
Actual benzene releases only 208kJ per mole when
reduced, putting it lower down the energy scale
It is 152kJ per mole more stable than expected.
This value is known as the RESONANCE ENERGY.
3
- 120 kJ mol-1
Experimental
- 208 kJ mol-1
HYBRIDISATION OF ORBITALS - REVISION
The electronic configuration of a
carbon atom is 1s22s22p2
2p
2
2s
1
1s
HYBRIDISATION OF ORBITALS - REVISION
The electronic configuration of a
carbon atom is 1s22s22p2
2p
2
2s
1
If you provide a bit of energy you
can promote (lift) one of the s
electrons into a p orbital. The
configuration is now 1s22s12p3
1s
2p
2
2s
1
1s
The process is favourable because of the arrangement of
electrons; four unpaired and with less repulsion is more stable
HYBRIDISATION OF ORBITALS - REVISION
The four orbitals (an s and three p’s) combine or HYBRIDISE
to give four new orbitals. All four orbitals are equivalent.
2s22p2
2s12p3
4 x sp3
HYBRIDISE
sp3
HYBRIDISATION
HYBRIDISATION OF ORBITALS - REVISION
Alternatively, only three orbitals (an s and two p’s) combine or
HYBRIDISE to give three new orbitals. All three orbitals are
equivalent. The remaining 2p orbital is unchanged.
2s22p2
2s12p3
3 x sp2
HYBRIDISE
sp2
HYBRIDISATION
2p
STRUCTURE OF ALKENES - REVISION
In ALKANES, the four sp3 orbitals
repel each other into a tetrahedral
arrangement.
In ALKENES, the three
sp2 orbitals repel each
other into a planar
arrangement and the
2p orbital lies at right
angles to them
STRUCTURE OF ALKENES - REVISION
Covalent bonds are formed
by overlap of orbitals.
The resulting bond is called
a SIGMA (δ) bond.
An sp2 orbital from each carbon
overlaps to form a single C-C bond.
STRUCTURE OF ALKENES - REVISION
The two 2p orbitals also overlap. This forms a second bond; it
is known as a PI (π) bond.
For maximum overlap and hence the strongest bond, the 2p
orbitals are in line.
This gives rise to the planar arrangement around C=C bonds.
ORBITAL OVERLAP IN ETHENE - REVIEW
two sp2 orbitals overlap to form a sigma
bond between the two carbon atoms
s orbitals in hydrogen overlap with the
sp2 orbitals in carbon to form C-H bonds
two 2p orbitals overlap to form a pi
bond between the two carbon atoms
the resulting shape is planar
with bond angles of 120º
STRUCTURE OF BENZENE - DELOCALISATION
The theory suggested that instead of three localised (in one position) double bonds,
the six p (p) electrons making up those bonds were delocalised (not in any one
particular position) around the ring by overlapping the p orbitals. There would be no
double bonds and all bond lengths would be equal. It also gave a planar structure.
6 single bonds
STRUCTURE OF BENZENE - DELOCALISATION
The theory suggested that instead of three localised (in one position) double bonds,
the six p (p) electrons making up those bonds were delocalised (not in any one
particular position) around the ring by overlapping the p orbitals. There would be no
double bonds and all bond lengths would be equal. It also gave a planar structure.
6 single bonds
one way to overlap
adjacent p orbitals
STRUCTURE OF BENZENE - DELOCALISATION
The theory suggested that instead of three localised (in one position) double bonds,
the six p (p) electrons making up those bonds were delocalised (not in any one
particular position) around the ring by overlapping the p orbitals. There would be no
double bonds and all bond lengths would be equal. It also gave a planar structure.
6 single bonds
one way to overlap
adjacent p orbitals
another
possibility
STRUCTURE OF BENZENE - DELOCALISATION
The theory suggested that instead of three localised (in one position) double bonds,
the six p (p) electrons making up those bonds were delocalised (not in any one
particular position) around the ring by overlapping the p orbitals. There would be no
double bonds and all bond lengths would be equal. It also gave a planar structure.
6 single bonds
one way to overlap
adjacent p orbitals
another
possibility
delocalised pi
orbital system
STRUCTURE OF BENZENE - DELOCALISATION
The theory suggested that instead of three localised (in one position) double bonds,
the six p (p) electrons making up those bonds were delocalised (not in any one
particular position) around the ring by overlapping the p orbitals. There would be no
double bonds and all bond lengths would be equal. It also gave a planar structure.
6 single bonds
one way to overlap
adjacent p orbitals
another
possibility
This final structure was particularly stable and
resisted attempts to break it down through normal
electrophilic addition. However, substitution of any
hydrogen atoms would not affect the delocalisation.
delocalised pi
orbital system
STRUCTURE OF BENZENE
STRUCTURE OF BENZENE
ANIMATION
WHY ELECTROPHILIC ATTACK?
Theory
The high electron density of the ring makes it open to attack by electrophiles
HOWEVER...
Because the mechanism involves an initial disruption to the ring,
electrophiles will have to be more powerful than those which react
with alkenes.
A fully delocalised ring is stable so will resist attack.
WHY SUBSTITUTION?
Theory
Addition to the ring would upset the delocalised electron system
STABLE DELOCALISED SYSTEM
ELECTRONS ARE NOT DELOCALISED
AROUND THE WHOLE RING - LESS STABLE
Substitution of hydrogen atoms on the ring does not affect the delocalisation
Overall there is ELECTROPHILIC SUBSTITUTION
ELECTROPHILIC SUBSTITUTION
Theory
The high electron density of the ring makes it open to attack by electrophiles
Addition to the ring would upset the delocalised electron system
Substitution of hydrogen atoms on the ring does not affect the delocalisation
Because the mechanism involves an initial disruption to the ring,
electrophiles must be more powerful than those which react with alkenes
Overall there is ELECTROPHILIC SUBSTITUTION
ELECTROPHILIC SUBSTITUTION
Theory
The high electron density of the ring makes it open to attack by electrophiles
Addition to the ring would upset the delocalised electron system
Substitution of hydrogen atoms on the ring does not affect the delocalisation
Because the mechanism involves an initial disruption to the ring,
electrophiles must be more powerful than those which react with alkenes
Overall there is ELECTROPHILIC SUBSTITUTION
Mechanism
• a pair of electrons leaves the delocalised system to form a bond to the electrophile
• this disrupts the stable delocalised system and forms an unstable intermediate
• to restore stability, the pair of electrons in the C-H bond moves back into the ring
• overall there is substitution of hydrogen ... ELECTROPHILIC SUBSTITUTION
ELECTROPHILIC SUBSTITUTION REACTIONS - NITRATION
Reagents
conc. nitric acid and conc. sulphuric acid (catalyst)
Conditions
reflux at 55°C
Equation
C6H6
+
HNO3
———>
C6H5NO2 + H2O
nitrobenzene
ELECTROPHILIC SUBSTITUTION REACTIONS - NITRATION
Reagents
conc. nitric acid and conc. sulphuric acid (catalyst)
Conditions
reflux at 55°C
Equation
C6H6
Mechanism
+
HNO3
———>
C6H5NO2 + H2O
nitrobenzene
ELECTROPHILIC SUBSTITUTION REACTIONS - NITRATION
Reagents
conc. nitric acid and conc. sulphuric acid (catalyst)
Conditions
reflux at 55°C
Equation
C6H6
+
HNO3
———>
C6H5NO2 + H2O
nitrobenzene
Mechanism
Electrophile
NO2+ , nitronium ion or nitryl cation; it is generated in an acid-base reaction...
2H2SO4 +
acid
HNO3
base
2HSO4¯ + H3O+ + NO2+
ELECTROPHILIC SUBSTITUTION REACTIONS - NITRATION
Reagents
conc. nitric acid and conc. sulphuric acid (catalyst)
Conditions
reflux at 55°C
Equation
C6H6
+
HNO3
———>
C6H5NO2 + H2O
nitrobenzene
Mechanism
Electrophile
NO2+ , nitronium ion or nitryl cation; it is generated in an acid-base reaction...
2H2SO4 +
acid
Use
HNO3
base
2HSO4¯ + H3O+ + NO2+
The nitration of benzene is the first step in an historically important chain of
reactions. These lead to the formation of dyes, and explosives.
ELECTROPHILIC SUBSTITUTION REACTIONS - HALOGENATION
Reagents
chlorine and a halogen carrier (catalyst)
Conditions
reflux in the presence of a halogen carrier (Fe, FeCl3, AlCl3)
chlorine is non polar so is not a good electrophile
the halogen carrier is required to polarise the halogen
Equation
C6H6
+
Cl2
———>
C6H5Cl + HCl
Mechanism
Electrophile
Cl+
it is generated as follows...
Cl2 +
FeCl3
a
Lewis Acid
FeCl4¯ +
Cl+
FRIEDEL-CRAFTS REACTIONS OF BENZENE - ALKYLATION
Overview
Alkylation involves substituting an alkyl (methyl, ethyl) group
Reagents
a halogenoalkane (RX) and anhydrous aluminium chloride AlCl3
Conditions
room temperature; dry inert solvent (ether)
Electrophile
a carbocation ion R+ (e.g. CH3+)
Equation
C6H6 + C2H5Cl
———>
C6H5C2H5 + HCl
FRIEDEL-CRAFTS REACTIONS OF BENZENE - ALKYLATION
Overview
Alkylation involves substituting an alkyl (methyl, ethyl) group
Reagents
a halogenoalkane (RX) and anhydrous aluminium chloride AlCl3
Conditions
room temperature; dry inert solvent (ether)
Electrophile
a carbocation ion R+ (e.g. CH3+)
Equation
C6H6 + C2H5Cl
———>
C6H5C2H5 + HCl
Mechanism
General
A catalyst is used to increase the positive nature of the electrophile
and make it better at attacking benzene rings.
AlCl3 acts as a Lewis Acid and helps break the C—Cl bond.
FRIEDEL-CRAFTS REACTIONS OF BENZENE - ALKYLATION
Catalyst
anhydrous aluminium chloride acts as the catalyst
the Al in AlCl3 has only 6 electrons in its outer shell; a LEWIS ACID
it increases the polarisation of the C-Cl bond in the haloalkane
this makes the charge on C more positive and the following occurs
RCl
+
AlCl3
AlCl4¯ + R+
FRIEDEL-CRAFTS REACTIONS - INDUSTRIAL ALKYLATION
Industrial
Alkenes are used instead of haloalkanes but an acid must be present
Phenylethane, C6H5C2H5 is made by this method
Reagents
ethene, anhydrous AlCl3 , conc. HCl
Electrophile
C2H5+
Equation
C6H6 + C2H4
Mechanism
the HCl reacts with the alkene to generate a carbonium ion
electrophilic substitution then takes place as the C2H5+ attacks the ring
Use
ethyl benzene is dehydrogenated to produce phenylethene (styrene);
this is used to make poly(phenylethene) - also known as polystyrene
(an ethyl carbonium ion)
———>
C6H5C2H5
(ethyl benzene)
FRIEDEL-CRAFTS REACTIONS OF BENZENE - ACYLATION
Overview
Acylation involves substituting an acyl (methanoyl, ethanoyl) group
Reagents
an acyl chloride (RCOX) and anhydrous aluminium chloride AlCl3
Conditions
reflux 50°C; dry inert solvent (ether)
Electrophile
RC+= O
Equation
C6H6 + CH3COCl
( e.g. CH3C+O )
———>
C6H5COCH3 + HCl
Mechanism
Product
A carbonyl compound (aldehyde or ketone)
FURTHER SUBSTITUTION OF ARENES
RELATIVE POSITIONS ON A BENZENE RING
1
1
1
2
3
4
1,2-DICHLOROBENZENE
ortho dichlorobenzene
1,3-DICHLOROBENZENE
meta dichlorobenzene
1,4-DICHLOROBENZENE
para dichlorobenzene
The compounds have similar chemical properties but different physical properties
They are STRUCTURAL ISOMERS
FURTHER SUBSTITUTION OF ARENES
Theory
It is possible to substitute more than one functional group.
But, the functional group already on the ring affects...
• how easy it can be done
Group
• where the next substituent goes
6
2
6
2
5
3
5
3
4
4
ELECTRON DONATING
ELECTRON WITHDRAWING
Example(s)
Electron density of ring
Ease of substitution
Position of substitution
OH, CH3
Increases
Easier
2,4,and 6
NO2
Decreases
Harder
3 and 5
FURTHER SUBSTITUTION OF ARENES
Examples
Substitution of nitrobenzene is...
• more difficult than with benzene
• produces a 1,3 disubstituted product
FURTHER SUBSTITUTION OF ARENES
Examples
Substitution of methylbenzene is…
• easier than with benzene
• produces a mixture of 1,2 and 1,4
isomeric products
FURTHER SUBSTITUTION OF ARENES
Examples
Some groups (OH) make substitution so much
easier that multiple substitution takes place
THE CHEMISTRY
OF ARENES
THE END
© 2015 KNOCKHARDY PUBLISHING