Anatomy & Physiology
Final Review
7 Levels of Structural
Organization
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Chemical
Organelle
Cellular
Tissue
Organ
Organ system
Organism
Anatomy vs. Physiology
• Anatomy
–“to cut”
–Study of the
structure of an
organism.
Anatomy vs. Physiology
• Physiology
– “nature”
– Study of the function of an organism.
Hematopoeisis
• Formation of
blood
• Takes place in
the skeletal
system
– Blood formed in
red marrow of
long bones in
adults
Main Functions of Systems
• Integumentary
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–
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Protection
Sensation
Vitamin D production
Temperature regulation
Excretion
Main Functions of Systems
• Skeletal
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Support
Protection
Lever system
Mineral storage
Blood cell formation
Main Functions of Systems
• Muscular
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Body movement
Maintenance of posture
Respiration
Production of body heat
Communication
Constriction of organs
and vessels
Main Functions of Systems
• Nervous
– Sensory input
– Integration
– Homeostasis
– Mental activity
– Control of skeletal
muscles
Main Functions of Systems
• Cardiovascular
– Generate & regulate
blood pressure
– Route blood
– Ensure one-way blood
flow
– Regulate blood supply
– Exchange nutrients,
waste products & gases
– Transport
Main Functions of Systems
• Digestive
– Take in food
– Break down food
– Absorb digested
molecules
– Provide nutrients
– Eliminate wastes
Main Functions of Systems
• Respiratory
– Gas exchange
– Regulation of
blood pH
– Olfaction (smell)
– Innate immunity by
preventing entry of
& by removing
microorganisms
Nervous System Pathway
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Stimulus
Receptor
Afferent pathway
Control center
Efferent pathway
Effector
Response
Body Cavities
• Dorsal
– Cranial
– Spinal
• Ventral
– Thoracic
– Abdominal
– Pelvic
Vocabulary
• Abduction
– to take away
• Adduction
– to move toward
the body
Vocabulary
• Flexion
– moves a part of the body
in ventral/anterior
direction (bend)
• Extension
– moves a part of the body
in dorsal/posterior
direction (straighten)
• Hyperextension
– moves a part of the body
in dorsal/posterior
direction (straighten)
beyond the normal range
of motion
Vocabulary
• Circumduction
– arm moves so that
it describes a cone
(freely movable
joint)
Vocabulary
• Prime mover –
muscle that plays a
major role in
accomplishing the
movement
• Synergist –
muscle that works
together to cause
movement
Vocabulary
• Antagonist
– muscle working in
opposition to another
• Fixator
– Muscle that holds one
bone in place while a
more distal bone is
moved
Vocabulary
• Acetylcholine
– neurotransmitter that diffuses across the synaptic cleft
to bind to a receptor on Na+ channel to open it (Na+
into muscle – contract…)
Muscle Contraction.
• Ca+ binds to
toponin on the actin
• Actin slides past
myosin during
contraction
• Shortens the
sarcomere
• Muscle shortens
Planes of Dissection
• A = midsagittal or
median
• B = sagittal
• C = frontal or
coronal
• D = transverse
Directional Terms
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•
•
•
•
•
•
•
A = superior
B = anterior
C = posterior
D = medial
E = lateral
F = proximal
G = distal
H = inferior
Muscle Tissue
• Skeletal or striated
– Long, cylindrical
cells
– Several nuclei per
cell
– Striated
– Voluntary
– Attaches to
skeleton
– Function =
movement
Muscle Tissue
• Smooth
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–
–
–
–
Tapered at each end
One nucleus per cell
NOT striated
Involuntary
Forms walls of hollow
organs
– Function = regulates
the size of organs;
forces fluids through
tubes
Muscle Tissue
• Cardiac
– Cylindrical, branched
with intercalated discs
– One nucleus per cell
– Striated
– Involuntary
– Heart
– Function = Pumps
blood
Facial Muscles and Functions
• Orbicularis oris
– Closes the mouth, protrudes
the lips (pout); kissing
muscle
• Orbicularis oculi
– Closes your eyes, squints,
blink & winks.
• Frontalis
– Raises eyebrows, wrinkles
forehead.
Facial Muscles and Functions
• Buccinator
– Flattens the cheek. Also listed as a chewing muscle
• Masseter
– covers the angle of the lower jaw as it runs from the
zygomatic process of the temporal bone to the
mandible.
• Zygomaticus
– “Smiling muscle” – raises the corners of the mouth
upward .
• Temporalis
– Synergist of the masseter in closing the jaw.
Central Nervous System
• Brain
• Spinal cord
Motor Neuron
• Axons – cell process,
conducts AP away from
cell body
• Dendrites - cell
processes, conducts AP
toward cell body
• Node of ranvier- gaps in
sheath
• Cell body – contains the
nucleus; site of general
cell functions
Motor Neuron
• Synaptic cleft – space
between the presynaptic
terminal and the muscle
fiber
• Myelin – white lipoprotein
that encloses certain axons
and nerve fibers
• Schwann cells – neuroglial
cell forming myelin sheaths
around axons in the PNS
• Neurilemma - cell
membrane of a nerve cell
White vs. Gray Matter
• White matter
– consists of myelinated
nerve fibers; the myelin
gives it the whitish color
• Gray matter
– consists of unmyelinated
neurons (nerve cell
bodies and their
dendrites); forms the
cerebral cortex
Cerebral Lobes & Their Function
• Frontal
– voluntary motor functions,
motivation, aggression, mood,
and smell
• Parietal
– reception & evaluation of
sensory information such as
touch, pain, temp, balance &
taste
• Occipital
– reception & integration of
visual input
• Temporal
– evaluates olfactory & auditory
input; memory, abstract
thought & judgment
2 Main Fissures & Their Function
• Longitudinal fissure
– divides the left & right
hemispheres of the
cerebrum
• Lateral fissure
– Separates most of the
temporal lobe from the
cerebrum
Gyri vs. Sulci
• Gyri
– Folds that increase
the surface area of
the cortex
• Sulci
– Intervening
grooves between
the gyri
Brain Stem
• Medulla oblongata
– regulates heart rate
and blood vessel
diameter, breathing,
swallowing,
vomiting, coughing,
sneezing, balance &
coordination
Brain Stem
• Pons
– relays information
between the
cerebrum and
cerebellum; also
controls breathing,
swallowing and
balance, as well as
chewing and
salivation
Brain Stem
• Midbrain
– relay centers for
auditory nerve
pathways in CNS;
also involved in
visual reflexes,
coordination of eye
movements, control
of pupil diameter &
lens shape
Brain Stem
• Reticular
activating system
(RAS)
– Scattered
throughout the
brainstem
– Plays a role in the
sleep-wake cycle
Action Potential
• Resting membrane
– positive outside
(Na+) and negative
inside (K+)
• Depolarization
– outside becomes
more negative as
Na+ ions move into
the cell
Action Potential
• Repolarization
– K+ move out of the
cell restoring the
positive charge on
the outside and the
negative charge on
the inside. The
ionic conditions of
the resting state are
restored later by
the activity of the
Na-K pump.
What substance is produced by the
choroid plexus?
• Cerebrospinal fluid
(CSF)
Role of the Hypothalamus
• Regulation of body
temperature, water
balance and metabolism.
• Center for many drives
and emotions, & is an
important part of the
limbic system, or”
emotional visceral
brain.”
• Thirst, appetite, sex, pain
and pleasure centers are
in the hypothalamus.
Causes of Huntington’s Disease
• Degeneration of the
basal nuclei and later
of the cerebral cortex.
Normal brain
Sympathetic vs. Parasympathetic
Nervous System
• Sympathetic division
– fight or flight
– mobilizes the body during
extreme situations such as
fear, exercise or rage
– increases heart rate, blood
pressure, and blood glucose
levels
– dilates the bronchioles of the
lungs
– dilates the blood vessels in
skeletal muscles while
constricting blood vessels of
the skin and digestive
organs.
• Parasympathetic division
– resting and digesting
– chiefly concerned with:
• promoting normal
digestion and
elimination of feces and
urine
• conserving body energy,
particularly by
decreasing demands on
the cardiovascular
system.
Bile
• Function
– Emulsification and
absorption of products
of fat digestion
• Organ where produced
– Liver
• Organ where stored
– Gall bladder
Appendix
• Location
– Cecum of the large
intestine
• Appendicitis
– Inflammation of the
appendix
• Cause
– Blockage of the
secretions of the
appendix.
Anatomy of the Eye
• Sclera
– “Whites” of the eyes
• Optic disc
– Blind spot
• Fovea centralis
– Area of greatest
visual acuity
• Choroid
– Prevents light from
scattering
Anatomy of the Eye
• Tears
– Contains antibodies
and lysozyme and salt
• Cause of cataracts
– Lens become cloudy
• Aqueous humor
– Watery substance found
between cornea & lens
• Vitreous humor
– Gel-like substance behind
the lens
Anatomy of the Ear
• Outer or external ear
– composed of the
pinna and the
external auditory
meatus
– collects and directs
sound waves into the
auditory canal
Anatomy of the Ear
• Middle ear
– contains the 3
ossicles, which
transmit the
vibratory motion of
the eardrum to the
fluids of the inner
ear.
Anatomy of the Ear
• Inner ear
– Sounds waves set the
cochlear fluids in
motion, which
vibrate the basilar
membrane
– The receptor cells
(hair cells) transmit
impulses along the
cochlear nerve to the
auditory cortex
where interpretation
of the sound occurs.
Blood
• Blood is fluid connective tissue.
Centrifuged Blood Sample
• Top layer:
Plasma
– 55% of whole
blood, consists
of 90% water,
nutrients, salts,
respiratory
gases,
hormones,
plasma proteins
and various
wastes and
products of cell
metabolism
Centrifuged Blood Sample
• Buffy coat or
middle layer:
– Contains
leukocytes and
platelets
• Bottom layer:
– Erythrocytes or
red blood cells
(RBC’s)
Formed Elements of Blood
• Erythrocytes
– Most abundant
– Life span of
100-120 days
• Leukocytes
– White blood
cells (WBC’s)
– Protect the body
• Platelets
– Cell fragments
that function in
blood clotting
Hemostasis
• Stoppage of
blood flow
• Result of a break
in a blood vessel
• Steps
– Platelet plug
formation
– Vascular spasms
– Coagulation or
blood clotting
Undesirable Clotting
• Thrombus
– A clot in an
unbroken vessel
• Embolus
– A clot
(thrombus)
breaks away
from a vessel
Antigen vs. Antibody
• Antigen
– any substance – including
toxins, foreign proteins, or
bacteria – that, when
introduced to the body, is
recognized as foreign and
activates the immune system
– Blood groups are based on the
antigens they have.
• Antibody
– a specialized substance
produced by the body that can
provide immunity against a
specific antigen.
Agglutination
• Clumping of (foreign) cells, induced
by cross-linking of antigen-antibody
complexes
Nonagglutination
Agglutination
Agglutination
Universal Donor vs. Universal
Recipient
• Universal Donor
• Universal Recipient
– Blood type O
– Because it has no
antigens
Blood type Antigens
– Blood type AB
– Because it has no
antibodies
Antibodies
Can Give
Blood To
Can Receive
Blood From
A
A
Anti-B
A, AB
O, A
B
B
Anti-A
B, AB
O, B
AB
A and B
Neither AntiA nor Anti-B
AB
O,A,B,AB
O
Neither
A nor B
Anti-A &
Anti-B
O,A,B,AB
O
Heart
• Layers of the heart
–Epicardium or visceral
pericardium
–Myocardium
• Contains contractile tissue
–Endocardium
Heart
Transmission of an Impulse
Through the Heart
• The depolarization wave is initiated by the
sinoatrial (SA) node and passes through the atrial
myocardium to the atrioventricular (AV) node
• At the AV node, the impulse is delayed briefly to
give the atria time to finish contracting.
• It then passes rapidly through the AV bundle, the
bundle branches, and the Purkinje fibers,
resulting in a “wringing” contraction of the
ventricles that begin at the heart apex and moves
toward the atria.
Transmission of an Impulse
Through the Heart
Cardiac Output
• Cardiac output (CO)
– Amount of blood pumped out by each side of
the heart in one minute (ventricles)
– CO = (heart rate [HR]) x (stroke volume
[SV])
• Stroke volume
– Volume of blood pumped by each ventricle in
one contraction
• Average adult CO = 75 beats/min. X 70
ml/min. = 5250ml/min.
Heart Sounds
• Lub-dub
– Lub
• First sound is longer and louder
• Caused by closure of the
atrioventricular (AV) valves
– Dub
• Second sound is shorter and sharper
• Caused by closure of the semilunar
valves
Blood Pressure
• Systolic
– pressure at the peak of ventricular
contraction
• Diastolic
– pressure when ventricles relax
• Blood pressure is taken using an
artery.
• Normal Blood pressure = 120/80
Vasoconstriction Vs.
Vasodilation
• Sympathetic division of the autonomic
nervous system causes
vasoconstriction which increases BP
• Parasympathetic division of the
autonomic nervous system causes
vasodilation which decreases BP
Pathway of Food
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Mouth
Pharynx
Esophagus
Cardioesophageal sphincter
Stomach
Pyloric sphincter
Duodenum
Jejunum
Ileum
Pathway of Food
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Ileocecal valve
Ascending colon
Transverse colon
Descending colon
Sigmoid colon
Rectum
Anal canal
Internal and external anal sphincters
Anus
Pathway
of Food
Be able to
label this
picture.
Pathway
of Food
•Peristalsis
–Waves of
contraction
seen in
tubelike
organs
–Propels
substances
along the
tract.
Teeth
• 20 deciduous or
baby teeth
• 32 permanent teeth
Small Intestine
• 3 Sections
– Duodenum
– Jejunum
– Ileum
Small Intestine
• Chemical digestion begins in earnest
• Some enzymes are produced by intestinal
cells
• Important enzymes are produced by the
pancreas and emptied into the duodenum
• Bile formed by the liver also enters the
duodenum
• Nearly all food absorption occurs in the
small intestine.
Stomach
• HCl is
produced
in the
stomach