Chapter 2
Britain
Politics in Action (1 of 3)
• Labour Party
– Brown agreed to back Blair in exchange for strong
role under Blair and Blair’s future backing
– Blair was first Labour leader to win 3 elections but
lost Brown’s support
– Brown became prime minister in 2007 with strong
initial support, which quickly eroded
– Labour dropped to third position in 2008 elections
What happened?
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Politics in Action (2 of 3)
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Politics in Action (3 of 3)
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Britain
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Geographic Setting
• Great Britain = England, Wales, Scotland
• Britain = United Kingdom of Great Britain and
Northern Ireland
• Offshore island adjacent to Europe
– Creates feeling that Britons are separate from but a
part of Europe
– Complicates relations with European Union
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Critical Junctures (1 of 2)
• British politics evolved consistently
• British state formed through unification of
kingdoms by conquest and treaties
• Increasing restraints placed on the monarchy by
the Barons resulted in a Parliament with the right
to make laws by the fifteenth century
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Critical Junctures (2 of 2)
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Seventeenth-Century Settlement
• Framework for constitutional monarchy in place
by seventeenth century
• Glorious Revolution resolved religious conflict
– Dominance of Church of England
– Settling of religious differences resulted in
secular state
– Religious identification less politically significant
• Parliamentary democracy emerged by end of
seventeenth century
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The Industrial
Revolution and the British Empire
• British state consolidated by seventeenth
century
• Industrial revolution:
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Rapid expansion of manufacturing
Technological innovation
Social and economic changes
Pressure for democratization
Changed Britain internally and externally
• Used competitive advantage to dominate international order
• Shaped development of British state
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The Industrial Revolution
• Industrial Revolution led to
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Rapid manufacturing expansion
Technological innovation
Social and economic changes
Pressure for democratization
• England saw gradual improvement in
standard of living
• Effects felt most by agriculture and artisans
• Mechanization spread furthest in cotton industry
– Drove Britain’s industrial dominance
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The British Empire (1 of 2)
• World power by end of seventeenth century
• Leading industrial sector dependent on overseas
trade
– Leaders worked to secure markets and expand
empire
– Napoleonic Wars secured European balance of
power favorable for free trade
• Britain was hegemonic power
– Controlled alliances and international economic terms
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The British Empire (2 of 2)
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Industrial Change and the
Struggle for Voting Rights
• Economic power shifted from landowners to
commerce and industry
• Pressure increased for Parliament to expand
franchise
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Reform Act of 1832
Representation of the People Act of 1867
Franchise Act of 1884
Representation of the People Act of 1918
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World Wars, Industrial Strife, and the
Depression (1914-1945) (1 of 2)
• State involvement in economy increased during
World War I
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Nationalization of industries
Price setting
Restrict capital flow abroad
Production aimed at war effort
Limit trade union and worker movements
• Free market versus intervention conflict
continued through Great Depression and World
War II
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World Wars, Industrial Strife and the
Depression (1914-1945) (2 of 2)
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Collectivist Consensus (1945-1979)
• Post war there was a shared victory, common misery,
dreams of new prosperity and security
– Debate today over whether or not there was a post war
consensus
• Disagreement over policy along partisan lines
• Culture of reconciliation and determination to rebuild helped form
collectivist consensus
• Collectivism – majority agreement to expansion of state
economic responsibility and broad social welfare
– Government should enact policies of welfare state
– State responsibility for economic growth, full employment
• Unity among electoral combatants
• Consensus unraveled by economic downturn and
political stagnation
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Margaret Thatcher and the
Enterprise Culture (1979–1990)
• 1970s – economic stagnation loss of competitive
edge
• Margaret Thatcher
– Believed collectivism lead to Britain’s decline
– Cut taxes and reduced social services
– Government policy to stimulate competition
• Thatcherism – leadership, economic ideas,
political strategies, traditional values
• Enterprise Culture – individual responsibility,
commitment to family, frugality, entrepreneurial
spirit
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New Labour’s Third Way
• Blair and Brown modernized Labour party
• Third alternative
– Rejected interest-based politics
– New social, economic, and welfare approaches
• Citizen’s conditional right to assistance
– Leadership in Europe
– Devolution of central powers
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After September 11
• Close alliance between United States and
United Kingdom
– Special relationship created by bond of language,
culture, national interests governed relations for
fifty years
– Many Britons became disenchanted
• Committed Britain to policies outside its control
• Increased security risks
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Themes and Implications
• Past continues to influence future
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Historical Junctures
and Political Themes (1 of 3)
• Country’s relative world position influences
ability to manage domestic and international
challenges
– Weaker international standing means it is more
difficult to control international events or insulate from
pressures
• Britain’s position in nineteenth century confirms
this statement
• Decolonization pushed Britain to second tier
– World War II legacy gives Britain United Nations
position
– Lesser position in relation to United States and
European Union
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Historical Junctures
and Political Themes (2 of 3)
Economic strategies
• Britain’s economy relied on international competitiveness
• Unknown how this will be impacted by increased
globalization and European Union integration
Political influence of the democratic ideal
• Renewed questions concerning the role of the monarchy,
constitutional form, state unity
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Historical Junctures
and Political Themes (3 of 3)
Collective identities
– How individuals define political identity in terms of
group attachments, political goals, political status
• Decolonization helped create multiracial and
multiethnic society
– Issues of race, ethnicity, cultural identity challenge
British values of tolerance and consensus
– Concept of “Britishness” being debated
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Implications for Comparative Politics
• Britain’s historical firsts
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Industrialize
Parliamentary democracy
Dominance of British Empire
Westminster model – democracy rests on supreme
authority of the legislature
– Gradual and peaceful evolution of democracy
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Political Economy and Development
• Neoliberalism underscores New Labour
– Policies promote free competition, minimize
government interference with business, encourage
foreign investment
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State and Economy
• British economy has two track character
– Growth in service sector
– Weak industrial sector
• Economic concerns
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Manufacturing productivity gap
Balance of trade deficit
Low rates of domestic investment
Economy being squeezed by rising costs of fuel, declining
house values, credit crunch
• Radical shifts create political challenges
– Heavy industry to service
– Net exporter to net importer
– Gender gap in voting and work
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Economic Management
• Government interventions in economy limited to
macroeconomic policy
– Adjust state revenue and expenditures to achieve
short term goals
– Dominant policy from 1945 through 1997
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The Consensus Era
• Government followed a more interventionist
policy during World War I, interwar years, World
War II, and post World War II
– Followed Keynesian economics
• Budget deficit to boost economy
• Government spending and access to credit cut during high
growth periods
• Welfare provisions
– Became unpopular during 1970s with increased labor
unrest
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Thatcherite Policy Orientation
• Rejected Keynesianism for monetarism
– Assumes market drive “natural rate of
unemployment”
– State intervention limited to money supply and
inflation
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New Labour’s
Economic Policy Approach
• “Platform of stability”
– Reduce public debt
– Eventually used economic growth to increase
spending
– Focus on policies to create jobs
• New Growth Theory
– See globalization as positive
– Highly skilled labor force encourages growth and
competitiveness
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Political Implications
of Economic Policy
• British governments never consistently followed
a specific economic theory – political
consequences of economic orientation
more important
– Justifies moral and cultural vision of society
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Social Policy
• Social and political role of welfare state
dependent on policy goals and instruments as
well as spending
– Social security
– Welfare state provisions minimally interfere with
market
– Reduction of group inequalities not seen as proper
state goal
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The Welfare State
Under Thatcher and Major
• Encouraged private and public education,
pensions, health care
• Increased social services efficiency
• Reduced dependency
• Policy changes to expenditures and
institutionalized pattern of provisions, most
notably in housing
– Limited by popular support of collective provision for
basic needs
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New Labour Social Policy
• Seen as opportunity to balance pragmatism and
innovation
• Focused on training and broad social investment
– Reform emphasized efficiency and reduced welfare
dependence
– Programs developed for different groups
– Efforts to include marginalized groups
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Society and Economy
• Distributional effects of economic and social
policies
– Economic inequality grew during 1980s, stabilized in
1990s, modest downward redistribution since 1997
– Significant disadvantages continue for ethnic
minorities and women
• Child poverty has been, and continues to be, a
problem
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Society and Economy
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Inequality and
Ethnic Minorities (1 of 2)
• Includes non-European origin from former
British colonies in Indian subcontinent,
Caribbean, Africa
• Disproportionately affected by poverty and
diminished opportunity
– Cultural isolation and marginalization in education,
job training, housing, labor reinforced by poor
economic success
– Considerable variation among communities and
professions
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Inequality and
Ethnic Minorities (2 of 2)
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Inequality and Women
• Inequality in labor participation and wages
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Full time gender pay gap narrowed
Part time gender pay gap 40.2%
Inequality of lifetime earnings
Child care costly
• Government has implemented family-friendly
policies although at the minimum European
Union standard
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Britain in the Global Economy
• Britain’s economic policies and political climate
encourages foreign direct investment
• Comparatively strong microeconomic and
growth competitiveness
– Competitive disadvantages undermine New Growth
Theory
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Governance and Policymaking
• Britain’s constitution
– Not a formal written document
• Combination of statutory law, common law, convention,
authoritative interpretations
– Can be dated back to Bill of Rights of 1689
• Hereditary institutions active government participants
(Crown, House of Lords)
• Governmental power limited by widely supported rules of
conduct
• Few absolute principles of government
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Organization of the State
• Parliamentary sovereignty
– Parliament makes and overturns law unrestricted by
executive, judiciary, crown
– Parliament accepted limitations of European
Communities Act of 1972
• Unitary state
– Quasi-federal state introduced under Blair
• Fusion of powers – legislative and executive
– Cabinet government – collective decisions
• Constitutional monarchy
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The Executive
• Cabinet government
– Key functions: policymaking, control of government,
coordination between departments
• Executive influence includes cabinet, ministries,
civil service, Parliament
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Cabinet Government (1 of 3)
• Party with majority seats in House of Commons forms
government, serves as Prime Minister
• Prime Minister selects and heads cabinet, helps develop
policy, coordinates, and liaises with media, the party,
interest groups, Parliament
• Cabinet:
– Cabinet ministers must also be members of Parliament
– Serves as check on Prime Minister
• Unified by collective responsibility
• Significant decisions require majority support
• Easily controlled by strong executive
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Cabinet Government (2 of 3)
• Work of cabinet supported by
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Cabinet committees (ministers)
Official committees (civil service)
Treasury (through budget)
Whips (legislation passage)
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Cabinet Government (3 of 3)
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Bureaucracy and Civil Service
• In practice shares policymaking with cabinet
• Permanent secretary runs department
• Principle private secretary appointed by cabinet
minister to liaison with civil service
• Reforms have streamlined and reshaped civil
service
– Concern that this may be effort to exact control
– Special advisors undermining civil service
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Public and Semipublic Institutions
• Administrative functions beyond core executive
functions and agencies
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Nationalized Industries
• Nationalization key to Labour government
program through postwar era
• Lost popularity by end of Thatcher era
• Unlikely New Labour will return to nationalization
• More likely to see semipublic administrative
organizations and public/private partnerships
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Nondepartmental Public Bodies and
Public/Private Partnerships
• Nondepartmental Public Bodies – receive government
funding, function, and appointment of staff but do not
operate under direct control of ministers
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Also known as quasi-nongovernmental organizations (quangos)
Increasing policy influence and political advantages
Combine government and private expertise
Allows ministers distance from controversial policy
• Government also expanding private sector investment in
public sector capital projects
– Controversial results
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Other State Institutions
•
•
•
•
Military
Police
Judiciary
Subnational government
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The Military and the Police
• Both traditionally distanced from politics by
tradition and professionalism
• Military
– Focused on North Atlantic Treaty Organization
– Ranked among top 5 in world
– Thatcher and Major deployed to increase political and
global influence
– Iraq involvement unpopular
• Police
– Traditionally independent, local but increased
government control, centralization, politicization
since 1980s
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The Judiciary
• Role limited by parliament sovereignty
– No judicial review
– Limited to determination of violation of common law
or act of Parliament
• Jurists participate in political issues
• Significant proposed reforms
– Abolish office of Lord Chancellor
– Law Lords moved to “supreme court”
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Subnational Government
• Local governments
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No constitutional powers
Considerable financial and policy discretion
Increasing fiscal checks through Thatcher era
Regional Development Agencies introduced by New
Labour
– New Labour changes to London governance
• Little popular support for regional government
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The Policymaking Process
• Policymaking from executive with little direct
participation by Parliament
– Strongly influenced by policy committees
• Informal, knowledgeable, connected
– Insider-only process
– Challenged by European Union authority, process,
constraints
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Representation and Participation
• Parliamentary sovereignty
– Neither executive nor judiciary can override
– No Parliament bound by actions of previous
Parliament
• In practice House of Commons limited
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The Legislature
• Parliament not as sovereign in practice as in
tradition
– 1830s to 1880s – collaborated in policymaking,
legislation amended or rejected on floor of House
of Commons
– Today – House of Commons assents, effective
oversight shifted to executive
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The Legislative Process
• Bills introduced in House of Commons and House
of Lords
• Approval of House of Lords not required
• Three readings in House of Commons
– First: At Introduction
– Second: After distribution and general debate and followed by a
vote
– Third: After review to reflect party balance and introduction of
new amendments
• After third reading same pattern in House of Lords where
accepted, amended, or rejected
• Custom has House of Lords passing tax and budget
matters without alteration
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The House of Commons
• Lower house of Parliament
• Three functions
– Pass laws
– Authorize taxation
– Review public administration and government policy
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•
•
•
Limited legislative function in practice
Highly visible arena for policy debate
Ultimate authority is to defeat government
Balance of power has shifted to governing party
and executive
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The House of Lords
• Upper chamber of Parliament
• Unelected – hereditary peers, life peers, law
lords, archbishops of Canterbury and York,
senior bishops of Church of England
• Final court of appeal for civil cases and criminal
cases in England, Wales, Northern Ireland
• Amend and delay legislation
• Reforms introduced by Blair
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Behavioral
Changes: Backbench Dissent
• Backbenchers - members of governing party
with no governmental office and opposition
• Traditionally deferential
• Increased backbench dissent
– Rebellion against European Union policy
– Rebellions against Blair since 2003
– Potential rebellions against Brown
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Structural
Changes: Parliamentary Committees
• Select committees revived in 1979
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Examine specific policies of administration
Help exert Parliamentary control over executive
Hold hearings, take testimony, issue reports
Reform has compelled civil service to testify against
ministers
– Not powerful
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Political Parties and the Party System
• Britain commonly described as two-party
– Since 1945 only Labour and Conservative
governments
– Center parties increasing influence since 1980s
– Several national parties also competing
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The Labour Party
• Founded by trade union representatives and
socialist societies
• Became major party with victory in 1945
– Began moderating ideology and expanding base
– Significantly changed since 1970s
• Divisions between key elements and over foreign policy
issues
• Agreement re-emerged in 1980s
• Currently moderate left-of-center
– Electoral performance more important than ideology
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The Conservative Party
• Dates to eighteenth century
• One of most successful parties in Europe
• Roots of modern welfare state date to Prime
Minister Disraeli (1874-1880)
• Currently experiencing internal divisions over
Britain’s role in European Union
– Led to Thatcher’s fall
– Party seen in turmoil
– Cameron assumed party leadership in 2005
• Reoriented party
• Repositioned party as more centrist
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Liberal Democrats
• Liberal Party only challenge to Labour and
Conservatives through 1970s
• 1981 Social Democrats formed from split in
Labour Party
• After 1987 Liberal and Social Democrats
merged
• After success in 2001 election positioned as
center-left critic of New Labour
– New Labour limited policy open to criticism
• Since 2003 facing leadership challenges
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Elections
• Legislative posts only
• Parliament – maximum five years but no fixed
term
• General elections after Crown dissolved
Parliament at request of prime minister
• Ability to control timing political asset for prime
minister
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The Electoral System (1 of 2)
• Commons
– Representatives called members of Parliament or
MPs
– First-past-the-post elections/ Single member plurality
system
• Reduces influence of small parties
• Exaggerates victory of largest party
• Two and one half party system (Conservative,
Labour, Liberal Democrat)
– Stable, single party government
– Contributes to Parliament of white men
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The Electoral System (2 of 2)
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Trends in Electoral Behavior
• Recent elections deepened geographic and
regional fragmentation
– Multiple two party systems
– National parties challenged since 1970s
– Liberal Democrats increasing representation
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Political Culture,
Citizenship, and Identity
• 1970s- economy, ideological challenges,
social changes fragmented politics which shifted
to right
• Key change to political culture is weakening of
class bonds
• National identity complicated by Europeanization
and globalization
• Political community fragmented to smaller
communities
• New Labour more sensitive to women’s issues
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Interests, Social
Movements, and Protest
• Political protest increasing
– Demands for accountability and transparency in
international trade and development agencies
– Environmental activism
– Protests of high fuel prices
– Farm and rural protests
– War in Iraq
– Union strikes
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British Politics in Transition
• Northern Ireland
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2001 Irish Republican Army began disarming
2002 home rule government suspended
2005 elections strengthened radical parties
2007 power sharing agreement with peace dividend,
devolution restored
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Political Challenges
and Changing Agendas
• Issues about democratic governance and
citizens’ participation
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Constitutional Reform
• Role of Monarchy and House of Lords, balance
of power between institutions, accountability of
British government
• Mixed success of reforms
– Freedom of Information Act passed in 2002 but
implementation slow and weakens effect
– Blair Parliament reforms still incomplete
• Devolution implies federalism and reduction of
Parliamentary sovereignty
– Legislation for Scottish independence
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Identities in Flux
• Minority representation in Parliament low
• Issues of immigration, refugees, asylum
– New policy limits non-European Union immigration to
highly skilled
• Increased scrutiny of Muslim community
• Challenge to ensure both security and ties of
shared political culture and values
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British Politics, Terrorism, and Britain’s
Relationship with the United States
• Immediate support after September 11 eroded
– Bush became liability because of unknown impact of
foreign policy
– Blair refused advice to make support of war
conditional on achievement of ends
– Complicated by fallout of July 7 London bombings
– Brown distanced himself by foreign policy
appointments
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British Politics in Comparative
Perspective
• Britain’s non-interventionist economic policies of
the 1990s defied accepted theory
– Britain avoided recession of 1990s
– New Labour’s Third Way seen in other countries
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Key Terms (1 of 14)
• Parliamentary democracy: System of
government in which the chief executive is
answerable to the legislature and may be
dismissed by it. Parliamentary democracy
stands in contrast to a presidential system, in
which the chief executive is elected in a national
ballot and is independent of the legislative
branch.
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Key Terms (2 of 14)
• Free trade: International commerce that is
relatively unregulated or constrained by tariffs
(special payments imposed by governments on
exports or imports).
• Hegemonic power: A state that can control the
pattern of alliances and terms of the
international order, and often shapes domestic
political developments in countries throughout
the world.
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Key Terms (3 of 14)
• Laissez-faire: The doctrine that government
should not interfere with commerce. Relative to
other advanced democracies, the United States
has traditionally taken a more laissez-faire
attitude toward economic regulation, though
regulation increased in the twentieth century.
• Welfare state: Not a form of state, but rather a
set of public policies designed to provide for
citizens’ needs through direct or indirect
provisions of pensions, health care,
unemployment insurance, and assistance
to the poor.
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Key Terms (4 of 14)
• Special relationship: A term used to describe
the close affinity between the United States and
the United Kingdom since World War II, based
on common language and close geopolitical ties
and dramatized by Blair’s decision to “stand
shoulder to shoulder” with the United States
when a coalition led by the U.S. invaded Iraq in
2003 to topple the regime of Saddam Hussein
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Key Terms (5 of 14)
• Westminster model: A form of democracy
based on the supreme authority of Parliament
and the accountability of its elected
representatives; named after the Parliament
building in London.
• Neoliberalism: A term used to describe
government policies aiming to promote free
competition among business firms within the
market, notably, liberalization and monetarism.
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Key Terms (6 of 14)
• Gender gap: Politically significant differences in
social attitudes and voting behavior between
men and women.
• Macroeconomic policy: Government policy
intended to shape the overall economic system
at the national level by concentrating on policy
targets such as inflation or growth
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Key Terms (7 of 14)
• Keynesianism: Named after the British
economist John Maynard Keynes, an approach
to economic policy in which state economic
policies are used to regulate the economy in an
attempt to achieve stable economic growth.
During recession, state budget deficits are used
to expand demand in an effort to boost both
consumption and investment and create
employment. During periods of high growth
when inflation threatens, cuts in government
spending and a tightening of credit are used to
reduce demand.
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Key Terms (8 of 14)
• Monetarism: An approach to economic policy
that assumes a natural rate of unemployment
determined by the labor market, and rejects the
instrument of government spending to run
budgetary deficits for stimulating the economy..
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Key Terms (9 of 14)
• New Growth Theory: An approach to economic
policy that uses economic growth, rather than
tax cutting, to increase spending. The fluidity of
capital undermines a sole focus on domestic
economics. Thus the focus is on increasing
employment and investment opportunities and
improving competitive position through
business-government partnership.
• Foreign direct investment: Ownership of or
investment in cross-border enterprises in which
the investor plays a direct managerial role.
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Key Terms (10 of 14)
• Parliamentary sovereignty: A constitutional
principle of government (principally in Britain)
by which the legislature reserves the power
to make or overturn any law without recourse
by the executive, the judiciary, or the
monarchy. Only parliament can nullify or
overturn legislation approved by Parliament;
and Parliament can force the cabinet or the
government to resign by voting a motion of
no confidence.
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Key Terms (11 of 14)
• Unitary state: By contrast to the federal
systems of Germany, India, Canada, or the
United States, where power is shared between
the central government and state or regional
governments, in a unitary state (such as Britain)
no powers are reserved constitutionally for
subnational units of government.
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Key Terms (12 of 14)
• Fusion of powers: A constitutional principle that
merges the authority of branches of government,
in contrast to the principle of separation of
powers. In Britain, for example, Parliament is the
supreme legislative, executive, and judicial
authority. The fusion of legislature and executive
is also expressed in the function and personnel
of the cabinet.
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Key Terms (13 of 14)
• Cabinet government: a system of government,
as in Britain, in which the cabinet (rather than
the prime minister) exercises responsibility for
formulating policy and directing both the
government and the executive branch. In the
UK, cabinet government has been undermined
as a check on the power of the prime minister.
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Key Terms (14 of 14)
• Constitutional monarchy: System of
government in which the head of state ascends
by heredity, but is limited in powers and
constrained by the provisions of a constitution.
• Quangos: Acronym for quasi-nongovernmental
organizations, the term used in Britain for
nonelected bodies that are outside traditional
governmental departments or local authorities.
They have considerable influence over public
policy in areas such s education, health care,
and housing.
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