Weather and Climate
Atmosphere- the invisible ocean of air we live in. It is made up of 78% Nitrogen, 20.9%
Oxygen, and .9% Argon. Small amounts of other gases are also present such as carbon
dioxide and water vapor.
Molecules- are the gases that make up our atmosphere. As gas molecules move about, they
spread outward and upward. There are more molecules near the Earth’s surface because of
gravity. The higher up you go in the atmosphere the less dense the molecules are meaning
the atmosphere thins out as you go higher.
Atmospheric pressure- is produced y molecules hitting a surface.
Altitude- height
Barometer- measures atmospheric pressure. Most barometers are made of mercury. When
the mercury drops significantly this means a storm is approaching. The mercury will rise
again once the storm has passed.
There are four layers of the Earth:
 Troposphere- also called the zone of weather, because it’s the lowest layer
where all the weather occurs. Temperatures decrease with increasing
altitude (meaning the higher you go up, the colder it is.)
 Stratosphere- is the 2nd layer of the atmosphere. The temperatures
increase with increasing altitude. This layer contains the ozone layer. The
ozone filters harmful ultraviolet radiation from the sun.
 Mesosphere- is the 3rd layer of the atmosphere. Temperatures decrease
with increasing altitude.
 Thermosphere-surrounds the mesosphere and temperatures increase as you
go up in altitude. This layer is also sometimes known as the ionosphere.
Wind- is the movement of air.
Cold air- moves downward. It is heavier.
Warm air- rises because it is lighter.
Convection- is when cooler, denser air moves from an area of high pressure to low pressure
(the forests to the streets), it pushes the warm, less dense air upward. This process of
warmer air being pushed up is called convection.
The water cycle- is a continuous process of water moving from air to ground. The four
stages are:
 Precipitation- water that falls to the surface of the Earth (snow, ice, hail or rain)
Much of the precipitation goes into the ground and is called groundwater. If it does not
go into the ground it is called runoff or surface water.
 Evaporation –water molecules that escape and become water vapor
Transpiration- groundwater is absorbed by the roots and plants and the unneeded
water is evaporated from tiny openings called the stomata in the leaves in a process
known as transpiration.
 Condensation-example- the dew on a leaf, the bathroom shower that has fogged up.
Humidity- is the amount of water vapor in the air.

Facts:
 Warm air can hold more water vapor than cool air.
 Warm air can hold up to five times as much water vapor as cold air on a winter day.
This is why there is more humidity in the summer.
 100% humidity means that the air is saturated with the maximum amount of water
vapor that it can hold at a certain temperature. This could mean that is it raining.
50% humidity means that the air is holding half of the water vapor that it can at
that temperature.
Relative humidity- tells how much water vapor is in the air compared to the total that could
be in the air at a given temperature.
Dew- is the water droplets that form on the grass and other surfaces. If it is below
freezing the dew becomes frost which is harmful to plants.
Clouds must have three things in order to form. 1. water vapor in the air 2. cooling in the
atmosphere 3. condensation
There



are 3 basic shapes of clouds:
Cumulus-piled up
Stratus-spread out
Cirrus-hair-like strands
Cumulus clouds from when moist air collects rapidly over a small area. The moisture will pile
up and form cumulus clouds.
Cumulonimbus clouds- creates thunderstorms.
Stratus clouds- form as air rises gently over a large area and then cools slowly. They are
not piled up, but spread out over the sky.
Cirrus clouds- are the highest in the atmosphere. They look like wispy feathers.
Large areas of air with the same temperature and moisture levels of the surface are
referred to as air masses.
Air masses are very large, and move like giant air bubbles over the earth.
Cold air masses produce cooler weather, and warm air masses bring warmer weather.
Air masses are classified by their temperature and moisture, and get their names from the
source regions where they develop.
Temperature characteristics are defined by: Arctic, Antarctic Polar, Equatorial, and
Tropical.
Maritime- an air mass that is moist, and forms over the oceans
Continental- an air mass that is dry, forming over the continents
Wet air masses-form over oceans
Dry air masses-form over continents
Equatorial air masses- considered wet, they form over areas with rainforests which adds
moisture
Arctic and Antarctic air masses-considered dry, there is little evaporation and very low
temperatures.
The temperature of a place depends on the source of the air mass and the path of the air
mass.
The leading edge of a moving air mass is called a front.
A cold front occurs at the edge of a cold air mass.
A warm front occurs at the edge of a warm air mass.
If air masses are not moving, then the space between the masses is called a stationary
front. Stationary fronts bring overcast, rainy weather.
Occluded fronts occur when two cold air masses move toward each other, and warmer air is
pushed upward. Occluded fronts bring cool temperatures with rain or snow.
Low pressure areas bring cloudy and rainy weather. Rapid changes in low-pressure area
cause storms. Three types of violent storms include thunderstorms, tornadoes, and
hurricanes.
Thunderstorms- very intense rainstorms with thunder, lightning, strong winds, and
sometimes hail
Lightning- when an electrical spark is generated from either a cloud to a cloud, cloud to the
ground, or ground to a cloud.
Tornado- an extremely violent storm, consisting of a funnel or rope-shaped cloud which
hangs below a cumulonimbus cloud.
Hurricane- a large, violent storm created over water.
Hurricane Floyd caused severe flooding, and severely damaged the coastal plain of North
Carolina in 1999.
Gulf stream- ocean current flowing along the coast of the Eastern United State, up to
Ireland and Great Britain.
Hurricane Katrina hit Mississippi and Louisiana in August 2005. It was the worst hurricane
to ever hit the U.S.
Meteorologists are scientists who monitor weather conditions.
Meteorologists use a synoptic weather map to forecast the weather.
Statistical forecasting is based on finding patterns or trends in weather.
Weather forecasting depends on sophisticated technology that gathers information from
all across the nation.
Weather map- meteorologists use different lines and symbols to represent different types
of weather
Thermometer- used to measure air temperature
Barometer- used to measure air pressure
Wind vane- measures the direction of the wind blowing
Anemometer- measures wind speed
Hygrometer- measure humidity
National Weather Service- where all weather information collected from weather
satellites and radars is sent
Geostationary- a term used by scientists to describe an orbit of a satellite when it appears
to be in the same position because it is moving in synchrony with the Earth’s rotation.
Polar- a type of satellite orbit near the North or South Pole
Radar- uses radio waves to measure the distance and location of weather such as rain
Weather- the day to day atmospheric conditions in a certain area
Climate- the average weather conditions in a certain area over a long period of time
Temperature and Precipitation are the two most important factors in determining climate.
Three major climate zones in each atmosphere
 Polar- located around North and South Poles, very cold climates
 Temperate- “mid-latitudes”, moderate temperatures neither very cold or
very hot
 Tropical- very mild temperatures year-round
Distance from the equator determines precipitation patterns.
Orographic precipitation- when moist air rises to the top of a mountain, the air cools, new
water condenses as rain or snow and falls on the windward or top of mountain.
Rain shadow- the leeward side of the mountain that receives dry and warming air
Large bodies of water and ocean currents also influence climate.
Sea breezes- help keep the temperature down near the coast
Ocean currents are like massive rivers within the ocean.
Warm



Ocean Currents get their power from 3 main sources:
Heat from the sun
Strong winds
The spinning of the Earth on its axis
Cold Ocean Currents run deep below the surface of the ocean, where the water is not
warmed by the sun. As winds blow warm surface water out to sea, the cold water fills in the
gap.
Jet stream- the fast moving narrow zones of air in the troposphere which blow from the
west to the east due to the earth’s rotation.
Valley breeze- warm air that rises and flows up the mountains during the day
Mountain breeze- cool air that sinks and flows down the mountains at night
Forces That Shape the Earth
Three



main layers of the Earth’s interior are:
Crust, outer layer
Mantle, middle layer
Core, last layer, the center of the earth
Seismic waves- vibrations that move through the Earth’s layers
Seismograph- measures seismic waves
Moho boundary- represents the transition between the Earth’s crust and mantle
Asthenosphere- the upper part of the mantle which has properties of a plastic
Lithosphere- very top part of the mantle, includes continents and ocean basins
Constructive Forces- forces that build new land
Destructive Forces- forces that break down land
Ocean Floor- found below the water of the ocean
The Earth’s crust (both the land we live on and the ocean floor) is broken into about twenty
pieces. These pieces are called plates.
Plate boundary- the place where two plates meet, they are site of mountains, trenches,
volcanoes, and earthquakes.
Plate boundaries are very active places. Plates are either pushing or pulling, causing three
types of forces to act of the crust:
 Tension- stretches or pulls apart the crust
 Compression- squeezes or pushes together the crust
 Shear- twists, tears, or pushes one part of the crust past another
Folding- the bending of rock at plate boundaries
Fracture- when the force of the pushing is greater than the strength of the rock, a deep
fracture is formed
Volcanic activity- the release of molten rock from below the Earth’s crust
Volcanoes- molten rock that has cooled and over time piles up into mountains, found in
oceans and on land
Hot spot- a large well of magma, volcanoes can be found here
5 basic types of volcanoes
Plateau basalts- outpourings of fluid lava, cone shaped
Shield volcanoes- central cone, non-violent eruptions, broad and gentle slopes
Composite cones- “typical” volcano, steep slopes, powerful eruptions
Plug domes- most dangerous, thick slow rising magma, eventually explodes
Cinder cones- small, very steep-sided, ash-rich, with little lava
Ring of Fire- located on the rim of the Pacific Plate, site of many earthquakes, most of the
world’s volcanoes are here.
Seismic waves- vibrations in the Earth
Earthquakes- are one form of seismic activity
Tsunami- made up of gigantic waves that are caused when the ocean is moved by
earthquakes, landslides, or volcanoes
Fault- a crack in the earth’s ground, where movement occurs
Aftershocks- after an earthquake, a weaker rumbling
Focus- the place on a fault where the earthquake begins
Epicenter- the point on the surface of the earth, directly above the focus
Sam Andreas Fault- dividing line between the Pacific Plate and the North American Plate,
in California
Surface waves- a type of seismic wave which travels along the surface
Body waves- another type of seismic wave which travels through the Earth’s interior
Richter scale- scale used to measure the strength of an earthquake, based on amplitude or
height of the surface waves.
Physical Weathering- occurs as rocks are broken apart
Frost Wedging- the freezing and melting of water in rocks causing rocks to split
Chemical weathering- changes rocks into new substances.
Erosion- particles are loosened and carried away from rocks, running water is a major
cause, wind also causes erosion
Flood plain- the excess water, and rich sediments across the low-lying land surrounding the
stream, very fertile farm land
Deltas are triangular land forms, created by deposition, when sediment is deposited at the
mouth of a river where it meets the sea
Formation of Landforms
Continental Shelf- a gentle sloping rock platform that borders a continent, slopes down
about 180 meters
Continental Slope- next descent after continental shelf, it is a sharp tilt downward that
falls nearly 3,800 meters down
Continental Rise- at the bottom of the slope, a pile of debris that has been collected and
formed a soft upward slope.
If you were to go up and over the continental rise you would reach the ocean floor. Here
there are plains, which are large flat areas of land; there are also trenches, which are deep,
narrow valleys.
Mid- Atlantic Ridge- series of underwater mountains
Landforms- feature that make up the Earth’s surface
Landforms on the Globe
Barrier Islands- long narrow strip of land made from sand deposited in shallow
water by waves
Beach- formed when waves meet gently sloping land and push sand and pebbles onto
the land
Butte- a flat-topped rock or hill with steep sides
Canyon- is a deep valley with very steep side mainly found in arid and semiarid areas
Delta- low, watery land formed at the mouth of a river
Desert- very dry, barren area where precipitation amounts are small
Hill- a raised are or mound of land created by faulting or erosion of a mountain
Island- a piece of land that is surrounded by water
Meander- a bend or loop in a river that is also known as an oxbow loop
Mesa- a land formation with a flat area on top and steep walls occurring in areas of
long continued erosion
Mountain- a high steeply sloped area formed by the upward movement of rock
Peninsula- a body of land that is surrounded by water of three sides
Plain- a flat land that has been eroded nearly level or formed of flat-lying sediments
Plateau- a large flat area of land that is higher than the surrounding land
Prairie- a wide, flat area of land that has grasses and only a few trees
River- a large, flowing body of water that usually empties into a sea or ocean
Tributary- a stream or river that flows into a larger river
Valley- a low area between hills and mountains where a stream often flows
Volcano- a mountainous vent in the Earth’s crust where magma rises from the
Earth’s interior and erupts as lava
Topographic Maps- show the shape and features of land, they show shape and elevation, as
well as special features.
Parallel River Drainage Pattern- when most rivers run side by side in the same direction
Aerial Maps- show the geological features of the Earth from a distance above the Earth
Deforestation- the changing of forested areas to non-forested land.
Slash-and-Burn-largest cause of deforestation, involves cutting down trees, then burning
the remaining vegetation
Dams- provide hydroelectric power to areas, but decrease the flow of the river, which
means fewer habitats, and nutrients
Understanding Force and Motion
Inertia- the tendency of a motionless object to remain motionless
Force- a push or pull on an object
Gravity- the force that pulls objects toward the Earth
Friction- an object’s resistance to move, this is created whenever two surfaces touch
Lift- an upward force that is able to overcome the downward pull of gravity
Drag- similar to friction, only in the air
Aerodynamic designs reduce drag.
Thrust- a forward force produced by an engine
Motion is measured in terms of speed.
SPEED=
Distance traveled
Time it takes to travel that distance
Velocity- the measure of speed that takes into account the direction of the movement
Acceleration- is a measure of the rate of change of an object’s speed
Acceleration= speed
Time
Slope- the distance covered while coming down fro a height is called slope
Gravity does not care about mass. The increase in acceleration is the same for all objects
as they fall closer and closer to the earth.
Work is done when a force moves an object.
Energy- the ability to do work
Work that goes into a machine is work input. The work done by a machine is work output.
There






are six types of simple machines:
Inclined Plane- ramp, the simplest machine of all
Wedge- an inclined plan that moves through an object
Screw- an inclined plane that is wrapped around a cylinder to form a spiral
Lever- a bar that pivots around a fixed point
Wheel and Axle- made up of a large circle and smaller circle
Pulley-changes direction in which you have to apply force, made up of a rope and a
wheel
Unbalanced Force- when the total force on an object is moving in one direction, changes the
motion of an object
Balanced Forces- forces exerted in opposite directions and are equal in size, no change in
motion
Newton’s Three Laws of Motion:
First Law of Motion- “Law of Inertia”, An object with no unbalanced force acting on it will
wither remain at rest, or continue moving at constant speed in a straight line unless a force
acts on it.
Second Law of Motion- “Law of Acceleration”, when an unbalanced force is applied to an
object, the object accelerates. Also, the greater the force the faster the object moves.
Third Law of Motion- For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction.
Ecosystems
Ecology- is the branch of science that studies how living things interact with one another
and with their environment. All the plants and animals living in a given area, together with
the nonliving parts of the environment, make up an ecosystem.
Abiotic- nonliving factors of an ecosystem include soil, water, climate, and sunlight.
Biotic- living factors of an ecosystem that include plants, animals, and other living
organisms.
Ecosystems are typically self-sufficient and independent of other ecosystems. Any group of
living and nonliving things interacting with each other can be considered an ecosystem.
Estuary- is a partially enclosed body of water where seawater and fresh water meet and
mix. Examples include: bays, mud flats, swamps, and inlets.
Life in an estuary is influenced by the rise and fall of the tides.
Mammals birds, fish, reptiles, shellfish, and plants all live and interact in this ecosystem to
create very complex food webs.
The soil, sand, and mud in an estuary are full of rich decaying matter in which plants thrive.
During the day, when the tide is out, creatures such as clams and oysters close their shell
for protection. An estuary comes “alive” at night when the tide returns. The returning
seawater (high tide) floods the estuary bringing protection from predators.
Estuaries also act as natural buffers between the land and the ocean. They protect the
mainland and people from the major force of heavy storms.
Salt marshes- occur in places where the land meets the sea, such as barrier islands and
other coastal areas.
Salinity-salt content (amount of salt in the water) depends on whether it is located close to
the ocean or further upstream in the estuary. The water level and salinity level determine
which plants and animals make their homes there.
Microscopic organisms like bacteria, fungi and algae make their home in the decaying marsh
grasses. The plants of the salt marsh provide shelter from predators, especially for young
animals who use the salt marsh as a nursery.
Oceans- cover three-quarters of the Earth’s surface.
Pond- is a body of water shallow enough to allow plant roots to reach the bottom.
Lakes- bigger than a pond and is too deep to support plant roots except near the shore.
Biosphere- is the part of the Earth where life exists. The biosphere is characterized by
large regions. These regions making up the biosphere are called biomes.
Temperature- is the major factor in determining the biome. This includes not just the
average temperature, but things such as the length of the growing season and whether or
not it ever freezes.
There are four biomes that extend from the extreme latitudes with low temperatures to
the tropics with very warm temperatures. These are the tundra, taiga, deciduous forest,
and tropical rainforest. Other biomes are controlled not so much by temperature but by the
amount and distribution of rainfall.
Deciduous forest- is an area with a high density of trees.
Photosynthesis- allows trees to capture energy from the sun and use it to grow. As the
chlorophyll in the leaves breaks down, the colors of the leaves are exposed and the leaves
change color. To survive the long winters, trees become dormant and drop their leaves.
When spring arrives and the days become warmer, the process of photosynthesis begins the
cycle again.
Grasslands- are big open spaces with only a few bushes and trees that are found by rivers
and streams. These grasslands are often found between forests and deserts. The amount
of rainfall that occurs in a grassland is a major factor in its maintaining its characteristics.
Desert- is a land of extreme heat and dryness. Temperatures in excess of 200 degrees
Fahrenheit are common.
Tundra- is located at the top of the world near the North Pole. The frigid cold and deep
snow makes life difficult in the tundra.
Taiga- is south of the tundra. This is an area of dense evergreen forests of coniferous
trees. In the winter, food shortness and coldness make like difficult. Some animals
hibernate and others fly south if they can. The average temperature is below freezing for
6 months out of the year.
Tropical rainforest-in the extreme south near the equator and receives plenty of rainfell
all year long. An average of 50 to 260 inches of rain falls yearly. Rainforests cover less that
6% of the Earth’s land surface, but produce 40% of the Earth’s oxygen.
Ecosystems are not lush gardens of unlimited resources. There is fierce competition for
food, space, and mates.
Niche- is an organism’s “address” in the community. It defines where an animal lives, what it
eats and what it gives back to the ecosystem.
Every single organism depends on the sun for survival.
Plants are producers because they provide their own energy.
Animals are consumers because they get their energy indirectly, either by eating animals
that eat plants.
Primary consumer-an animal that eats only producers
Secondary consumer- an animal that eats a primary consumer, secondary refers to the fact
that the organism is removed from the original source of energy-the plant.
Consumers that eat only plants are called herbivores
Carnivores are animals that eat only other animals.
Omnivores eat both plants and animals.
When animals die, their bodies return to the soil. Decomposers are organisms in the soil
that break down this matter into simple nutrients. These simple nutrients are then used by
plants to grow. Fungi, such as mushrooms, and bacteria are examples of decomposers.
Decomposers are the recyclers of ecosystems.
Symbiosis is a relationship in which two species live closely together. Mutualism is one type
of symbiosis is which both species benefit from the relationship. For example , many
flowers depend on insects to pollinate them. The insects are provided nectar and pollen by
the flowers, and the flowers are provided a means for reproduction by the insects
Another form of symbiosis is parasitism. A parasite is an organism that lives inside or on
another organism called a host. The parasite depends on the host for some or all of its
nourishment and often causes some harm to the host.
Scavengers feed on dead animals. They include earthworms, ants, and vultures.
Ecological pyramids are diagrams that show each trophic level in a biome. One type is the
energy pyramid . The energy pyramid shows the transfer of energy from one level to the
next. The bottom of a food chain shows the largest amount of energy which comes from the
sun. Then as you move up, energy is used but also lost in the form of heat energy.
Carbon is an element found in nature. It is found in diamonds, gasoline, and pencil lead.
Carbon is in our atmosphere in the form of carbon dioxide. In organisms, carbon dioxide is
breathed out in respiration and is released into the atmosphere in the decomposition of
dead plants and animals. Plants use carbon dioxide in photosynthesis and make sugars and
oxygen. Some of these sugars and stored in tissues of plants, and others are used by the
plant for energy.
The nitrogen cycle is needed to supply amino acids which are the building blocks of proteins
and necessary for plant growth. Nitrogen gas is 80% of our atmosphere. Decomposers
return nitrogen to the soil in a process called decomposition to start the cycle again.
Sunlight is the main energy source for life on earth.
Like light, temperature can affect the types of producers and consumers that are in an
ecosystem.
Ecosystems are constantly changing because if nature or humans. When changes occur,
older inhabitants die out and new organisms move in. The changes are called ecological
succession. This succession is a gradual replacement of one community by another.
Primary succession occurs on land surfaces where no soil exists. (rock or lava) The first
species to populate this area is called pioneer species. Lichens are the pioneer species in
lava. Lichens grow, break up the rocks, and die and add materials to help form soil in which
plants can grow.
In NC farmers are using several methods to maintain healthy soil and prevent erosion. For
example, they practice crop rotation to help keep nutrients in the soil. Crop rotation is
where a different crop is planted in the same spot every year. Mulching or spreading a layer
of straw on the ground prevents erosion by the wind. Strip farming is the growing of crops
in narrow strips, prevents erosion by leaving only part of the soil bare at any one time.
Wetlands serve as filters and purify the water that runs through them. Because if this it is
against the law in NC to fill in wetland areas.
Fossil fuels are fuels consisting of the remains of organisms preserved in tocks in the
Earth’s crust with high carbon and hydrogen. They include coal, oil, and natural gas, and are
used to operate cars, heat homes, and produce electricity.
The buildup of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere results in the greenhouse effect. The
greenhouse effect traps radiation from the sun and heats the surface of the Earth in a
process known as global warming.
Smog is the thick, polluted air containing chemical wastes which have been pumped into the
atmosphere.
Strip mining or removing layers of the Earth’s surface to obtain minerals, damages the
surface and also results in water run-off which can erode topsoil, and atmospheric emissions
which can cause pollution.
Pollutants are undesired impurities that accumulate in the environment. Some pollutants are
biodegradable and therefore are able to be decomposed by microorganisms. Other
nutrients are non-biodegradable and linger in the environment.
* Another great review is to go through your chapter reviews in your Competitive Edge
book