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Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION
Background
Throughout history, minority students have not done as well academically as their
Caucasian peers, especially African-American students and more specifically AfricanAmerican men. According to a study released by the Council of the Great City Schools
(2010):
By fourth grade only 12 percent of African-American male students read at or
above grade level, while 38 percent of white males do. By eighth grade it falls to
just 9 percent for African-American males, 33 percent for whites” (2010).
This is disheartening. Obviously something needs to be done, and most
importantly, it needs to start sooner than fourth grade. Stopping the issue before it starts,
will hopefully help prevent the issue.
Another fact that the Children’s Defense Fund (2009) points out is that “Black
and American Indian children are almost twice as likely as White children to be retained
in a grade.” A question to ask is why? It is very interesting that African-American
children who go through school learning the same things, we hope, as their peers, are
more likely to be retained. There needs to be steps taken in the classroom to ensure that
each student, no matter the ethnicity, is doing well. Schools need to start looking at the
grade levels where students of color are being retained most often and, then from there,
work on a school wide plan to provide the appropriate level of education for all students.
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In addition, the U.S. Department of Education (2010) states that, “On the longterm National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP), White students continue to
outperform African-American and Hispanic students in both reading and mathematics”
(p. 1), a trend that remains constant. Although the report also states that scores are going
up for African-Americans and Hispanics, growth is stagnant. California testing scores are
closely similar to national scores. For example, data from the California Department of
Education reveals the severity of the gap between African-Americans and Whites at the
elementary level (see Table 1):
Table 1 : Achievement Gap Between African-Americans and Whites
Percentage
Proficient in
2009
37
Percentage
Proficient in
2008
33
Percentage
Proficient in
2007
30
White
69
achievement in
English language
arts
African32
American
achievement in
Mathematics
68
62
62
30
27
25
White
achievement in
Mathematics
57
54
53
AfricanAmerican
achievement in
English language
arts
Percentage
Proficient in
2010
39
59
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This table reveals that Whites have been outperforming African-Americans for years in
education. Furthermore, The California Department of Education notes:
According to the Human Resources Research Organization (HumRRO) report
dated October 17, 2008, African-American tenth graders scored lowest when
compared to white, Asian, and Hispanic students on the English-language arts and
mathematics sections of the California High School Exit Examination (CAHSEE)
(African-American Advisory, 2009, para 3).
This is truly upsetting. Due to the trends in education for years, unfortunately this is
nothing new. Schools know these scores are going to appear as they do. Schools also
know the statistics (as stated above) on reading levels and retention. There needs to be
several programs put in place, if African-American students are not going to high school
prepared. For example, there could be additional tutoring provided after school.
Education Week (2010) states, “Although more than three-quarters of white and
Asian students in the United States earn diplomas, high school outcomes are much worse
for others. Among Latinos, 56 percent successfully finish high school, while 54 percent
of African-Americans” complete high school (p.4). The only group with a lower
percentile is Native Americans.
When looking at the test scores from elementary school through high school, it is
clear African-American males are most vulnerable in the United States education system.
African-American males are falling behind educationally at such high rates that they have
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very high dropout rates and higher prison rates than that of many other ethnic groups.
According to Frierson and Pearson (2009):
The dropout rate of African-American males in high school is greater than
50% in the largest urban school districts and the rate is often masked by
the greater number and relative success of African-American females (p.
230).
When looking at the number of African-American males who drop out each year, it is
very disheartening. Is it possible that if the dropout rates were lower, then the number of
African-American males who attend college would be higher and in turn, the graduation
from college would also be higher? If so, then there needs to be a way to keep these
young men in school. They start out like every other child, loving school and excited in
their Kindergarten class. Where is it that our system fails them? Is it during that
Kindergarten year or is it shortly thereafter? According to Fremon and Hamilton (1997),
bias is a major factor in the lack of success of African-American males in their
educational career. They argue:
Far too many confront a stifling kind of bias that destroys their interest in school,
according to a growing chorus of educators and activists. This prejudice can have
hurtful consequences: cultural insensitivity, lowered expectations, unduly harsh
discipline, and the systemic shunting of African-American boys into remedial or
special education classes (p.116)
Sadly, this is happening all the time. What is even more upsetting is that bias begins as
young as eight or nine years old; and young African-American boys are beginning, at
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such an early age, to dislike school. The events that are taking place in school are rarely
the result of the child’s behavior or actions. It is more of a perpetuated cycle of prejudice
and, in a way, a form of segregation.
African-American males attend college at a rate of 43 percent (Anonymous, 2007)
and are incarcerated at a rate of “…one in nine African-American men between the ages
of 20 and 34” (Liptak, 2008). According to the Children’s Defense Fund (2009), “A
Black boy in 2001 has a 1 in 3 chance of going to prison in his lifetime.” Comparing the
data of the African-American men to the boys is incredibly disheartening. Moreover,
although today there are less African-American men incarcerated and more attending
college, there are still far too many entering into the prison system. Some scholars
attribute this lack of success to racism and expectations set by the dominant culture.
There is a substantial lack of African-American males in higher education. A sad fact is,
“Only 48,000 Black males earn a bachelor’s degree each year” (Children’s Defense Fund,
2009). Could it be possible to catch these young African-American males at an earlier
age, at better prepare them for high education? Absolutely, and it needs to be a significant
priority in schools, especially since the data is there, and the schools are not blind to the
issues facing young African-American male.
Society should encourage young men to make the choice of education over
incarceration. African-American males continue to struggle in education, due to systemic
problems. Other successful African-American males should also get involved with
educators to work towards making the appropriate changes in their classrooms to reach
all of their students. It is very important that these young men know that they do have the
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option of higher education. Educators need to provide culturally responsive pedagogy
and the tools to succeed. Teachers need to bring what they are learning to them and
include culturally responsive teaching in the curriculum. Ladson-Billings (1995) writes
when speaking on culturally relevant pedagogy:
It (culturally relevant pedagogy) has attempted to locate the problem of
discontinuity between what students experience at home and what they experience
at school in the speech and language interactions of teachers and students. These
sociolinguists have suggested that if students’ home language is incorporated into
the classroom, students are more likely to experience academic success (p.159).
When students are accepted for who they are when they come through that classroom
door and then taught about the importance of their culture and their people, they do much
better in school. There are several schools that have proven this theory. Many of the
schools in Oakland have seen an increase in graduation rates and fewer dropout rates
among African-American young men due to incorporating students’ history and including
and expanding on their home language, which for a majority of the students is Ebonics.
Progressive social justice educators who wish to make a pedagogical change want
to show their African-American male students that there are several different successful
individuals who have graduated college and have gone on to do amazing things. One very
well-known successful African-American male is President Barack Obama. Although he
is biracial, he is considered to be the first African-American President. He went to and
graduated from college, went on to be a successful lawyer and an Illinois State Senator,
and then the President of the United States. Another famous African-American male who
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graduated from college and went on to do great things was former Secretary of State,
Colin Powell. He was also the first and only African-American to serve on the Joint
Chiefs of Staff. Lastly, there is Thurgood Marshall. He was a civil rights activist and a
judge. He was also the first African-American to serve on the Supreme Court. It is
important to let young African-American males know they can be more than what history
or the system, be it educational or societal, has told them they could be.
Statement of the Problem
It is evident that there is a serious problem, beginning in elementary school, with
the lack of success for African-American males. In addition, African-American males are
not able to compete with their peers academically due to the fact that many of them are
not attending and/or graduating college. The question now, and has been for a while is,
how do we fix this? Hopefully through this study, a light will be shown on possible
causes for these disparities and potential solutions that could help make a difference for
the young African-American males currently attending school.
Within this work, I will interview successful African-American males to
understand their educational experiences and what led them to their success. The
experiences that many African-American males have during early schooling will have an
effect on their later performance. Sylva (1994) notes, “Formal educational qualifications
are the key to a child’s entry into higher education or training and also employment”
(p.135). Students need to have a good experience and they need to have teachers who are
dedicated to giving them the educational qualifications so that they will succeed and
graduated from college. For this study there are five subjects, all of whom are African-
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American males. One subject comes from each decade starting with an individual in his
20s and continuing through to an individual who is in his 60s. All of these men have
graduated from a four year college or university. They are also all spiritual in some way,
whether it is the belief system and they were raised in the church or they are practicing
and active members in their church. The commonality of church came about, because the
only African-American males that I know, that have graduated from college, come from
my church. When I selected the male in his 30s, I decided to ask him about his religious
background before selecting him. I also wanted to see if religion played a role in why
these African-American males were able to graduate from college. Billingsley (1992)
states,
[The church] is in the respect both a preserver of the African-American heritage
and an agent for reform. Indeed no successful movement for improving the
conditions of life for the African-American people has been mounted without the
support of the church (p.350).
The church has had such an influence on the African-American culture from the
beginning. Being that that is the case, I figured there had to be a correlation between
religion and academic success.
Thus, the overarching questions guiding this study are:
1. How does/has race/racism played a role (if at all) in the subject’s academic
experiences?
2.
What are the factors that shape these African-American males’ college
experiences?
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3. What were the challenges that impacted their persistence?
4. What was the success they experienced that impacted their persistence?
5. Are there best practices used by teachers that helped these young men move
towards attending college?
The purpose of this study is to examine ways to address the underachievement
problem for African-American males (one that has been facing our society for decades)
as well as, what can be done to help these males achieve success (i.e., obtain a college
degree).
Theoretical Framework
The theoretical framework that I will be using for this study is Critical Race
Theory which argues that there are inequities in education based on the salience of race.
Critical Race Theory (CRT) is “an offshoot of critical legal studies; a tool used by the
establishment to maintain its power and domination over an unequal status quo and
utilizes hegemony as a method to legitimize oppressive structures in America” (LadsonBillings & Tate, 2009, p. 20). I will also draw from Murrell’s (2002) framework on
African-Centered Pedagogy which articulates the role that culture plays in the subject’s
educational experiences. The African-Centered pedagogy framework focuses on the
importance of what is taught to students from different ethnic backgrounds and how the
knowledge that is taught shapes their schooling. Murrell (2002) discusses the components
of African-centered pedagogy. The five components are listed in a table and are,
“Engagement and participation practices, Identity development practices, Community
integrity practices, Practices of inquiry, and Meaning-making practices” (p.51). These are
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all essential for making African-centered pedagogy work. With all of these in place and
working together, the students will be receiving what they need. Also this framework,
which focuses on the importance of identity development, helps to mitigate the
disconnection that typically exists for young African-American males with regards to
their identity and their cultural backgrounds. Carmichael and Hamilton (1969) argue that,
“the extent to which African-American Americans can and do ‘trace their roots’ to
Africa”, to that extent will they be able to be more effective on the political scene” (as
cited in Ginwright, 2004, p. 245). Afrocentric scholars believe that when we teach
African-American students about where they come from, they will be able to know who
they are, know their history; and therefore, they will be able to go forward in the future to
increase their own expectations for themselves and the future generations. When
individuals have a sense of who they are and know where they come from, they are able
to see the good in themselves and overall, just do better (DeCuir-Gunby, 2009;
McMillian, 2003).
In Ginwright’s (2004) book, he goes into discussing three common characteristics
between schools who were trying to make a change. He states,
First, they all focused on African and African American contributions, history,
and culture and were influenced by concepts outlined in Portland’s Baseline
Essays. Second, most of the Afrocentric reforms occurred in low-performing
urban schools. Third, many of these schools were located in poor and workingclass communities (p.27).
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The last two common characteristics between the schools are things that are not going to
change without the funds. On the other hand, the first common characteristic can take
place within schools, and on a daily basis. If teachers, and schools, take the time to get
curriculum and books that are related to student’s cultures and their lives, the students
will be more engaged.
There are other schools throughout the US that have been using culturally
responsive pedagogy and have seen amazing results throughout their whole school. Dr.
Sharroky Hollie is “the co-founder of the nationally acclaimed laboratory school, Culture
and Language Academy of Success (CLAS) in Los Angeles” (Hollie, 2011, p.1). CLAS
has had wonderful success getting all of their students to achieve success. The school
incorporates the students’ history, language, culture, etc. into all of the lessons that the
teachers create. The Center for Culturally Responsive Teaching and Learning states,
“CLAS is a K-8 independent charter school that espouses culturally responsive pedagogy
as its primary approach” (Hollie, 2011, p.1). Due to the schools desire to meet children
where they are in all aspects of their lives, they are able to help the students perform at a
high academic level. I wonder if it all schools incorporated culturally responsive
pedagogy, they would also see success in their schools, especially for the underachieving
students and the students of color.
Limitations of the Study
As with any study, there are limitations. One limitation for this study would be in
how the subjects respond to the questions in the survey and/or how they respond to the
discussion we have about the survey. It is very possible that the subjects will not be
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completely honest because they may feel the need to guard themselves. Another
limitation with regards to the survey itself is that the subjects may not provide enough
information. I may not get sufficient information in order to analyze the data
appropriately. Being that I already have preconceived views and opinions about AfricanAmerican males and higher education, the interpretation of their experiences is shaped by
my biases. One bias that I have is that I feel that African-American females will do what
is needed despite the obstacles whereas African-American men in a negative environment
require that additional assistance to go further. Another bias I have is it is so much easier
and often more profitable for African-American males to make money in the streets
versus taking time to go through college. Many, if not all of my biases, came from my
experiences with the African-American men in my life. However, in attempting to
minimize this challenge, I will share my interpretations of my subjects’ answers with
them and seek to clarify all information that is shared with me.
Another possible limitation is the fact that my sample size is small. There are only
five subjects being interviewed for this study and that a small population will only
provide a limited amount of information. In addition, with this sample being small,
subjects’ statements or generalizations cannot be made from this work as it relates to
other African-Americans; my interpretation of my subjects’ responses are not applicable
to other or even all African-American males.
A third limitation is that all but one of the subjects are members of my church
community, and all interviewed subjects identify as being strong in their faith. Religion
can play a significant role in one’s life; therefore, it may shape how subjects respond to
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negative experiences. It may also affect how they look at events that have taken place in
their lives. Religion can do more than keep someone spiritually focused, but religion can
shape one’s identity. According to Browne, Carbonell and Merrill (2003),
Religious identity” refers to people’s ways of relating to religion,
including whether they choose to belong to a religious community, how
strongly they feel about their beliefs, and how they choose to demonstrate
those beliefs in their daily lives (p. 2).
These men all have a religious identity and it is one that is a part of their everyday lives.
Three out of five of these men serve in positions in their church. Their religious identity
is not just something they speak about, but it is something they live out daily; from who
they are, to how they act, and even to how they may view the world or the circumstances
in them.
Being an African-American female researcher could be an additional limitation.
Interviewing successful African-American males, trying to understand their experiences,
and what led them to their success may prove futile. It is quite possible that these men
will not want to divulge what they have been through based on the role that gender may
play in this study. Society all too often sees the African-American male in onedimensional ways that may feed into stereotypes about their identity, including obscuring
notions about how African-American men may or may not be willing to reveal a
vulnerable self to a woman. This may lead subjects to mask their feelings or responses to
avoid appearing weak and vulnerable. They may also feel that I will not understand what
they went through as males based on our gendered lives.
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My personal set of beliefs and experiences have led me to find this study
important. I have to look at myself as a woman in relation to how these men will see me.
I have to know that I am approaching them as a half African-American, half white female
who has not experienced what they have as African-American men. Also, although we
may have all experienced some form of prejudice or may or may not have had problems
in education, we are different. Liamputtong (2008) notes, “In conducting cross-cultural
research, it has been found that it is rife with methodological and ethical challenges”
(p.4). As Liamputtong continues writing and talks about how the researcher needs to be
culturally sensitive. It is stated that, “Cultural Sensitivity is referred to as knowing the
cultural context of the group with whom the researchers with to work” (Liamputtong,
2008, p.4). Even though there may be similarities, I have to remember the subjects that I
am working with, and remember to be culturally sensitive to them.
Overall, I know that I intend to examine issues beyond merely a deficit paradigm
of African-American male achievement. Because of what has taken place in my personal
life, and what I have seen in my own family, and from teaching in public schools, I have
a unique viewpoint that I bring to interpreting my research. Some may consider this a
limitation. However, due to few positive examples of successful African-American
males in my own life, I have decided to focus on the positive aspects of successful
African-American male achievement, rather than the negative views perpetuated by
media hype and much of the educational literature. I state this because it is easy to point a
finger at what is wrong with the students, but difficult to look at the system that produces
these people and to examine the problem of achievement from a systems perspective,
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especially when there are so many factors that contribute to the problem. Looking at the
positive factors which aid success will allow me to gain insight in to what aids mobility
for these African-American males and what strategies can be implemented in schools,
and replicated in the methods of teachers and in the support strategies that parents utilize
to aid their African-American male children’s successes.
Definition of Terms
The following definitions are provided to assist the reader in understanding this
study.
Academic Identity: How one looks at themselves academically with regards to their peers
and their own academic successes or failures.
African-Centered Pedagogy: The teacher incorporates African and African-American
history into their lessons and therefore, brings about inclusion and allows for the
celebration of ones’ culture.
Civic/Cultural/Community Responsibility: The responsibility one has as a person to do
what is right and to do what is right by an individual’s culture and their community.
Critical Race Theory (CRT): is an intellectual and politically committed movement in
American legal scholarship that studies race, racism and power.
Persistence: used to describe the drive that one has to keep moving forward in education,
despite all the challenges that one may face. Looking at their lives and the obstacles they
had to overcome in order to obtain that college degree.
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Racial Identity Development: the way one perceives their own race vs. how they perceive
others and how they feel others perceive them. There are many different stages one may
go through in order to reach the true meaning of owning their racial identity.
Success: used in this study related to African-Americans receiving degrees from at least a
four year college.
Significance of Study
This study is so important on many different levels. Helping all students to
achieve success is very important. It is also crucial to look at something that is not
working and then try to figure out how to make it work. It is not as if schools and
teachers are walking into each school year not knowing the data. Even though there have
been some changes over the years, a lot of the same issues, such as the achievements gap,
are still in the schools today. There are is research out there, and there are several ways
that schools can improve their teaching in order to better meet the needs of AfricanAmerican males.
Social responsibility is a very important factor to look at when talking about
culture and the achievements of people within different minority groups. Everyone needs
to be a part of helping these young men achieve academic success. Therefore, it is
important for all involved stakeholders -- parents, teachers and community members – to
come together to better serve African-American young men and encourage their
education.
Hopefully, this work will lead to schools doing what is right for all of their
students, and not just some of them. I would like to see every teacher using culturally
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responsive pedagogy in their classrooms. Each student, no matter cultural background,
deserves to have their academic needs met. All students are entitled to the best education
possible, with teachers who truly care. I believe that this work will only add to the field
of work related to African-American males. I wanted to take a different approach and
focus on the positives of male achievement. Yes, there is discussion that is not positive,
but that provides that background information needed to guide us in the right direction as
a collective people. My hope is that this thesis, with all of the information and
scholarship, with shine a light on what can be done and what we need to be doing as
schools, teachers, parents and a community.
Organization of the Remainder of the Study
Chapter Two will focus on the literature review. This literature will focus on, as
well as, support the topic. The literature will also show different viewpoints on this topic.
There will be further discussion on Critical Race Theory, Racial Identity Development,
African-American Male Academic Identity and Achievement, as well as
Civic/Cultural/Community Responsibility. Chapter Three will examine my methodology.
Additional background information on the selected population will be provided. My role
as a woman and a teacher and the role of a researcher will be discussed with regards to its
importance and the role it plays within this research. Chapter Four will focus solely on
data. The data will be presented through oral narrative rather than fact. I will attempt to
present the information from the questionnaire in the fashion of storytelling while still
keeping true to the gentlemen I am speaking for. Each interviewed subject will have his
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own section where his past educational experiences are retold. Chapter Five will talk
about the study’s future study.
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Chapter 2
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
One source that will be used for this Literature Review is Black Education by J.
E. King (2005). King’s book discusses a transformative research agenda, which is critical
when it comes to improving education for African Americans. When speaking about
Black education, King (2005) notes, “The abysmal state of Black education in the United
States and globally is an inhumane situation that calls into question the values and
pronouncements of Western ‘civilization’” (p.3). One might ask: If the United States
cares so much about their schools’ test scores, how is it that there are any children
allowed to fail? Campbell (2004) discusses how there is a positive correlation between
low socioeconomic status and the test performance. However, Campbell also indicated
the African American, even when there is an equal status between African Americans and
Whites, the African Americans will score lower. The data across the country shows that
African Americans are falling far behind their peers. A discussion of similar data takes
place regularly throughout different districts across the United States, which begs the
question: When it comes to educating African Americans, why does it appear as though
the education system is okay with the status quo?
The United States Department of Education (2009) lists the average reading scale
scores from 1992 through 2009 for grade 4, grade 8, and grade 12. The scores are also
organized by gender and ethnicity. Looking at the data for 2005, 2007, and 2009 for
grade 4 and grade 8 (not showing data for grade 12 because there is data that is not
available), it not only shows that African Americans did not score well, but it shows that
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they were the lowest test scores out of all ethnicities. When comparing the data between
African Americans and Caucasians, the achievement gaps scores are also listed (see
Table 2):
Table 2: Achievement Gap for Grade 4 and Grade 8
Grade 4
2005
2007
2009
White
229
231
230
Black
200
203
205
Black-White
achievement gap
-29
-27
-26
Grade 8
2005
2007
2009
White
271
272
273
Black
243
245
246
Black-White
achievement gap
-28
-27
-26
This table shows that there is a gap and that it is improving, but it needs to be considered
that there is a two year jump between each set of scores. Unfortunately, the gap is too
significant and the improvement is not happening soon enough.
This chapter will focus on three main topics: A brief history of African American
education, racial and academic identity development, and its relationship to achievement.
Within these topics, there are several areas that will be discussed such as Critical Race
Theory (CRT) and Culturally Responsive Teaching. This literature review will lead to a
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deeper understanding of the problems facing our nation and possible ways to begin
making improvements to eliminate the disparities that are taking place.
A brief review of the literature will provide understanding of the topics of racial
and academic identity, which will enable this investigation of the following questions:
How does/has race/racism played a role (if at all) in the subject’s academic
experiences?
What in these subjects’ lives contributed to them wanting to go to college (ie,
experiences, friends, family, opportunities, etc)?
What were the challenges that impacted the subjects’ persistence?
Are there best practices used to help these young me move towards attending
college?
The review of the literature will provide background information on the interviewed
African American males’ racial and academic identities; and will explore whether or not
their academic identity relates to their achievement; and what instructional paradigms
may have been used to support their success in school. This literature review synthesizes
scholarship which examines the state of education for African American males. Although
the achievement gap will not decrease and change will not immediately occur, significant
progress is hopefully imminent.
Historical Context of African American Oppression
Inequity has existed for African Americans since the groups’ forced immigration
to this country. Africans were first brought to America as slaves in 1619 to Jamestown,
Virginia (Kolchin, 2003). This was the beginning of a cycle of mistreatment and injustice
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for African Americans. Franklin (1980) writes, “Violent manifestations of hostility to
blacks in the North and in the South were not new. They had persisted almost from the
beginning of the Negro’s presence in the New World” (p.313). He also writes, “In the
first year of its existence the NAACP launched a program to widen the industrial
opportunities for Negroes, to seek greater police protection for them in the South, and to
carry on a crusade against lynching and lawlessness” (Franklin, 1980, p.319). These were
just two examples of mistreatment after slavery, but there were countless others. This
history is extremely important in helping educators to understand why African
Americans, males in particular, are not doing well academically. Paige and Witty (2010)
wrote,
On the one hand, the present day black-white achievement gap most certainly has
roots in the African American experiences along the historical continuum,
beginning with slavery and continuing through the Black Codes, racial
discrimination, and legally imposed separate but (un)equal educational
opportunities. One cannot simply ignore this history and the lasting effects that it
continues to have (p.94).
If whites had to look back on the same history, then they might be facing the same social,
educational and political setbacks.
When brought to the United States, these African men, women and children, were
beaten and forced to do horrible and unthinkable things. They were beaten, raped and
killed. They were not allowed to speak their own language, read, learn English, marry,
practice their own religion, for example. Perkins and Rice (2000) write, “They were
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stripped of their native languages. Husband was often ripped apart from wife, parents
from children. They had no right to celebrate their native traditions” (p.74). Imagine
having everything that meant anything to you, taken away. The possessions taken away
were nothing in comparison to being stripped of who they were. There were many
individuals who were even separated from their families.
With such restrictions put on a person or a group of people, think of how African
people were able to endure. Even when the end of slavery in 1865 (Franklin, 1980) came,
the stories of what took place were passed on and the memories were still there. These
memories and stories stayed with the African American community for years, and they
are still shared today. For example, the stories of Harriet Tubman, “easily the most
outstanding Negro conductor on the Underground Railroad” (Franklin, 1980, p.194) and
Frederick Douglass,
The most famous and influential former slave in the United States in the
nineteenth century, Frederick Douglas rose from being a slave in Maryland to
being a popular abolitionist lecturer, narrator of slavery, newspaper publisher,
president of the Freedmen’s Bank and author (Rodriguez, 2007, p.264).
These are just two examples of stories that have been passed down through generation.
Fortunately for both Tubman and Douglass, they were born late enough and lived long
enough to provide information to share their own stories. Is it possible, that the
enslavement and cruel mistreatment of this group of people has led to them not doing
well? Is it possible that African Americans allow the past experiences of slavery, Jim
Crow segregation and oppression to shape who they are today? The act of slavery and
24
what took place was so terrible, that the effects are still seen today. Akbar (1996) writes
in his book, Breaking the Chains of Psychological Slavery:
This shock was so destructive to natural life processes that the current generation
of African-Americans, although we are five to six generations removed from the
actual experience of slavery, still carry the scars of this experience in both our
social and mental lives (p.3).
When speaking about slavery, though African Americans are several generations
removed, they are still facing the effects. Kunjufu (1988) also writes, “Mental slavery is
more sophisticated, because when the chains are removed from the ankles and wrists and
placed around the mind, it becomes more difficult for the oppressed to recognize the
source of their plight” (12). Yes, slavery is over, but the mental effects are still there to
this day.
A Look at African American Male Achievement through the Decades
I will begin the educational history for African American male achievement
starting with the 1950s, as one of my interviewees attended school in that decade. This
section will span from the 1950s through the present. There are so many contributing
factors as to why young men are not doing well academically. It all begins with the
inequities that are taking place with in schools and society.
Education has changed greatly over time, but for many, especially those who
have continually been struggling academically, education has remained constant.
Although there is integration, No Child Left Behind (2002), or the premise of educational
equity, there is definitely NO equality taking place when it comes to education. This is
25
especially true for schools in low-income areas. If there was true equality in education, all
students would have new books, all students would have tutors readily available, and
sports and music programs would be an elective class. All students would have two
parents, (one at home, and one that provides, allowing for them to live in a nice
neighborhood).There are a plethora of other factors that lead to inequity throughout
education. According to Strayhorn (2010), “…unlike the 1950s when race was the single
most important predictor of educational disparities, most contemporary scholars agree
that it is a convergence of multiple factors that shapes the circumstances in which
America’s neediest students exist” (2010).
An analysis of the educational system in the 1950s will show that the
longstanding inequalities occurred. Inequality appeared in the educational system prior to
the 1950s, but the analysis will begin in the 1950s for the purpose of this study. In the
early 1950s, the schools were segregated and due to the upholding of the Plessy v.
Ferguson (1896), “the majority decision in Plessy v. Ferguson served as the organizing
legal justification for racial segregation for over 50 years” (Keene & Zimmerman, 2007).
The ruling provided for separate but equal accommodations for Caucasians and other
races, mainly African Americans. Schools were made to be separate, but they were to
have equal accommodations for their pupils; this was not the case. Plessy (1896) also led
to other things being separate but equal such as restaurants, restrooms, water fountains,
stores, etc.
In 1954 something occurred that literally changed the complexion of education:
Brown v. Topeka Board of Education. For several years, Oliver Brown was trying to get
26
his young daughter into the White school close to their home, since the school she
attended was far away. Brown, along with several other parents who were tired of
segregated schools. Working with the NAACP to challenge the notion of ‘separate but
equal’, they filed a suit against the Topeka School Board. Sherman (2008) writes,
Speaking for a unanimous decision by the Supreme Court on Monday, May 17,
1954, that overturned the ‘separate but equal’ wording of Plessy v. Ferguson of
1896, Chief Justice Earl Warren stated that Brown v. Board of Education of
Topeka ‘...in the field of public education the doctrine of ‘separate but equal’ has
no place. Separate educational facilities are inherently unequal” (p.83).
Even though segregation had ended in schools, it did not end in every local
establishment. Several families were glad that their children could attend schools that
provided a better education, with current resources. Several parents, however, were not
excited about integration because African American children would attend the same
school as their White children. Davis (2001) notes, “From the white perspective, the
supreme horror of school integration was that it brought white children at an
impressionable age into close and prolonged contact with black children and faculty and
their lower standards of values” (p.234). Most White parents were comfortable and
preferred segregation. Integration just brought on fear and anger. Several problems and
many protests occurred.
With legal segregation over and African American children and White children
expected to attend the same schools, the journey would be difficult for those who did
want school integration. For many of the more racially divided states, young African-
27
America men and women entering integrated schools were greeted with disrespect and
cruel words. Anderson (2010) writes about the Little Rock Nine and their experience
when trying to attend school at Little Rock Central High School,
Little Rock Police attempted unsuccessfully to prevent mayhem when the African
American students entered the school on September 23, 1957. Confronted by a
menacing segregationist mob that they did not believe they could control, local
police removed the black students at midday. In order to enforce federal authority,
President Dwight Eisenhower federalized the Arkansas National Guard and sent
the 101st Airborne Division to Little Rock. With their assistance, the nine African
American students entered Central High again on September 25, eight of them for
the duration of the academic year (p.4).
They were not welcomed for several years in their new schools, and segregation was still
taking place within the school walls.
It was not until 1968 that schools in the south even saw true integration.
According to the Leadership Conference on Civil Rights Education (2001), “In 1964, 1.2
percent of African American students in the South attended school with whites. By 1968,
the figures had risen to 32 percent” (p.1). This is due to protest and vocal expression by
discovering ways not to implement effective ways of integration. With the different,
lesser known laws that were passed, changes began to occur.
It was not until Milliken II (1977), that the Detroit Unified School District and the
state of Michigan were court-ordered to analyze and target the pedagogical inadequacies
of African American children. Findings revealed that, “These deficits, the Court
28
suggested, arose out of enforced segregation and could not be cured by physical
desegregation alone” (as cited in Civil Rights 101, 2001). These findings show African
Americans have not fared well in the educational system, even post desegregation.
Moreover, the deficit was due to segregation, this segregation also occurred in other
areas. One outcome from the analysis was the realization that just bringing the students
together to learn, was not going to solve years of educational neglect that has existed and
persists.
The 1960s consisted of several events that would affect African American
students and the schools they attended. Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. and other activists had
been prominent and were making great strides with the Civil Rights Movement. Rosa
Parks “is famous for her refusal on December 1, 1955, to obey bus driver James Blake’s
demand that she relinquish her seat to a white man” (Asante, 2008, p.229) and “In early
April 1963, King and the SCLC, in league with Suttlesworth’s local organization and
other black leaders, began lunch counter sit-ins, marches on City Hall, and a boycott of
downtown merchants” (Bruns, 2006, p.77). King was such a staunch Civil Rights
advocate. President John F. Kennedy believed in what King and other activists were
doing and, “On June 12, 1963, President Kennedy announced that he would deliver to
Congress a strong civil rights bill, a declaration that transformed him into a widely
recognized ally of the Civil Rights Movement” (Alexander, 2010, pp.37-38). Kennedy
felt that the Civil Rights Movement was crucial and the work that Dr. Martin Luther King
Jr. was doing was so important. He, being a man who believed in equality, made several
29
efforts to support the Civil Rights Movement in all aspects, especially when it came to
integrating schools.
One monumental event that took place during this time period was the passing of
the Civil Rights Act in 1964 signed by President Lyndon B. Johnson. This Act was,
“enacted on July 2, 1964, intended to end discrimination based on race, colour, religion,
or national origin; it is often called the most important U.S. law on civil rights since the
end of Reconstruction” (Duignan, 2010, p.137).This Act was passed to bring rights for
African Americans and integration throughout all aspects of life. Although this was a
triumphant moment for the African-American community, there still was not much
change with racial tension.
During the 1970s, the United States Supreme Court was adamant on equality.
According to Carey (2004), “In 1971, these eight representatives joined Diggs, Nix,
Hawkins, and Conyers to found the Congressional Black Caucus, a forum whereby
African Americans in Congress could work together for their common goals” (p. xi); and
Young (1971) reports “In April, the Court unanimously upheld the busing of student”
(p.711). An increase in African Americans in public office occurred. This is monumental
because African Americans emerged from being enslaved with no rights, not even the
basic human rights, to having positions in government. It was also very important that the
Supreme Court held up the school busing plans. Pride and Woodard (1985) write,
Busing was intended to redistribute educational benefits and respect among
children. Black children were to be the principal beneficiaries of the policy. Did
busing accomplish this goal? Black children’s academic achievement test scores
30
did improve, but overall the gap between the average achievement test scores of
blacks and whites remained substantial after years of busing. The generally lower
achievement of black children meant that many continued to be stigmatized,
through now within desegregated schools (p.125).
Busing occurred after integration came with protesting, causing unrest in the
predominately white schools.
Another huge event that took place in the 1970s was “Affirmative Action.” This
allowed for equal opportunity for African Americans and other minorities to get better
jobs and to go to college. Unfortunately, due to the continued racism, many African
Americans were still not working in certain areas of employment or in certain positions
within companies. They were also not attending college at the rate of their White peers,
and many colleges and universities were not accepting them; and so, Affirmative Action
allowed for them to be considered. Steele (1991) writes, “The principal of affirmative
action is reflected in various university programs aimed at redressing and overcoming
past patterns of discrimination” (p.132). Due to Affirmative Action, African Americans
were able to get their foot in the door where they had not done so before.
One of the areas within our justice system that America was now seeing African
Americans was within the position of Mayor. It is noted that,
By the early 1970s, African Americans were making gains in the political system,
electing black mayors in such big cities as Atlanta, Detroit, and Newark, New
Jersey, and sending blacks to Congress from districts as far west as Los Angeles
31
and Oakland and as far south as Houston and Atlanta (Harris, Sinclair-Chapman
& McKenzie, 2006, p.28)
This is another crucial moment in history for African Americans. Not only were African
Americans beginning to get rights that they should have been given years before, but now
they were in positions of great influence and power.
Not only did things change as far as African Americans taking positions of power
in government, but education was also changing. Herschbach (2001) writes, “Career
education, the most significant work-focused educational movement of the 1970s, was a
political response to the War on Poverty and social upheaval of the 1960s” (p.1). This
was the first time the United States established a purpose to educating individuals from
Kindergarten through college. The purpose of education was to prepare the children for
the work force. Career education only lasted until 1974 when other national priorities
such as busing, accountability and testing became more important (Herschbach, 2001).
As far as education is concerned for African Americans in the 1970s, “…significant
changes were made in many of the school systems throughout the United States. Racial
segregation came to an official end and the integration of public schools began to take
shape” (Jones & Jackson, 2005). This was a big turning point in education for African
Americans because now their struggles with integration were over. Yet, African
Americans had to face other problems of racism still and even though segregation was
over, there was still segregation within in the schools.
When it came to African Americans completing high school in the 1970s, Jones &
Jackson (2005) say that, “…only 34 percent of Blacks over 25 had completed high
32
school” (p.3). The numbers eventually went up, but this was definitely low. Again, even
with segregation ended and integration in full affect, there was still the emotional scaring
left over from what had taken place in the past. Though there were things like music and
the opposition to the Vietnam War that brought people of different races together, there
was still a definite separation in America. Although many changes occurred, equality
continued to be prevalent. Brown & Bartee (2009) argue, “Notwithstanding, public
education today is in a state of resegregation. Resegregation has denied equitable racial
accommodation of resource distribution within the post-Brown era to African-American
children and others similarly situated” (p. 9; Orfield, 2001; Kozol, 1991). Then they go
on to quote and write, “Stakeholders must seek to revert the resegregative vessel that
disproportionately and continuously move African-Americans and students of color
within lower academically tracked classes, under-resourced schools, and inadequately
funded schools” (p.9; Orfield & Eaton, 1996; Lomotey & Teddlie, 1996; Lagemann &
Miler, 1996; Kozol, 1991). Unfortunately, not everything that transpired from segregation
was for the good of the African American children involved.
College was another area of concern for African Americans in the 1970s. Jones &
Jackson reported that, “…only 16 percent of young Black Americans were attending
college” (p.3) and in 1970 only “5 percent” (p.3) of African Americans had earned at
least a bachelor’s degree. These numbers show that African Americans were beginning to
enter the college scene in higher numbers than previously done before. It took a while for
these numbers to increase. One must consider that most of the men and women attending
college at this time would have been in school during segregation and the days of
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“separate but equal” education. These students were more than likely in schools that were
good and had great teachers, but the material they had was not adequate enough to
prepare them for college.
The 1980s was a time of change in education where there was change in culture
and how people, viewed culture. According to Gorski & Shin (1999):
The 1980s saw the emergence of a body of scholarship on multicultural education
by progressive education activists and researchers who refused to allow schools to
address their concerns by simply adding token programs and special units on
famous women or famous people of color (p.1).
This was just the beginning of multicultural education. As the years went on,
multicultural education became the focus of many districts. Banks (1995) who is
considered the father of multicultural education says that there are five dimensions of
multicultural education, “ (a) content integration, (b) the knowledge construction process,
(c) prejudice reduction, (d) an equity pedagogy, and (e) an empowering school culture
and social structure” (p.5). Banks (2010) goes on to explain the five dimensions,
Content integration deals with the extent to which teachers use examples and
content from a variety of cultures and groups to illustrate key concepts,
generalizations, and issues within their subject areas or disciplines. The
knowledge construction process describes how teachers help students to
understand, investigate, and determine how the biases, frames of reference, and
perspectives within a discipline influence the ways in which knowledge is
constructed within it (pp.5-7).
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The most effective way to implement multicultural education is to make sure that the five
dimensions are in place. Unfortunately, when it came about in the 1980s and even in
most cases today, multicultural education does not truly meet the needs of the students
and the curriculum is incomplete.
During the 1980s, Margaret Butler did an economic research service for United
States Department of Agriculture (USDA) and in one section she compared the effects
residence and race have on educational attainment, “Rural Blacks age 25 to 34 had the
least educational attainment in both 1980 and 1990 when compared with urban Blacks
and both urban and rural Whites” (as cited in Swanson, 1996, p.78). Butler’s findings
revealed location, due to economics, plays a role in how well one may do in school. The
fact that African Americans score lower than their White peers in either location is,
unfortunately, not surprising. More money usually means more experiences and more
opportunities that will help with a test that is created for upper middle class Whites.
Out of the 1980s also came “A Nation at Risk: The Imperative for Educational
Reform” (1983). This reform argues that our educational system was eroding due to
mediocrity. In one section of the report, The National Commission on Excellence in
Education states, “Our society and its educational institutions seem to have lost sight of
the basic purposes of schooling, and of the high expectations and disciplined effort
needed to attain them” (Gardner, 1983, p.1). There have been problems in education as a
whole, and there have been problems for decades, but it is always easier for those in
educational policy to point out what educators or even the parents are doing wrong.
Brown, D’Emidio-Caston & Benard (2001) wrote, “Resilience education signals an
35
advance in how we educate. It represents a paradigmatic shift from transmission
education, with an often-unspoken deficit view of young people, toward a developmental
approach focused on their strengths” (p.viii).The 80s was a time when education was
starting to make some changes. Not only did a Nation at Risk expose what was wrong
with education, it created a negative view of the youth that was false.
Two of the epidemics that hit the Black community in the 1980s that impacted
families were Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS) and the introduction of
drugs. The first epidemic to hit the Black community hard was AIDS. Unfortunately, the
group hit the hardest and is still one of the largest groups still faced with this vicious
disease is African Americans. The other was the introduction of drugs to the Black
community. These two social realities were a detriment to a people and the community at
large. Both AIDS and the introduction of drugs on a mass scale caused many, and in
particular Black males, to not do as well as they could have. Harris (2010) speaks about
how AIDS has affected the African American community,
Simply put, identities are socially constructed. The influence that power-bearing
institutions have over the creation and the formation of one’s identity has special
relevance for the creation of an identity associated with illness, particularly one as
contested as AIDS (p.63).
There is also not enough media and information available for African Americans to help
prevent the spread of AIDS. There needs to be something in place to help educate young
African Americans on the topic. With regards to the crack epidemic, Reinarman &
Levine (1997) write, “...heroin and other hard drugs have been more visibly available in
36
urban black neighborhoods than white neighborhoods; black communities have also had
disproportionately more people with intractable life problems and vulnerable to hard drug
abuse” (pp.349-350). For many in the city who did not use, the drug culture became the
first easy way to make a large amount of money without any work, and it was also a
quick profit. Young men and old men were selling drugs and those men were not
attending college and many were not graduating high school. Foster (1997) writes about
how the fast money of drugs creates a dilemma for some students because the money is
desired,
What bothered me was the way my students seemed attuned to the world of fast
money, that they weren’t able to see beyond the gold chains or the Mercedes with
the gold rims. It distresses me when black students tell me that they don’t need an
education because they can sell crack and make money (p.130).
It is the individual’s choice to decide whether or not to sell drugs, used drugs, share
needles or have unprotected sex. Education is not the only area where our country needs
to be proactive when it comes to the African American community.
This mid and late 1980s witnessed the introduction of “gangsta” rap. George
(1998) speaks about how “gangsta” rap originated,
Gangsta rap (or reality rap or whatever descriptive phrase you like) is a direct
by-product of the crack explosion. Unless you grasp that connection nothing else
that happened in hip hop’s journey to national scapegoat will make sense. This is
not a chicken-or-the-egg riddle--first came crack rocks, then gangsta rap (p.42).
37
Rap music’s roots began in the late 1970s, but the hard core rap in the late 1980s allowed
rappers the outlet to explain what was going on in their communities, with their families,
and how hard it was to survive as an African American man. One member of rap group
Public Enemy, Chuck D., (nee’ Carlton Douglas Ridenhour) defined rap as “‘The Black
CNN’, reporting on conditions in the lives of those traditionally shunted to the edges of
mainstream America” (Chang, 2004). Rap became the voice of urban Black America and
a way to express themselves through storytelling. Sadly, due to inappropriate language
and the content that was used in much of rap music, the people that needed to hear what
was happening, more often than not, did not hear what was being told to them. This was
the beginning of young African American men wanting to become rappers.
Asante (2008) examined what has taken place over the years in the lives of
African American, using hip hop and spoken word as interpretation. When discussing the
events of 1981, Asante mentions President Ronald Reagan and says, “his policies, mainly
Reaganomics and the War on Drugs, which many would call a ‘War on Blacks,’ would
have particularly devastating effects on Black people” (p. 90). Although the United States
government introduced the drugs to fund projects, “In 1998 the CIA Inspector General
finally admitted to Congress that in 1982 the Agency had received clearance from the
Just Department not to report drug trafficking by CIA assets” (Cockburn & St. Clair,
1998 ,p.49), they were now cracking down on the group of people who were distributing
the drugs in the streets. Crack was put into the hands of African Americans in the
economically disadvantaged neighborhoods, then those African Americans were targeted
and put in prison for selling the drug. Alexander (2010) writes, “During the same time
38
period, however, a war was declared, causing arrests and convictions for drug offenses to
skyrocket, especially among people of color” (p.6). With education, there are doors open
to individuals other than drugs or other illegal activity. Without education, there are very
few options. Temptation to make fast money is so enticing when it is so fast and
easy.
The 1990s was another decade that included a rich rap and hip-hop culture. Rap
music and hip-hop culture increased in popularity and the number one consumer who
embraced the culture was upper middle class White youth. Yet, music continued to be
and outlet for the African American males in struggling areas of the United States. Rose
(1994) writes, “Rap music is a black cultural expression that priorities black voices from
the margins of urban America. Rap music is a form of rhymed storytelling” (p.2). Music
is an outlet for many people, but what Rap was doing for young African American males,
was it was telling their life story.
Looking at education in the 1990s, there are a few positives. Colleges saw more
African Americans, and education as a whole was looking better. Jackson, (2007) writes,
“The 1990s saw much wider access and participation for African Americans in higher
education” (p.11). Jackson goes on to say, “Considerable growth occurred in the higher
education workforce for African Americans at several levels” (p.11). African Americans
were attending college at higher rates and holding significant positions within those
colleges. This is definitely a change, although Jackson does go on to attribute that success
to African American women.
39
In summarizing this section, it is evident to me that the historical racial oppression
of African Americans is a contributing factor in the academic underperformance of the
population. Examining the past five decades proves this theory.
Critical Race Theory
Critical Race Theory (CRT) is a field of study that emerged in the 1970s. Taylor
(2009) describes CRT:
CRT comes from a long tradition of resistance to the unequal an unjust
distribution of power and resources along political, economic, racial, and
gendered lines in America, and across the globe, with the support and legitimacy
of the legal system which makes possible the perpetuation of the established
power relationships of society (p.1).
CRT came about during a time when there was definite inequality in the country. CRT
drew on the legacy of the Civil Rights Movement. The theory examines race within the
everyday situations. Delgado & Stefancic (2001) write, “Critical race theory questions
the very foundations of the liberal order, including equality theory, legal reasoning,
Enlightenment rationalism, and neutral principles of constitutional law” (p.3). Delgado &
Stefancic go on to also state, “The (Critical Race Theory) movement is a collection of
activists and scholars interested in studying and transforming the relationship among
race, racism, and power” (p.2). They explain:
The movement considers many of the same issues that conventional civil rights
and ethnic studies discourses take up, but places them in a broader perspective
40
that includes economics, history, context, group - and self-interest, and feelings
and the unconscious (p.3).
Critical Race Theory takes it a step further, to include all important aspects of
individuals’ lives. It is important to look at more than just the individual’s race and the
role it plays in their daily lives. CRT puts race into the context of every experience one
may face, past to future.
Ladson-Billings and Tate are two names that must be mentioned when speaking
about Critical Race Theory. Ladson-Billings and Tate (2009), write about Critical Race
Theory and the role it plays in education. They state,
If racism were merely isolated, unrelated, individual acts, we would expect to see
at least a few examples of educational excellence and equity together in the
nation’s public schools. Instead, those places where African Americans do
experience educational success tend to be outside of the public schools” (p.173).
Due to the racism that is still within the school system, African American children are
failing. Yet, when they are outside of school, in environments that do not expose them to
racism, they do much better. They then go on to further state,
While some might argue that poor children, regardless of race, do worse in
school, and that the high proportion of African-American poor contributes to their
dismal school performance, we argue that the cause of their poverty in
conjunction with condition of their schools and schooling is institutional and
structural racism” (p.173).
41
Again, racism is the key factor here. As long as students are in schools where teachers are
not meeting the needs of their students, regardless of race, students will not be successful.
African Americans, in particular males, have been behind, and the data proves this fact.
Something needs to be done systemically to improve the state of public education and the
performance of our African American children.
There are several prominent themes to CRT. Ladson-Billings (2009) points out
those themes of CRT, the first one being that “CRT begins with the notion that racism is
‘normal, not aberrant, in American society’ (Delgado, 1995, p. xiv), and, because it is so
enmeshed in the fabric of our social order, it appears both normal and natural to people in
this culture” (p.21). She goes on, “Second, CRT departs from mainstream legal
scholarship by sometimes employing storytelling to ‘analyze the myths, presuppositions,
and received wisdoms that make up the common culture about race and that invariably
render blacks and other minorities one-down’ (Delgado, 1995, p.xiv)” (p.21). The third
theme is “CRT insists on a critique of liberalism” (Ladson-Billings, 2009, p.22). “Fourth,
and related to the liberal perspective, is the argument posed by CRT that Whites have
been the primary beneficiaries of civil rights legislation” (Ladson-Billings, 2009, p.22).
All of these themes combine to form Critical Race Theory. It is important to know that
role that each one plays and how they are all formed around the role, in which, race plays
in everyday circumstances.
Derrick Bell (2009), “Harvard’s first African-American professor” (Cole, 2009,
p.13), speaks about CRT with regards to testing. He writes, “There is, on the other hand,
a depressingly strong and invariant correlation between resources and race in this
42
country, and resources and success--including success in taking I.Q. tests” (p.37). If
everything is related to race, then the I.Q. test is racially based. When the information on
the test is presented in a way that is not culturally relevant to minorities, especially those
with little resources, how are they expected to achieve the highest possible score?
Critical Race Theory is needed to help teachers and schools as a whole, examines
how race is playing a role in their schools and in the lives of the students. Knowing the
importance if race may possibly help teachers better educate their African American
children.
Culturally Responsive/Relevant Teaching
Campbell (2004) defined culture as, “The way of life of a group of people,” he
further states, “To learn a culture is to learn how to perceive, judge, and act in ways that
are recognizable, predictable, and understandable to others in the same community”
(p.43). Therefore, the utilization of critically responsive teaching is not arbitrary, in fact,
it is absolutely necessary in order for a group of students to survive an academic
environment. From my perspective, an educational process would have to be congruent
with the culture of the student.
What makes culturally responsive teaching so important? It provides an avenue
for students to learn what is being taught, in a way that is culturally relevant to them. It
also helps to meet the learning needs of a majority of students in the classroom. Another
important aspect is that it allows for every student to learn, and it addresses all learning
styles. Culture impacts the intelligences that are demonstrated or exhibited by the child or
the learner. In his book, Gardner (2006) lists the multiple intelligences, “Musical
43
Intelligence, Bodily-Kinesthetic Intelligence, Logical-Mathematical Intelligence,
Linguistic Intelligence, Spacial Intelligence, Interpersonal Intelligence, and Intrapersonal
Intelligence” (pp.8-16). These are the varied Multiple Intelligences, also known as
learning styles. Not every student learns the same, but it is the job of the teacher to figure
out how his or her students learn, and create lessons to teach, that meet the needs of their
students. Hale (1986) states, “African American children are generally more kinesthetic
than white children and have a higher level of motor activity” (pp.75-95). This means that
in order to help African American children, especially males, gain the greatest amount of
knowledge from any given lesson, they need to move.
Culturally Responsive Teaching is not new to education, but there are some
schools that are just now incorporating critically responsive teaching into their
classrooms. There is a focus on what is culturally appropriate within one’s own culture
and within the dominant culture. Code switching is also something that is stressed very
heavily. Pappas & Zecker (2001) define code switching as, “The ability to alternate
between two language system” (p.158). Code switching allows for the students to grasp
an understanding of what is being said or taught to them. When teachers help their
students transition from their home language, while still respecting their home language,
into the academic language needed to be successful in school, they will keep be better
serving their students.
Gay (2010) argued, “Teachers must learn how to recognize, honor, and
incorporate the personal abilities of students into their teaching strategies. If this is done,
then school achievement will improve (p.1). Once teachers know their students; who they
44
are, where they come from and how they learn, they will better be able to serve them.
When the teachers learn how to incorporate their students into their lessons, they will
better be able to meet the needs of the students and in turn, students will ultimately do
better. Gay further goes on to write what culturally responsive teaching is,
The use of cultural knowledge, prior experiences, frames of reference, and
performance styles of ethnically diverse students to make learning encounters
more relevant to, and effective for, them. It teaches to and through the strengths of
these students. It is culturally validating and affirming (p.31)
Culturally responsive teaching is a way to bring who the students are, as individuals, into
the classroom. Students will feel respected and as though they belong in the classroom.
When speaking about Culturally Responsive Teaching, it is also important to
mention Ladson-Billings (2009) when she speaks about culturally relevant teaching,
Culturally relevant teaching uses student culture in order to maintain it and to
transcend the negative effects of the dominant culture. The negative effects are
brought about, for example, by not seeing one’s history, culture, or
background represented in the textbook or curriculum or by seeing that history,
culture, or background distorted (p.19).
As the teacher plans their lessons for class, they should consider their students' cultures.
A teacher, who wants to get the most participation from the whole class, will make each
lesson relevant to the lives of their students. When speaking about what pedagogy needs
to be, Ladson-Billings further went on to write,
45
A pedagogy that empowers students intellectually, socially, emotionally, and
politically by using cultural and historical referents to convey knowledge, to
impart skills, and to change attitudes. Teachers practicing culturally relevant
teaching know how to support learning in these students by consciously creating
social interactions to help them meet the criteria of academic success, cultural
competence, and critical consciousness (p.20).
Only good outcomes can happen with good teaching. The students will be able to receive
what they need from the teacher, when the teacher is relating the lessons to all of the
students in his or her classroom.
King (2010), conducted research and summarized the findings of previous
publications on African American scholars in education. An analysis of The Souls of
Black Folk (DuBois, 1897), indicated that African Americans are a unique cultural
population, in that they have a double consciousness (further information with be
provided on this topic under the section Racial and Academic Identity) and an effective
education needs to address this double consciousness. King (2010) also indicates that this
unique psychological state has to be identified by educators and addressed thru providing
culture centered knowledge in the curriculum provided.
King (2010) uses Bullivant’s (1981) definition, that “culture is ‘a social group’s
design for surviving in and adapting to its environment’” (p. 356). For African
Americans, this culture has been somewhat distorted; therefore, they do not have their
cultural empowerment when it comes to their educational learning experience. This
46
means that it is crucial for the teacher to help their students gain that power, by bringing
in materials that are relevant to their history, culture and lives.
King (2010) also explains the four categories of culture-centered knowledge and
curriculum transformation. The four categories are “marginalizing knowledge,
invisiblilizing knowledge, expanding knowledge, and deciphering knowledge” (p. 360).
The first two categories would fall under hegemony, since that they keep the students at
status quo. These types of knowledge to do not push the students past where they are or
encourage them to do better. The last two categories would fall more under autonomy
because they push the students to do something different than they had been doing. As
the students are working at these levels of knowledge, they are truly learning and moving
beyond just the basic train of thought.
Kunjufu (1989) brings up an important aspect to Culturally Responsive Teaching
when he mentions the curriculum. He writes,
The prefix “multi” means “many.” A multicultural curriculum attempts to
encompass children of many cultures, races, and ethnic groups. It means, for
instance, that Black history will not be confined to February, Hispanic history to
May, and Native American history to October (p.21).
Children should be experiencing culture on a daily basis in the classroom. This means an
emphasis is put on learning about more than just the dominant culture regularly. By
providing students will their culture, they are more apt to be engaged because what is
being taught, is related to their lives.
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Another scholar that has to be mentioned when speaking about culturally
responsive teaching is Nieto (1995). Nieto writes about several issues in schools and how
those issues affect the children. One of the issues is the curriculum. Nieto writes, “The
curriculum in many schools is also at odds with the needs of learners. This mismatch is
evident in the irrelevance of the content to the lives and lifestyles of many students and
their families” (p.101). The school is separate from the community. When this happens,
the teachers are not bringing in material that is relevant to the lives of their teachers.
Another issue that Nieto writes is with regards to pedagogy. She states, “Teachers’
pedagogy is also influenced by their lack of knowledge concerning the diversity of their
students and how cultural and language differences may affect learning” (p.107). Without
the teacher’s knowledge of the student population that the teacher is teaching, they are
unable to truly meet their needs educationally. She further goes on to mention the teacher
education programs,
Many teacher education programs still function within a monocultural framework,
and, because of this, few teachers are prepared for the numerous cultures,
languages, lifestyles, and values they will face in their classrooms. The result is
that many teachers attempt to treat all students in the same way, reflecting the
unchallenged assumption that ‘equal means the same’” (p.107).
Unfortunately, many teachers are going through programs that are not preparing them to
teach in a diverse classroom. This is a hinderance to them, because most teachers will
teach in a diverse classroom at some point in their career.
48
Murrell (2002), who speaks about African-Center Pedagogy, says, “We have said
that a connected pedagogy for African American learners is grounded in the collective
cultural legacy of Africans in America” (p.38). In order for a teacher to truly teach his or
her African American students, they must present curriculum that is rich in their student’s
culture. This means that the teacher needs to expose their African American students to
what African Americans have done in history and current information on African
Americans as well.
It is evident, as shown through the scholarship, that culturally responsive/relevant
teaching is crucial in the classroom. The classroom teacher must know their student. The
teacher needs to bring in curriculum that relates to the students’ lives, and make them feel
important in their class. When the students feel like active member in the classroom, and
they feel important, they are more likely to be active learners in the classroom and will
have a much better cultural identity in the class. According to Kunjufu (1989),
“Numerous studies show that children who have strong self-esteem also do well in
school” (p.71). He further states, “I feel there’s a direct, positive relationship between
self-esteem and academic achievement” (p.72). When students feel better about
themselves, including African American males, they will in turn, do much better.
Cultural, Racial, and Academic Identity Development
It is inappropriate to speak about African Americans and racial identity without
referencing W.E.B. Du Bois. DuBois, who shortly after slavery ended, became a famous
and well known writer for African Americans. He spoke about their experiences and the
injustices they faced and continued to face thereafter. He also spoke extensively on the
49
identity of African Americans and what the oppression, as well as being African and
American, created within them. W.E.B Du Bois (1897) wrote an essay in the Atlantic
magazine titled, “Strivings of the Negro People.” In this essay, Du Bois defined African
Americans as, “...an American, a Negro; two warring ideals in one dark body, whose
dogged strength alone keeps it from being torn asunder.” In this quote, Du Bois is
speaking about what he called “double consciousness:” The idea of being African
American, and now becoming a part of the very society that oppressed their people led to
an inner turmoil that distorted their identity.
One area of racial identity that needs to be mentioned is the cultural name given
to African Americans throughout the years. Looking back over time, African Americans
have been given several different cultural names that they have gone by. Each cultural
name brought about a different identity (King, 2005). Kunjufu (1989) writes, “We
(African Americans) have been called all kinds of names: colored, Negro, Black, AfroAmerican, and African American” (p.63). He references Alex Haley, in the book and
movie “Roots”, where he speaks about how people from an ethnic group are named after
their geographic origin, and Kunjufu writes, “There is no place in the world called Negro,
Colored, Black, or Afro-America. You can be born anywhere but your roots remain the
same. There are only two appropriate answers left, African and American” (p.63). All of
these names place a role, for some African Americans, in their identity. Being that they
were called Africans in Africa, it would only make sense for African Americans to be
called African, stemming from their roots in African, and American, their geographic
origin.
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Another area within racial and academic identity is how one speaks. Not all, but
many African Americans speak what is called African American Vernacular (also known
as Ebonics, Black English and Spoken Soul). Rickford and Rickford (2000) wrote:
But treating Spoken Soul like a disease is no way to add Standard English to their
repertoire. On the contrary, building on Spoken Soul, through contrast and
comparison with Standard English, is likely to meet with less resistance from
students who are hostile to “acting white.” It is also likely to generate greater
interest and motivation, and as experiments have shown, to yield greater success,
more quickly (p.228).
Spoken Soul, also known as Ebonics, is not the academic language that teachers are
looking for in the class. It is the language that many students come to school with. The
Spoken Soul is their ‘home language’ or the language that they best identify with
culturally. By embracing the language that the students come to school with and their
culture, the teacher is more likely going to get the students to speak the needed academic
language. It is a process of teaching the students what is called, code switching. This will
allow the students to look at the way they are speaking and then teach them how to put it
in that academic language.
When it comes to how African American males perceive themselves and/or other
African American males, McWhorter (2000) writes about what happens to African
Americans when it comes to finishing up and graduating college. He states:
Indeed, as I and many others have noted, some of the resistance among many
black Americans toward reaching the finish line stems from an underlying fear of
51
becoming ‘white,’ black American cultural identity disappearing altogether with
white people the ultimate victors (p.258)
Although education does not change one’s culture or who they are inside, it has come up
in the African American culture, that those who better themselves ‘act White’. It is sad to
think that because one gets an education and speaks Standard English to make their
living, they are ‘acting White.’ What is wrong with one trying to better themselves? This
label, has sadly kept many Black Americans, and in particular Black males, from
achieving their highest academic potential of graduating college.
Asante (2008) shares a list of what many African Americans believe as they
approach graduation from high school. This list comes from Black Student’s Guide to
Positive Education (Kondo, 1996, pp. 188 - 189),
1.
BLACKS ARE INFERIOR, LAZY AND DUMB
2.
WHITES ARE SUPERIOR, HARDWORKING AND INTELLIGENT.
3.
BLACKS HAVE NO HISTORY AND SHOULD BE THANKFUL WHITES
RESCUED THEM FROM SAVAGERY.
4.
EUROPE IS THE MOTHER OF CIVILIZATION; AFRICA IS THE MOTHER
OF PRIMITIVISM.
5.
BLACKS CAN DO NOTHING OR THEMSELVES.
6.
BLACK FEATURES (NOSE, HAIR, SKIN COLOR...) ARE UGLY.
7.
BLACKS SHOULD STRIVE TO BE LIKE WHITES.
8.
EVERY MAN OR WOMAN HAS A PRICE.
9.
SUCCESS IS MEASURED BY HOW THICK YOUR WALLET IS.
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10.
BLACK PEOPLE HOLD BLACK PEOPLE DOWN.
11.
BLACKS BAN, NEVER UNIFY.
12.
BLACKS IN AMERICA HAVE NOTHING IN COMMON WITH BLACKS IN
AFRICA.
13.
BLACKS MUST DEPEND ON WHITES TO HELP THEM.
14.
BLACKS ARE CUT - THROATS, THUGS AND WELFARE CHEATS.
It is detrimental if this is how many African Americans will feel as they get closer to
graduation. It also could explain why there is not a higher rate of graduating male African
Americans. These thoughts that many of them have created for themselves, have helped
to shape their identity and how they perform in school.
Noguera (2008) who speaks and writes quite a bit on African American males,
writes,
For African American males, who are more likely than any other group to be
subjected to negative forms of treatment in school, the message is clear:
individuals of their race and gender may excel in sports, but not in math or
history. The location of Black males within schools - in remedial classes or
waiting for punishment outside the principal’s office - and he roles they perform
within school suggests that they are good at playing basketball or rapping, but
debating, writing for the school newspaper, or participating in the science club are
strictly out of bounds” (p.31).
What can be done to address this issue? Unfortunately, when some individuals, or even
members within a specific cultural group, are given a label, they begin to believe it, and
53
start to act as people have labeled them. There needs to be a way for schools to be held
accountable when their students are not doing well, this means even if it just a small
population or a specific group of students.
When Kunjufu (1988) speaks about African American males in schools he writes,
“Our youth have decided academics is white and not important, therefore if they do not
do well, it’s okay because they said before they failed that it’s not important” (p.44). He
then continues to state, “We limit ourselves, because we have created narrow boxes of
possibilities” (p.49). African American males are just as capable of success as their peers
from other racial groups. More often than not, many African American males associate
success with “whiteness” or “acting White” and they do not want to have that label
placed upon them.
Tatum (1997) also notes the relationship between success and “acting White”
when she writes,
Academic success is more often associated with being White. During the
encounter phase of racial identity development, when the search for identity leads
toward cultural stereotypes and away from anything that might be associated with
Whiteness, academic performance often declines. Doing well in school becomes
identified as trying to be White. Being smart becomes the opposite of cool (p. 62).
African American students, especially males, have to know that it is okay to be
successful, and that success does not equate to being White. One can become educated
without giving up their identity and culture.
54
In summarizing this Literature Review, I have included references focusing on the
historical oppression of African Americans as well as the references related to culturally
responsive teaching as a method of addressing some of these issues. I have also included
references that demonstrate how identity plays a role in academic success for African
American males. There are two solutions and they are critically responsive teaching and
the efficacy of CRT.
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Chapter 3
METHODOLOGY
Research Questions
For this research project, there are several questions that I will explore through the
questionnaires and through further reading. The questions are:
1. How does/has race/racism play a role (if at all) in the subject’s academic
experiences?
What in these males’ lives contributed to them wanting to go to college (ie,
2.
experiences, friends, family, opportunities, etc)?
3. What are the academic factors that shape these African American male’s
college going experiences
4. What were the challenges that impacted their persistence?
5. What instances of success they experienced that impacted their persistence?
6. Are there practices used by teachers that helped these young men prepare for,
and matriculate to college?
Population
The population for this study will focus on five African American male college
graduates between the ages 22 to 67. Each interviewee has either some sort of spiritual
background and attends or has attended my church. Spirituality is an important part of
how these men speak about their experiences and their own life stories. Four of the
subjects attend my church. The fifth subject was selected based on meeting the set
56
requirements: They are African Americans, male, four year university graduates, church
attendees or have a spiritual background; between the ages of 20-69. These men are also
great examples to younger men. The interviewees serve their community in some
capacity. The interviewees serve their community in some capacity. They not only meet
the requirements, as stated above, but they are great role models.
This study will also have a generational point of view. The interviewees were
men chosen from each decade from 1940 thru 1990. Age selection provides various
education perspectives during the specific time period. Each interviewee also dealt with
the racial issues of the time. The time period also provides viewpoints of each decade.
By doing this, I knew that I would be able to see the changes in education over the years.
I would also be able to see how one might have dealt with those changes and the racial
issues of the time. I wanted to look at each decade because there are a plethora of events
that took place within each decade, from Brown v. Topeka Board of Education (1954) to
No Child Left Behind (NCLB) (2001). So much has changed in education over the years.
The circumstances in one’s life can also stand in the way of their personal success. The
conducted interviews will demonstrate that even through trials and adversities, the
interviewees were able to able to come out of their situations victoriously. There may be
a few of the interviewees, who may not have found reason to be something that affected
them on their journey.
Data Collection
I decided to start this section with data collect from a local school. For the privacy
of the students and the school, a pseudonym will be provided. A presentation of data
57
collected from Smith Elementary, that projects a profile of academic performance of
diverse students, is shown below. The data included in this table will include: Race and
Ethnicity, Proficiency levels, and a comparison between the school’s African American
males and White males. The school’s data comes from the 2010 - 2011 school year CST
for Language Arts. Another important fact about this school, is that 100% of the students
receive free/reduced lunch due to socioeconomic status. (see Table 3):
Table 3: CST Scores for Language Arts
Race and
Ethnicity
African
American
Males
% Far Below
Basic
4.00
White Males 0.00
% Below
Basic
% Basic
% Proficient % Advanced
20.00
40.00
20.00
16.00
0.00
100.00
0.00
0.00
After data analysis for the entire school, African American males performed well in
comparison to their peers from other racial and ethnic groups. Although there were more
African Americans that took the CST than White students, African Americans were still
able to score in both the Proficient and Advanced scores.
The above data shows that African American students are able to score higher
than their White peers. My knowledge of the analyzed school reveals culturally
responsive/relevant teaching exists in this school. Teachers of color employed at this
school regularly conduct home visits. The data incorporated in this analysis span five
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decades, examining experiences of the five African American male subjects without
culturally responsive/relevant teaching.
The data will be collected through survey questions and life history interviews
(see Appendix). Each of the five subjects will receive the survey, then engage in a
follow-up meeting. Each survey will be reviewed to ensure: 1) the subjects did not forget
to share anything that they deem important; 2) that I am interpreting their answers
correctly and whether or not I need to clarify information; and 3) if there was an area in
which they wanted to provide more insight. The life history interviews will be meeting in
a neutral location where the interviewees feel free to openly converse about their
schooling experiences. Brown (2001) talks about the pros and cons of conducting
interviews. Regarding the positive aspects of interviewing, Brown (2001) notes, “First,
the interviewer can probe for more information after a question is answered” (p.76). He
then writes,
Moreover, interviewees often perceive interviews as being relatively personal;
that is, interviews are not as cold and mechanical as questionnaires. As a result,
the interviewer may be able to build a rapport that will help to keep the
interviewees interested and motivated. Furthermore, the data obtained in an
interview may be relatively rich and spontaneous (p.76).
Regarding negative aspects of interviewing, Brown (2001) states,
Interview procedures are typically done with relatively small numbers of subjects,
which leads to relatively small-scale surveys. Whether done face to face or on the
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telephone, interviews can never be completely anonymous in the same way that
questionnaires can (p.76).
Although there are pros and cons, as with any method for of retrieving information,
interviews tend to provide more rich information. It is also easier to ask more than just
the set number of questions, based on the responses that the interviewees provide. The
life history interviews provide a deeper response, which is needed to get the important
information. The issues raised by these subjects will be transcribed in Chapter 4.
Pseudonyms will be provided for each of the participants for their protection.
Survey data is important to this study, as the sample is small. I am also asking
questions that can be answered by any African American male college graduate. Survey
method also allows the interviewees to take time to reflect on their educational
experiences, while responding openly and honestly. This method allows for these
participants to answer the questions. I am asking these participants to reflect on their past
educational experience and then what led them to attend college. Observation method is
ineffective since the interviewees already experienced what will be discussed, including
graduating from college.
There are benefits and drawbacks to survey data. One benefit is flexibility in the
question selection. The surveyor can present the survey questions in any form, such as
written, email, telephone calls or interviews. Using standard questions will allow the
surveyor to compare the collected data. One drawback to survey data is that the questions
have to be general in order to allow the individuals or group to be able to answer; thus,
60
important questions may be omitted. Also, if the questions require an individual to
answer a difficult question, the responses may not be genuine.
Analyzing Data
For this study, I will be using the process of storytelling, or oral narrative, as data
interpretation. I will be incorporating a blend of my voice and the participants’ actual
experiences. This style allows an opportunity for interviewees to review responses and
additional information. I will present the data in a fashion that is both interesting and
informative. Storytelling takes place throughout many different cultures, but is very
important in the Black community. According to Wilson (2005),
Since the beginning of time, storytelling has been an important event in the
African and African American communities. Through storytelling, questions were
answered, history was conveyed, and lifelong lessons were taught and learned
(p.1).
The tradition of storytelling is very important to the African American community. It
allowed them to share stories and pass them down through generations. Blair (1976)
writes about the importance of a griot in the African community,
In West Africa the griots were the story-tellers, chroniclers, praise-singers, poets,
professional entertainers. A basic knowledge of the techniques and conventions of
the recital was as much a part of their stock-in-trade as the content of their
narratives (p.25).
The griot was very important in the African community, because they were able to keep
the stories and then share them. They were also experts at sharing the stories in an
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exciting way. One assumption is since griots were so important in a community, that
Africans carried on the storytelling tradition when they arrived in the colonies.
Ritchie (2011) mentions the significance of oral history for the African American
community. He writes,
Although scholars consult numerous sources in reconstructing and interpreting the
past, oral history has played a critical role in shaping much of the broader
discussion of race and African American history. Oral history evidence has
illuminated the African American experience during slavery and Reconstruction
and the modern civil rights movement. Additionally, scholars have utilized oral
interviews effectively in writing black urban history, and the role of African
Americans in the labor movement, politics, and family history (p.186).
Oral history has proven to be important and valuable. Oral history provides a much richer
account of what has taken place in the past. It is not surprise that scholars, though they
use written accounts and scholarship, recognize the value in oral history.
Kimbrough (2007) also goes into the purpose of oral history, “Oral history, as a
part of a literary genre, provides the ground for a deeper understanding of the differences
between people and cultures, as well as shedding light on issues obscured from the public
eye” (p.25). With stories that are passed down, there may be more information provided
about a group of people, rather than the written interpretation of what took place in the
past.
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Research Design
Critical race theory, “A legal theory of race and racism designed to uncover how
race and racism operate in the law and in society” (Parker & Lynn, 2009, p.148), will be
the lens I use to analyze the data. Critical race theory is most appropriate to use as a lens
to examine the subjects’ responses and experiences regarding race, and how it played a
role in their lives. Critical race theory helps researchers reflect on each subject’s response
and then determine if what took place affected them because of race. Although, many
would say that race plays a huge role in each person’s daily lives. One noticed
commonality was that none of the referenced males expressing they had to adapt to the
White culture. Calmore (1992) writes about this issue:
Hence, a major theme of Critical Race Theory reflects the colored intellectual’s
persistent battle to avoid being rendered inauthentic by the pressures of adapting
to the white world and, instead, to take an oppositional stance by relying on one’s
true existential life, which is rooted in a world of color even through not stuck
there (p.2170).
In this instance, ‘colored’ can also be replaced with ‘Black’ or ‘African American.’ In
particular, many African American males feel as though they become inauthentic and
have to put on this White face in order to be considered an intellectual. This is
unfortunate. Race should not place a role regarding intelligence; unfortunately, it does.
When it comes to education, Critical Race Theory plays a huge role. LadsonBillings (2009) writes about an experiences of a White female shopper and her African
American male friend (p.26). They were treated completely different, as the White
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female was completely unaware of her “White Privilege”. Ladson-Billings relates this
experience to the classroom. She writes, “These daily indignities take their toll on people
of color. When these indignities are skimmed over in the classrooms that purport to
develop students into citizens, it is no wonder students “blow off” classroom discourse”
(p.27). When students see the very obvious inequality, they may begin to feel as though
they are not important in the class or their opinions are not valued as equal to that of their
White peers. She goes on to quote Williams (1995), arguing how can students be
expected to deconstruct rights, “in a world of no rights” (p.98) and construct statements
of need “in a world of abundantly apparent need” (p.89)?
Ladson-Billings continues with speaking about instruction. She writes about how
the current curriculum is set up,
CRT suggests that the current instructional strategies presume that African
American students are deficient. As a consequence, classroom teachers are
engaged in a never ending quest for “the right strategy of technique” to deal with
(read: control) “at-risk” (read: African American) students. Cast in a language of
failure, instructional approaches for African American students typically involve
some aspect of remediation (p.30).
With the curriculum set up to allow for African Americans to fail, it is inevitable so many
are falling behind their peers. With a teacher spending all of his/her time trying to find a
remedy, they are not teaching their African American students to the highest level, but
just trying to help them meet the basic requirements.
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With regards to school funding, there is also a definite deficit. Ladson-Billings
notes, “CRT argues that school funding inequalities is a function of institutional and
structural racism” (p.31). She goes on to write,
The inability of African Americans to qualify for educational advancements, jobs,
and mortgages creates a cycle of low educational achievement, underemployment
and unemployment, and standard housing. Without suffering a single act of
personal racism, most African Americans suffer the consequences of systemic and
structural racism (p31).
If many African Americans are not able to generate the income needed to live in better
neighborhoods with good schools, their children will attend schools that are not properly
funded. This is a very unfortunate situation, prevalent in the 21st century. If individuals
do not have the money, the schools their children attend will suffer.
Additionally, Ladson-Billings notes, “If money doesn’t matter, then why spend it
on the rich” (p.32)? This is a great question. Why is all the money spent on the “haves”
and little to no money is spent on the “have-nots”? There has to be a way to distribute
funds in a more appropriate manner. Lastly, regarding funding,
CRT takes to task school reformers who fail to recognize that property is a
powerful determinant of academic advantage. Without a commitment to redesign
funding formulas, one of the basic inequities of schooling will remain in place and
virtually guarantee the reproduction of the status quo (p.32).
It is very important for those who determine funding disbursement understand that
property can bring many positives, especially when it comes to academic access. In order
65
to bring about a change, modification of funding disbursement methods should be
addressed. There need to more funds allotted to those schools in need.
It is very important to look at education through a Critical Race Theory lens. Our
schools are made up of children from different racial and economic backgrounds. There
is also the issue of White Privilege that takes place in education, and so many students of
color, particularly African Americans, are not getting their needs met. It is time that the
individuals in the position of power start looking at education through a Critical Race
Theory lens as well.
The Researcher’s Positionality
Positionality is very important as a researcher. Milner (2007) writes:
…researchers’ development of cultural knowledge is critical in the research
process. In their view, who conducts research with people and communities of
color matters less than what the researchers know about the people and
communities under study (p.395).
It is very important for the interviewer to know the participants in which, he or she is
working with. This, for example, would include information about their culture.
Although, I am not an African American male college graduate, I do bring an
understanding about African American males, their culture and the history of their people
which helps me to interpret the survey data and to relay the data through storytelling.
I am able to relate, because I am African American myself, as well as White.
Reflecting on my personal experiences, I see several faces of African American are
family members. Sadly, almost all of these men were incarcerated at some point in their
66
lives. My uncle was two classes short of completing his degree. Although he does not
meet the requirements for what I deem to label “successful” for the purpose of this paper,
he is definitely a successful man. He held a high position for a major computer company
and then was the Chief Executive Officer of a startup company he created.
The African American male family members in my generation, there are four
of them that did not attend college. Although my brother did attend college, he decided
not to finish. He decided to join the Air Force and serve for six years. After his military
service, he was unable to get the type of job he wanted due to the fact he had not
completed college. He was always one of the top candidates because of his service, but
was not selected because of the lack of a college education. My cousin is currently a
sophomore in high school. I hope that he will be the first African American male in our
family to graduate from college.
Before I even decided I wanted to get a master’s degree, I knew what I wanted to
focus on in my study. I am a teacher in a low-income area with predominately minority
students. I look at the young African American boys in my class and ponder, “What can I
do this year to make them want to go to, and graduate from college?” I know that I teach
the younger students who still have a while to think about college, but I want to inspire
them at a young age. I want to put it in their heads early that college is an option. I
discuss scholarships and loan opportunities and what to expect in college. It is very
exciting and encouraging to hear sixth graders talk about going to college, especially
when they discuss aspirations of attending an Ivy League school.
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As an educator, especially as an African American female educator, it is very
difficult to watch what is taking place in our educational system. It is hard getting
together in meetings, examining the data and knowing what I am going to continue to
witness (ie: African American males not meeting the Adequate Yearly Progress (AYP) or
they are the only subgroup that did not make growth, or even went down in points). It is
also difficult listening to teachers discuss African American students in their class
negatively. Hearing how African American students are the ones getting in all the trouble
and not doing what required is difficult to constantly hear. Seeing the lack of educators
of color is also upsetting. African American educators have such a powerful role in
education and they can make such an impact on the African American students in their
class. Gordon (2000) writes about African American educators in the classroom and
effects of them not being in the classroom,
The loss of these educators accentuated the gap that has existed for years between
middle-class and lower-class African Americans. It also left many urban
communities with fewer educated role models. This void in the Black community
continues today and some would say it is the primary cause of the low academic
success of inner city youth (p.19).
I do not know if, the fact that there are now less African American teachers now, is the
cause if why there are more African American students failing. It could definitely be a
possibility. I do know that they are role models for many of the African American
students, males in particular, and they provide a positive image of African Americans.
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There is definitely something missing, and there it is a sad fact that there are not more
African Americans teaching in the classroom.
Delpit (1988) mentions several different experiences of the African American and
other non-White teachers and individuals in education when it comes to trying to share
their options or suggestions to their White colleagues. One scenario related to my
experiences is the principal who was taking a doctoral class and having a discussion
regarding educating African American children. When she tries to explain how things are
not what they think, everyone ends up getting defensive. The next thing the principal said
truly resonated with me:
I try to give them my experiences, to explain. They just look and nod. The more I
try to explain, they just look and nod, just keep looking and nodding. They don’t
really hear me (p. 281).
I have spent so much time in professional development courses and in staff meetings
where I try to explain to my White peers and colleagues that what they read, or what they
may have heard about African Americans (and/or students) is not reality. I try to explain
that all of the research from White upper class males does not explain the problems
facing our young African American men in education. I also try to offer my experiences
being a student in elementary school through high school or the experiences I have in my
own classroom. Unfortunately, my colleagues also do not hear me. I believe it is an
avoidance tactic or a way of not taking on a part in the systemic problem educators do not
want to acknowledge.
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Another issue I have is that having such a fair complexion, many individuals,
unless provided with my prior background, are unaware that I am half African American.
Therefore, many individuals will feel free to speak openly about African American
children or African American families. I have been in many different classes where
individuals would speak about the problems in their classroom and I would just allow
them to speak. Several classes go by and I get into another discussion mentioning my
background and the expressions are priceless. I was in an amazing credential program
where I was the only African American student teacher.
Many discussions would take place, and the White student teachers (who wanted the
cultural experience but really were not ready for it) felt free to express their viewpoints.
That is, until I joined a discussion. The biggest problem with this is that if there is not an
African American teacher’s voice in a room of White teachers, then the African
American child’s voice is not heard.
As an educator, I make it a practice to attend trainings and professional
development offerings. I recently received professional development training through
The Center for Culturally Responsive Teaching and Learning (CLRT). The training’s
emphasis was on Afrocentric Pedagogy. It was inspiring to watch videos of the students
in their classroom learning about their culture and getting excited about learning. Code
switching was also covered and using that language in their daily class discussions. I feel
it is critical for educators to participate in these particular trainings, as it will help them to
improve relating to the African American students in their class. It is crucial that a
teacher knows the students that he or she is teaching.
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One reason that this topic is so dear to my heart is because I have a bi-racial son.
His ethnicity is African American and Caucasian. He is only two years old, but I am
already plagued with the thoughts of what he will endure as he approaches the age to
attend college. I ask myself questions like, “Will he be inspired? Will he see other men of
color in professions such as the medical field, law, education, to name a few? Will his
father become the role model that he needs to be?” These are all the questions I
contemplate as to how encourage my son to attend college. The same goes for my unborn
son.
I also look at my son’s father. He was unable to finish high school at a traditional
school due to his behavior and the time he was in juvenile hall. He has been constantly in
and out of the prison system, and experienced a lack of care from adults in his life. He,
like many young African American men in his area and in other impoverished
neighborhoods, was looking for a way to make quick money. Tatum (2005) speaks to this
point when he writes, “The lack of job opportunities coupled with the influx of drugs in
many urban communities led to the temptation of quick money for many black males”
(p.32). Quick money led to some African American males, such as my husband when he
was younger, to not focus on school. The idea of being able to make money quickly, was
often more tempting. Education was not a consideration, because it did not pay out fast
enough. He went to continuation school and throughout his schooling, was incarcerated
several times.
When he finished school (which happened in the juvenile hall system) he did not
attend college. Two years later, he ended up in prison for five years. It was not until after
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his five years sentence that he realized that he wanted to go to college. He was able to get
into a local junior college and played on the basketball team as a star player. He is now in
a much better place and making much better choices for his life. Although he did not end
up graduating from college, he is in the process of working towards completing his
training and eventually opening his own gym. As a father who chose the path he did, he
is going to be a better example. He will know what to look for and what caught his
attention as a young man. He will know what to tell our son to be aware of his
surroundings and what to avoid. He will be sure to encourage our son to go to college.
After everything he has been through, he knows that college is a much better choice.
Whether it was looking at the males in my family, the students I teach, thoughts
of my children’s educational experiences, or my own husband’s past, I know I want to
see a change in education for African American males. Hopefully, I am able to provide
another way to look at the issues plaguing African American males in education, as well
as ways to change how we educate African American males to close the achievement
gap.
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Chapter 4
ANALYSIS OF DATA
The data presented in this chapter was administered to five different African
American male subjects from five different decades. It presents narrative data from the
oldest male first, since the study’s origin is education in the 1950s. Beginning with the
oldest gentlemen will allow us to look at his experiences during a time when there was
segregation in American education. As I present each participant’s survey data, I will be
examine the generational differences in education and experiences based on the major
events that have shaped these subjects while they were in school. One example is
segregation in the 1950s. Within each section, I will interpret the data that was retrieved
in the surveys using oral narrative, also known as storytelling, from each subject’s voice
and lived experiences.
I will use oral narratives as a means of sharing the data. Oral narratives are a
better way of presenting this data because there are only five subjects and they each
answer questions about their lives and educational experiences. Byrne & Irvine (2000)
write, “Storytelling is a cultural practice in all societies, and the ability to tell and
understand stories and narrative is probably a` way to share one’s experiences with
another individual. Using oral narrative is an effective way to share the information,
because these subjects are speaking about lived experiences, For example, oral narrative
as a methodology is used in various researchers work. Activist, actor, and attorney
Wajahat Ali says storytelling is powerful because “the beauty of storytelling is that it
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gives you an avenue. It gives you a channel, a means to benefit everyone around you”
(Steenland, 2010). This narrative was from a young Muslim American who speaks about
his experiences being Muslim and American. This project was a way to get young
Muslim Americans speaking. No matter one’s culture, storytelling or oral narrative is a
way to express one’s thoughts and ideas in an interesting way. For example, during
slavery, the slaves were able to use storytelling to keep each other going and to give clues
about ways to escape. It was also a way to bring them closer to Africa. Byrne &Irvine
(2000) refer to James Scott (1990) and he “describes how, in the United States, slaves
used storytelling to encode instructions for escape to the North. Stories apparently
innocuous to those in power can encode a subversive intent and relay different means to
different persons within the same audience” (p.102). Slaves were able to communicate
the important information that was needed to help get each other to freedom in the North.
Since the slave owners were not within the culture to understand their storytelling, the
slaves were able to continue using this method.
RESULTS
Carl, age 67
I grew up during a time when schools were segregated, and when I went to junior
high, it was the first wave of integration. Starting in Kindergarten and continuing through
high school, I had a good schooling experience. When I was in junior high, my English
teacher was the first Black teacher the school had ever had. It felt like he had a sincere
desire to see us succeed. When I was 21, I realized I wanted to go to college. I was
starting to look at my life and became acutely aware that I might not reach the level of
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education of my father and thus would possibly be a disappointment to him. This
motivated me to push through school. I attended several different schools throughout the
course of my education. I went to Oakland City, Austin City, National University - San
Diego and De Anza College. I eventually graduated in 1984. I am currently an IBM
Computer Programmer for SAP. In my journey to get me where I am today, I had several
individuals in my life that encouraged my desire for higher education. Not only was my
father a driving force, but my wife and son were also my greatest motivational sources.
With all of the people behind me, I still went through experiences as a Black male
that played a role in my life and experiences. I never knew just how many did not want to
see an African American become college educated until I started a full court press on my
college endeavors. Several have tried just about every trick in the book to discourage my
successful completion of my degree programs (especially some work associates). I have
found that determination is a great ally. It really is true that when the going gets tough,
one must get as tough and determined as it takes to overcome opposition. In the long run,
the racist people really don’t matter, if they have failed to deter your efforts. It is all up to
the individual to be strong and determined. My father would say, “There is so such thing
as can’t.”
If I could give advice as to what could be done to help the current African
American male youth to pursue a college education, I would say that I think there is great
value in a parent’s constant expectations for their children. It points a non-negotiable
direction that cannot be deviated from. Even if the kid does not do what is expected at the
expected time, they can still have the desire to accomplish the goal. In my case, my wife
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and I were from families that valued education. Also, my first son J.C.’s experience was
from a teacher who fled China with just the clothes on her back. Her family left
everything in order to escape with their lives. She came to this country, armed only with
her education. She was able to reestablish herself because of her education. An education
is very important, and with it, there is so much one can do.
Ron, age 55
When I started Kindergarten, it was during a time when things had begun to
change. I also grew up in an area where racism was not an issue for me. I loved school
from Kindergarten through Junior High. I had a great experience and have even be
fortunate to still have lifelong friends that I formed with classmates in grade school.
Unfortunately my High School experience was not as pleasant. It was a complete change
for me. I attended a school where gang violence was just forming, and where parents and
school officials underestimated the problem. When it came to going to college, I knew
that I decided I wanted to go at the age of 15. My class had an all-day field trip to the
local university and I had an opportunity to witness first-hand what college life was like. I
loved it! When I attended college I went to two different schools. I went to both Cal State
University Dominguez Hills and UOP. I graduated first in1981 and then again in 1997. I
am now a Technology Consultant. With my job I have been lucky to live in several
different states and I have also been lucky to travel. When it came to those individuals in
my life who encouraged my desire for higher education there were several.
Although many African American males may have had difficulty with regards to
education and their experiences, I was able to go through my educational experience
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without racism playing a role. Whether it was where I lived, my family or how I viewed
what was going on around me, I just didn’t have issues when it came to race and
education. This is not to say that I did not experience racism, it just was not an issue in
school.
Even with all of the many things that can keep one from not wanting to go to
college, such as racism throughout their schooling, I believe there is a way to encourage
you men today. If I were to talk to the African American male youth of today, and I were
trying to encourage them to attend college I would tell them several important things. I
would tell them that they must develop as young men. I would also tell them that they
need strong friendships. Having friends that are on the same path as you and are positive
in your life will definitely help to keep you on track. Lastly, it is important to have a
mentor. Parents are great, but knowing that you have a mentor who has also attended
college who can speak with you and keep you on track is very helpful. It is important for
these young males to form relationships with people who will help encourage and
motivate them to find their passion in life, and to pursue it.
Sean, age 45
I started kindergarten in the 1970s. I really enjoyed my elementary school years. I
formed great relationships with teachers and friends. Junior high and high school were
also great experiences for me. I was active in sports and other extra-curricular activities.
Those activities helped to make my experience enjoyable. As I was going through school,
I lived in several different cities. My father’s job required that we moved a lot. We went
from Vallejo to Redwood City to Hawthorne, California. Although I enjoyed school, it
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was not until I was 20 that I decided I wanted to go to college. I was living with
roommates at the time. They were Christians and they attended college. They were
mentors to me and so I made the decision to attend college.
When I did go to college, I went to Grambling State University. Grambling is a
historically Black four-year institution in Louisiana. I graduated from college in 1991 and
I am now a deputy sheriff in Martinez. I am so grateful to have had individuals who
encouraged me and my desire for high education. Now I am able to work in a field that I
enjoy. I also am encouraging my own children to attend college one day in the future.
It is very important for African American youth to pursue a college education. I
believe they should have a clear understanding of their history. They should know how
many African Americans suffered and died for the right to an equal education and to
attend the college of their choosing. I also know that education must be stressed at home.
Good grades must be a requirement and an expectation. The bar set by the parents should
be high, and they should be encouraged to meet the expectations. Lastly, I feel they
should be exposed to male mentors that are successful and can give them some direction.
When it came to my academic experiences, I was fortunate to have mentors to
keep me positive and on track. Unfortunately, along the way I also experienced some
racism. During an internship, I was discouraged by a Caucasian woman at a law
enforcement agency. She did not believe that i would succeed in my field and told me so.
Being that I attended a HBCU (Historically Black Colleges and Universities), I was
mentored by several teachers and faculty. It was instilled in the students there, that they
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would be successful. That was something that helped me through my experience,
knowing that I would be able to succeed.
Trent, age 31
I started school in the first grade and I really enjoyed my school experience.
When it was time to start school, my family moved from a diverse Los Angeles to a small
town in Northern California that one would not call diverse. I attended a one room school
in a rural area. I was very close to my classmates and my classmate’s families. In fact, we
still remain close to this day. I would have said that my experience was “great” had there
been more students of color. Despite many good memories, I can’t forget how being the
only black student (along with my brother and sister) of ten made me feel uncomfortable.
Junior High was also a good experience. I made many friends and was introduced to two
of my favorite sports, track & field and basketball. Although my junior high was larger
than my elementary school (about 200 students) I was still the only black student. I never
talked to my friends about race or racism, but with the Rodney King riots and the O.J.
Simpson case occurring around that time, I remember becoming even more conscious of
my skin color.
I knew at a very early age, like 9 or 10, that I wanted to go to college. When I was
younger, I wanted to become a college athlete. Once I reached 11th grade and realized
that I was not going to get an athletic scholarship, I started thinking about what field of
study I wanted to pursue. My parents and teachers were very supportive and helped
influence me to become a teacher. I attended CSU Chico and CSU Sacramento. I
graduated with my Bachelor’s degree in 2004 and from Graduate School in 2006. I am
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now a 7th grade Language Arts teacher. My family and parents were the biggest
encouragers when it came to my desire for higher education.
When I think about the African American male youth and how they can get
encouraged to pursue higher education I think that they would benefit from entering an
education system that resembles our current college model by the time they reach 3rd
grade. Too often I have seen students of color being forced to read materials that they are
unable to personally connect with. I see students with amazing kinesthetic skills who
spend three quarters of their day sitting in their seats. I see students with an outstanding
gift to debate who are told not to speak during class. Although I would like to create well
rounded human beings who are able to positively contribute to society, I don’t want to
take away from our African American students’ curiosity and desire to learn by forcing
them to conform to our already outdated education system.
With regards to how race has played a role in my own academic experiences, I
would definitely say it has played a major role. Growing up in a predominantly white
town, I felt that I needed to do well in school in order to erase the negative stereotypes
that are often directed towards black males. Along with motivating me to do well in
school, race also guided me in my decision to become a teacher. The fact that I’d only
had two African American teachers between 1st grade and graduate school was
disappointing to me. I knew that students of color (especially black boys) were being
horribly underrepresented in school and if nothing else, simply observing me teach could
change the way some of them would view education.
Avery, age 22
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Being 22, I am a recent graduate from college. I have always really enjoyed
school, starting in Kindergarten. I had great friends and was challenged in school
intellectually. I developed relationships with some of my best friends that are still in my
life today. In high school I was able to keep busy through sports. I learned how to deal
with people that I did not feel comfortable around. I was also taught how to build
confidence. When I was 14, I decided that I wanted to go to college. It was mainly
basketball that got me excited about college. I wanted to play ball at the college level. My
parent always told me to go to college but I probably made a conscious decision to desire
a college education when I decided to seriously pursue a future in basketball. I attended
Santa Clara University and graduated in 2011.
When I think about what can be done to help encourage the current African
American male youth to pursue a college education, I feel that educating individuals on
the tangible benefits that exist in the short, mid, and long term. I think they need to be
educated on how to make college possible. For example, financial aid, success stories that
are relevant to each demographic, and explain what fields lead to what careers.
Being a black male who was recently in school, I had to deal with how race
affected my academic experiences. Adjusting to a different type of culture was something
I had to learn how to do because I lived on campus and went to a predominantly white
school. The teachers would sometimes look to African Americans to explain their
feelings as if an individual can represent every person of similar descent’s feelings and
thoughts. With the support that I had and all the knowledge I acquired growing up, I was
able to get past all the ignorance of others. I was able to stay focused and finish school.
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Although there was very valuable information, I felt I needed much more.
Unfortunately, because of such a small sample size, there was not enough information. I
decided to conduct life history interviews. This allowed me to amplify the results. Below
are the interview questions and responses. They go in the same order as the survey
responses, starting with the oldest male and continuing through to the youngest male.
LIFE HISTORY INTERVIEW RESULTS
Carl, age 67
Victoria: Please tell me about concrete things that you can recall teachers doing to
encourage learning.
Carl: My first J. C. teacher was a refugee from China’s Communist revolution. She told
us how that, because she was educated, she was able to restart her life in the new country
(United States), after her family escaped China with only the clothes on their backs.
Therefore, education and skills must be among ones primary goals. That story has been
directed my pursuits, since 1963.
V: Please reflect more deeply on a time where you feel like race or racism played a role
in your schooling.
C: In my case, I have had several teachers who were dedicated to the cause that, African
Americans must not learn. As a teenager in math class, the teacher would make sure that
we sat in the back corner of the class. He would completely ignore us even though we
had good input and wanted to participate. I concluded that he was looking to the future
when we would enter the job market. His purpose was that we should not be prepared and
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thus would not be able to compete with our white peers. That thought honed my
determination to do whatever I needed to do to acquire a good education.
V: Do you feel you saw yourself represented in the curriculum? Please explain why or
why not in detail.
C: In those days the representation we received was primarily as slaves or descendants of
slaves, with not much substance or hope. It was mostly a condescending, embarrassment.
I constantly looked to my father and uncles for encouragement and a way to carry myself
forward, especially when in public. My aunt was a librarian who gave me the opportunity
to learn in a good school like environment, about things and people all across the country
which played a role in my life, years later.
V: Would you say that your teachers brought your culture into the classroom? Please
explain?
C: Only in negative ways. Most white teachers in the system in those days were, I
believe, undergoing a sort of culture shock, as integration began to take hold, as they
were confronted with the fact that they could not stop it, using traditional means.
V: How has your religious background helped to shape who you are? Do you feel it has
helped to get you where you are today?
C: The one thing that readily comes to mind is the practice of self-control, in the midst of
high excitement or even panic. My mind seems to settle on the words “be still and know
that I am God.” Somewhere I learned, no doubt from watching my father, that a calm
mind is a thinking mind and the opposite is also true. My dad said to me once, “Do your
own thinking. Don’t let the other fellow influence you with the saying if I were you, I
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would do this and so.” The reality is that they would not do this and so. So, be calm and
think for yourself.
Ron, age 55
Victoria: Please tell me about concrete things that you can recall teachers doing to
encourage learning.
Ron: Our teacher would give us projects to work on at home that required the students to
solicit help from his\her parents in order to complete the project. The projects would
typically be beyond the skills and ability of the student, and may have even been a
challenge for the parent to tackle. But by working with one or both parents, and working
as a team I was able to turn in the completed project and proudly present it for show and
tell. In refection, that may have been the goal of the teacher all along--building strong
bonds between the student and his/her parents throughout and along the educational trail.
V: Please reflect more deeply on a time where you feel like race or racism played a role
in your schooling.
R: I can honestly say that I never saw race or racism as an issue in my years of schooling.
I never felt disadvantaged due to race, nor have I felt anyone tried to hold me back from
obtaining a quality education. I received nothing but encouragement and acceptance from
my teachers in the pursuit of my education, and to the best of my memory all of my
teachers had my best interest at stake. Later in life I discovered my schools used a track
system to place and group students with similar abilities and personalities together along
their educational path. This track system now explains to me why so many of my
yearbook classroom pictures featured the same kids from first grade on forward. Looking
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back I really was blessed to be grouped with the high achievers, and with kids that
behaved well too.
V: Do you feel you saw yourself represented in the curriculum? Please explain why or
why not in detail.
R: I did not necessarily see myself in the curriculum, nor did I feel the curriculum
ignored me. It seemed more like the curriculum was designed to give me a solid
educational grounding so that I could advance in any area of pursuit that I chose. I can
also add that I believe any curriculum would surely fail if the student was not raised to
respect others, as well as have a sense of self-worth, and a sense of belonging and safety
in their environment. These were significant factors in my upbringing.
V: Would you say that your teachers brought your culture into the classroom? Please
explain?
R: I think for the overwhelming majority of Americans of African descent, it is difficult
to pinpoint our specific culture due to the mixing of our bloodlines over the generations.
Therefore, it becomes difficult for most of us to identify with our heritage (or culture) as
it is so diverse--at least it is for me. Our tastes in foods are all over the board, likewise for
music, literature, dance, you name it. This is the richness of our unique culture, proving
that we can easily adapt, and in fact embrace, cultures of other peoples and tailor them to
our own likings. I think the same applies in our educational curriculum. We are much too
diverse in our bloodlines to quantify cultural components--for which one can isolate--but
rather, we learn of our various cultures by studying and learning the cultures of others,
and to see them reflected in our own lives.
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V: How has your religious background helped to shape who you are? Do you feel it has
helped to get you where you are today?
R: I'm not sure if my religious background played any role in where I am today. But I do
know that my following of the teachings and ways of the Lord and Savior--Jesus Christ-has everything to do with the ways I conduct my personal and business life, and my
interactions with others. I also recognize that I am not a perfect person--no one that I
know of is--and there will be, and have been times when I've tripped along the path. On
each occasion, my heart is not right until I can make amends for my transgressions; either
to God through repenting, or to the other person by asking forgiveness. Although
adopting the ways and means of some who don't follow Christ might lead to more earthly
treasures, it simply would not sit well within my heart. That would be an issue for me that
I simply could not accept. So, my Christian walk has everything to do with who I am
today, and my religious background had nothing to do with it.
Sean, age 45
Victoria: Please tell me about concrete things that you can recall teachers doing to
encourage learning.
Sean: I clearly remember teachers encouraging me, letting me know I could accomplish
anything I put work into. They would also push reading and extra credit work. I never
thought that was a way to encourage learning, but when I look back on it now, I realize it
was.
V: Please reflect more deeply on a time where you feel like race or racism played a role
in your schooling.
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S: There are always those times when teachers didn’t pay as much attention to me as
some of the other kids in class. I don’t know if I thought it was racism as much as I was a
kid that was not as focused on my education then. Other than that, I don’t recall a specific
incident of overt racism. I attended an HBCU, Grambling State University, and I can say
that it was almost startling to see that almost all of your professors were black. It had a
profound effect on me. They let us all know from the very first day on campus that we
had a heavy burden to carry, that of our ancestors that died so we would have this chance
at an education and freedom. They never let us give up on ourselves and they pushed us
to be better than we ever thought we could be. They reminded us that we were important
to the legacy of our ancestors, the university and the world in general. My experience at
Grambling is my lasting memory of how race played a part in my education--not racism,
but pride of race. It has lasted until this day.
V: Do you feel you saw yourself represented in the curriculum? Please explain why or
why not in detail.
S: No, neither I nor my community was represented in the curriculum and not because
they had names of children that were Bob and Jane instead of LaKeisha and Xavier. It
was because you never saw yourself in books. Every face you saw was different from
yours. Everything you studied did not include black people in a positive light, despite the
numerous contributions made by blacks in America. It can have a profound impact on a
child to only see images of you when speaking or learning about slavery.
V: Would you say that your teachers brought your culture into the classroom? Please
explain?
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S: When I went to elementary, junior, and high school there was no celebration of black
history month, so no, my culture was not reflected in my classes. I only mention black
history month, because that would have been the only time that black culture would have
been represented, if at all. I really don’t think my teachers, at that time, made any
attempts to understand the culture of their students. There is more of a push for teachers
to be culturally sensitive now, that did not exist when I was in school.
V: How has your religious background helped to shape who you are? Do you feel it has
helped to get you where you are today?
S: I am the man I am today because of my relationship with Christ. Studying His word
and His ways, has helped me better myself and it gives me something to strive for every
day. I absolutely know that I am where I am today because of God. He gets all the glory
and praise because I know how I was and where I was before Him, so to me, it stands to
reason that He is the reason for all the blessings I have today.
Trent, age 31
Victoria: Please tell me about concrete things that you can recall teachers doing to
encourage learning.
Trent: The only concrete thing that I can recall teachers doing to encourage learning was
assigning our Senior Project in the twelfth grade. The Senior Project allowed students to
apply their strongest skills to a “real world” project. In order to create an authentic
experience, students were required to so spend no less than thirty hours shadowing local
professionals such as newspaper columnists, teachers, mechanics, and physical therapists.
By the end of the project (which every senior had to complete in order to graduate high
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school), students took great pride in presenting their project to a panel of judges. The
learning was encouraged by investing their time into something that was meaningful and
authentic. Prior to my Senior Project, I can only remember learning being encouraged
through extrinsic motivations such as grades, sports, dances and other extracurricular
activities.
V: Please reflect more deeply on a time where you feel like race or racism played a role
in your schooling.
T: I could reflect on the time when my white History teacher gave a three-minute speech
about how I (the only black student in the class) wouldn’t have been able to sit in his
classroom fifty years prior. Or the time when my Language Arts teacher didn't ask me to
give my perspective on the Rodney King case, but asked me to give the “black”
perspective of the Rodney King case. Or when my Humanities teacher gave me the
answers to the first quiz because he assumed that I needed them and he wanted to make
sure that my grades were good enough to play sports. Instead of focusing on individual
incidents, I choose to reflect on how race played a role in my overall experience in
education. As a black male, I always felt like the majority of my white teachers had low
expectations of me from first grade all the way through college. Many of them were so
impressed with the fact that I was “articulate” that they were content to simply let me
slide through class instead of setting the bar higher and pushing me to meet knew goals.
I’m sure that most of my teachers meant well, but their attempt to help only delayed my
progress as a student.
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V: Do you feel you saw yourself represented in the curriculum? Please explain why or
why not in detail.
T: No, I did not feel like I saw myself represented in the curriculum. We only focused on
books with black characters during Black History month, and those books were usually
biographies about great black civil rights leaders like Martin Luther King Jr., Jackie
Robinson, and Rosa Parks. I remember feeling proud when we read those books, however
I think that I would have related more to successful blacks from my own generation.
V: Would you say that your teachers brought your culture into the classroom? Please
explain.
T: No, my culture was focused on once a year and there was still a generational
difference between what was presented in class and what I directly related to at the time.
It was as if the majority of my teachers accepted and recognized what had happened in
the 50’s and 60’s, but were apprehensive about discussing recent happenings directly
related to my culture.
V: How has your religious background helped to shape who you are? Do you feel it has
helped to get you where you are today?
T: My parents’ religious backgrounds had more to do with shaping who I am than my
own religious background. Although I didn’t go to church growing up, my parents
instilled in me the same Christian values that their parents had given them. Yes, I feel like
my faith has helped me get to where I am today, because it is my faith that drives me to
make a positive impact on those around me daily.
Avery, age 22
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Victoria: Please tell me about concrete things that you can recall teachers doing to
encourage learning.
Avery: I cannot remember anything.
V: Please reflect more deeply on a time where you feel like race or racism played a role
in your schooling.
A: Being aware of the fact that there is a low percentage of African Americans in my
classes. This lead to me questioning why this was a fact.
V: Do you feel you saw yourself represented in the curriculum? Please explain why or
why not in detail.
A: I felt represented as a person in each class. In religious classes that studied ethnics, I
felt that I represented more than just myself. I felt like I represented my culture as well.
V: Would you say that your teachers brought your culture into the classroom? Please
explain?
A: Yes, in classes that explored ethnics, but in other classes it was not. However, I feel
like it was not appropriate to bring in my culture in classes.
V: How has your religious background helped to shape who you are? Do you feel it has
helped to get you where you are today?
A: It has grounded my foundation in my decision making skills in morality and my
career. It is one of the biggest reasons why I am who am I am today.
DISCUSSION
The surveys proved to be very informative. The subjects provided a great deal of
information on their own experiences and ideas to help the African American youth of
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today. One commonality between all men was that they really enjoyed school. Whether it
was friends, teachers or extra-curricular activities, all subjects felt they had a good
academic experience. As a result of there not being quite enough information from the
surveys, although valuable, life history interviews were conducted. They proved to be
filled will important information about the experiences of each male during the decade in
which he attended school.
It was interesting to see that the subject in his 50s had no racial experiences when
it came to his education. This was surprising because he was in school starting in the
1960s. This was a time when a lot was taking place. Franklin (1980) writes,
The 1960s was a time of revolution among blacks in the United States. The
decade began with high hopes. There was still the belief that the school
desegregation decision would somehow bring about a truly democratic
educational system in the United States...Slowly, then more rapidly, the optimism
gave way to pessimism and even cynicism (p.484).
Even though certain issues had gotten better, like integration, there were still issues
stirring and people were seeing that education was not equal. The fact that one of the
subjects did not have any issues with regards to his race and his academic experiences is
rather interesting. Another interesting fact that stood out was with the oldest subject. The
fact that he was part of something so monumental in African American history, is
incredible. This must have been a difficult time for many of the African Americans
during that time. Though the need for integration was important, many individuals,
African Americans in particular, had terrible experiences and many preferred segregation.
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Brooks (1990) writes about how many African Americans felt after integration. He
writes,
Although only a slight majority may favor integrated schools, those who speak in
favor of separate schools clearly do so only out of disdain for the discrimination
and segregation that occur within integrated schools--an indication that most
African Americans do, under acceptable circumstances, favor integrated schools,
just as they favor integrated housing (p.80).
Due to the overt racism that a large majority of African Americans faced while attending
integrated schools, it was difficult to adapt and personally did not agree with the concept.
As previously stated, integrated schools did not mean that everyone was immediately
treated equal.
Another aspect to take into account is that all of the subjects credit their religion
with who they are today. For a few of the males, they did not pay attention to their
religion when growing up, but they recognize how it has made them who they are today.
Queen, Prothero & Shattuck (2009) write about the role of religion in the African
American community,
In the 21st century, religion continues to be central to the black community in
America. It does so by being preeminently theirs--true to their experiences, needs,
and aspirations. It has been and remains the source of moral authority within the
community, its gathering place and its refuge (p.115).
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Religion is strong in the African American community. Considering that the practice of
religion was not permitted for African Americans when they were first brought here, how
strong many of them are in their faith, is truly phenomenal.
When it comes to the youngest male subject, it was interesting to read about his
experiences in a predominantly White college and how that affected him. Allen (1999)
conducted a survey with African American males and females that attended both White
colleges and African American colleges. Allen noted, “Not surprisingly, these data
indicated that Black male and Black female students feel marginalized and isolated on
predominantly white college campuses” (p.204). This is evident in the youngest male’s
response. He was able to do well, despite the challenges.
As far as education, it was clear that not one of the males had an academic
experience that provided them with culturally responsive or relevant teaching.
Throughout each decade, there may have been times in these subjects’ academic
experiences where they had a teacher that challenged them, but as far as seeing
themselves in the class and the curriculum, it did not happen. Studies have proven that
bringing in the student’s culture into the classroom is important. Gay (2010) explains
why culturally responsive teaching is necessary in the classroom,
If educators continue to be ignorant of, ignore, impugn, and silence the cultural
orientations, values, and performance styles of ethnically different students, they
will persist in imposing cultural hegemony, personal denigration, educational
inequality, academic underachievement upon them. Accepting the validity of
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these students’ cultural socialization and prior experiences will help to reverse
achievement trends (p.27).
It is incredibly important to include culturally responsive teaching into teaching. In order
to get students engaged and excited about learning, they need to feel a part of the class, as
well as what they are learning.
The role that Critical Race Theory plays in all of this is significant. All of these
gentlemen faced some sort of racism throughout their academic experiences. The fact that
both Ron and Avery, men from two completely different decades, would respond
similarly to the role of race in their experiences, is interesting. Being that, “CRT begins
with the notion that racism is ‘normal, not aberrant, in American society’” (Delgado,
1995, p. xiv), as stated in chapter 2, both of these men should have realized that racism is
out there, and should have acknowledged that fact.
Before I began survey collection, I did not realize the information I would receive
and how important of a role it would play. Being able to analyze education over the
years, starting with the 1950s, I was able to see how education has transformed. Starting
with Brown vs. Board all the way to No Child Left Behind, education has seen several
changes. These five African American males took me on a journey through education and
provided me with a new insight on education through their experiences. This study has
proven to be more beneficial than I had originally anticipated.
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Chapter 5
SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Summary
The surveys and life history interviews of the five subjects in chapter 4 revealed
significant information regarding educating African American males. I was able to get a
glimpse into education from the 1950s to the early 2000s. All African American male
subjects had different experiences, but each fulfilled requirements to graduate college.
The surveys and life histories also revealed a strong religious foundation deemed crucial
in each subject’s life. Possessing a strong religious background allowed the subjects to
become the men they wanted to be. According to Cuyjet (2006),
The findings reveal that spirituality through religious activities is important to the
young men and their purpose in life. The African American college men in this
study are committed to holding onto the value of spirituality and religion as they
struggle through their college experiences and strive to obtain their goals (p.117).
Religion is a possible factor regarding student achievement. It provides some individuals
with strength and focus. Religion is a powerful characteristic in an individual’s identity.
Conclusions
Analyzing the materials, conducting the surveys and life history interviews
provided a strong knowledge base regarding educating African American males. More
research needs to be conducted, as the issues that African American males are facing are
not going to be solved overnight. I hope that my research and analysis provided another
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perspective on the issues plaguing our young African American males still in school. My
research and analysis demonstrated that teaching methods exist for educators to help
African American male students succeed. Hopefully in the near future, African American
males can be just as successful as their White peers and the achievement gap will close.
Conducting research and analysis and presenting the findings allowed me to gain
new insight into the issues that have plagued African American males for years. This
research and analysis allowed me to gain a deeper understanding of the African American
male experience in education. I gained funds of knowledge from scholars in the education
field, especially culturally responsive/relevant teaching and engaging African American
students. Benefits of the conducted research include knowing I now have the ability to
help the African American males in my class to achieve their greatest potential and be a
catalyst to empower these students to further their education.
Recommendations
It is unfortunate how there are so many children, particularly African American
males, who are still struggling in school. The Children’s Defense Fund (2009) writes,
Children in the most economically depressed communities are at high risk of low
achievement and attainment and are often stuck in under-funded, overcrowded
schools. Poor urban schools have the highest numbers of teachers who are
inexperienced or do not have degrees in the subjects they teach (p. 1).
In most cases, the aforementioned tend to be African American students. These students
are not afforded an equitable education because of their economic status. One reason is
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the lack of qualified teachers. In this section, I hope to present recommendations for
educators to ensure the educational success of African American males.
After reading the literature, participating in professional development, and
personal classroom practices, I have a few recommendations that will help African
American males achieve success in the classroom. My first recommendation is that all
teachers need to be trained in and implement culturally responsive teaching methods
daily in their classrooms. By using culturally responsive teaching methods in their
classrooms, teachers will be able to better meet the needs of all students, especially the
African American males. When teachers are trained in culturally responsive teaching,
they should also have classroom materials in their classrooms that are culturally relevant
to the lives of their students.
Hale (2001) writes culturally responsive/relevant teaching when it comes to how
African American males learn best,
African American children, particularly boys, should not be required to sit for
long periods of time without an opportunity to expend energy. Learning activities
should be designed that enable the children to move as they learn. Quiet activities
should be alternated with active learning (p.118).
This is critical advice. Movement is a very important aspect that needs to be incorporated
into daily teaching. All children will benefit from moving throughout the class with
different activities. I was one of those teachers who did not prefer students constantly
moving, but realized that movement is so beneficial to the student. The students,
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especially the African American male students, get so excited about the activity that they
also become excited about the lesson being taught.
When speaking about how to make the curriculum relevant for African American
males, Kunjufu (1989) writes,
One of the concerns our children have always had is, ‘How does this relate to my
world?‘ Children would love to ask their teachers why they are required to learn. I
don’t think that’s an unfair question because it they have to sit there and learn the
information, teachers should at least be able to explain why it is important.
Teachers should show some correlation between a theory articulated in the
classroom and its applicability (p.27).
Educators must design the curriculum relevant to the children. If they cannot relate to
what they are learning, many children will wonder why they are learning it and tune out.
There are those lessons that are more difficult than others; those too, need to be relevant.
One way that many teachers present the relevancy of a lesson to the students is by asking
them how they think the lesson relates to their lives. This will get the students thinking
about the lesson, making the lesson personally relevant.
I have seen first-hand what a difference culturally responsive/relevant teaching
can make in the classroom. I was one of those teachers who did not do many movement
activities. I constantly allowed for group conversation, but in a sense, the conversations
were limited. However, I ensured acknowledging the culture of my students in my lesson
plans. I made sure that they were represented through literature, as well as implementing
culturally relevant teaching. I learned so many different techniques during culturally
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responsive training and how to appreciate the value in them. There is constant movement,
a significant amount of dialogue, and constant participation. Culturally
responsive/relevant teaching is essential in the classroom.
My second recommendation is parents should be more involved in the classroom
and in the student’s education. Parents are the child’s first teacher. It is crucial that they
are involved, or the guardian that takes care of them. Reynolds (2010) notes, “Parents
play an integral role in the social, emotional, physical, and intellectual development of
their children” (p.144). Parents have a great deal of responsibility when it comes to
raising their children. Kunjufu (1988) writes about the transition parents go through from
preschool through adolescents. He writes,
Parents see the need to monitor their preschoolers’ activity, to make sure they
don’t burn themselves or knock over objects, but they don’t see the need to
monitor their adolescents, who are involved in equally life-threatening situations
such as crack, AIDS, pregnancy, gangs, automobile accidents, poor grades, and
dropping out (p.54).
When the parents are involved in all aspects of their children’s lives, the child will do
better overall.
As an educator and as a mother of two, I understand the importance of parental
involvement. Teachers need the support of parents for the overall partnership that needs
to be in place to help the students. Kunjufu (1988) writes, “I am aware that some schools
do a better job of encouraging our involvement” (p.54). We as teachers need to make the
school open and accepting to parent involvement. Teachers need to encourage parents to
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be a part of the school and let the parents feel welcomed. The child benefits with a
parent-teacher collaboration.
Harris & Taylor (2012) write, “educators need to recognize and reward parents
for their involvement. Reinforcing parental efforts can make a significant impact in
working with their children” (p.37). The more teachers work with the parents and
recognize them for their involvement, the more involved parents will become. They will
be willing to work with us. When parents notices the teacher’s genuine interest in the
child’s welfare, parent realize the teacher cares about their child.
My third recommendation is teachers must have high expectations for their
students. All students need to have high expectations set for them, and African American
males are no different. When high expectations are set, students know the teacher cares
and believes in their ability. When the expectations are set, students will do their best to
rise and meet those expectations. Kunjufu (1995) asks a few valid questions, “When you
teach Black boys, what do you see? A future engineer, doctor, accountant? Or do you see
a drug dealer? Whatever you see will be what you produce” (p.94). We need to raise the
bar, and for African American males, the bar is often lowered. They need to know that
teachers see great potential in them and that they can do great things.
At one school, there was a survey given out to the students about how African
American males felt about their teacher’s expectations and Fashola (2005) writes about
the effects of the teacher’s expectations of the African American male students,
The efforts are especially salient given that the results that indicated low
Perceived Positive Teacher Expectations were statistically significant predictors
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of bravado attitudes. Often, youth expect their teachers and other school personnel
to be supportive of their development. So when African American males do not
perceive the school environment as supportive of their individuals goals and
development, they may elect to disregard school as a place to receive positive
reinforcement for academic success (p.245).
African American males need to have high expectations set for them, and then they need
to be recognized for meeting those expectations. If children are not recognized for
meeting the expectations, then they will feel no one cared about the earned achievement.
Students know when the expectations are set for them; in fact, most students would prefer
the expectations were in place.
Noguera (2008) writes about what leads teachers to have lowered expectations, as
well as what leads African American males to lower expectations for themselves. He
writes, “Stereotypes affect both teachers’ expectations of students and students’
expectations of themselves” (p.10). If the teacher already believes the stereotypes they
hear, they may start to feel their students fall into those stereotypes. This refers to the
student’s identity. If a student believes the stereotypes they hear, it will affect them and
they will not perform to their capability. Those stereotypes need to be removed from
one’s mind in order to help the students. If the teacher already believes that their African
American males will fail, then they may not set the bar high enough for them.
African American male students need to know that they have an ally. African
American males, just like the rest of the students in the class, need to have high
expectations place in front of them so that they can work to meet those expectations. Just
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like many children who parents set the expectation of college. The children will work to
make their parents happy. If a child feels that someone cares about their success, they
want to make that individual happy and do their best.
My fourth recommendation is African American males need positive, successful
roles models. This is definitely a must when helping young African American males.
There needs to various methods to access more role models for these young men on a
regular basis. When some young African American males only have musicians, sports
players, and males who commit criminal acts to look up to, they need a positive and
successful male to show them the alternative. Kunjufu (1989) writes, “When you ask
Black boys to name five male athletes or entertainers the have very little difficulty, but
when you ask them to name five Black men with college degrees they have problems”
(p58). They need to know that being smart and educated is a positive and strive for that.
These young males need to see that it is possible to be successful if you work hard and
stay focused.
Cuyjet (2006) writes about one benefit of having mentors, “Mentoring programs
enrich the careers of education and business professionals as well as the welfare of
minority youth” (p.95). Mentoring is beneficial for all of the parties involved. The men
are not only able to help the young African American males, but they are also able to give
back to their community as a whole.
When speaking about how to get mentors, or programs that can provide mentors
for students, Noguera (2008) writes,
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Drawing from the research on mentoring and student resilience that has identified
strategies that are effective in supporting the academic achievement of African
American students, community organizations and churches can attempt to
compensate for the failings of schools. Through after school and summer school
programs, these groups can provide young people with access to positive role
models and social support which can help buffer young people from the pressures
within their schools and communities (p.38).
Several community organizations are available for schools and parents to find role
models for African American boys. An after- school program exists in the housing
complex next to the school where I teach. This after-school program has provided several
successful role models for the young men. It is just an affirmation as to the benefits of
having a role model when I see these young men who were once struggling, and now
they are doing so much better.
My last recommendation is that teachers must know the students they are
teaching. When a teacher knows the students they are teaching, it makes it easier for them
to meet the needs of their students. The teacher must know the traditional educational
style is not going to work for all of the children. It is clear when a teacher knows all of
their students based on the differentiation being used and if all students are engaged and
excited about learning.
Foster & Peele (1999) write about what to consider when teaching African
American students, when it relates to standards,
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When considering standards for teaching, it is essential to determine whether the
attitudes, behaviors, and skills required to teach predominately White
middle-class students are those needed to teach predominately African American
students, especially if those classrooms are composed primarily of urban pupils
who live in poverty (p.9).
The teacher must know the students they are teaching. Just because one teaching style
may have worked with students from the suburban White neighborhoods does not mean
that it is going to be effective for African Americans, especially the males. The teacher
needs to learn who their students are, and teach them accordingly.
Foster & Peele (1999) also write, “Expert teachers of African American males
develop productive relationships with their students” (p.11). Teachers need to get to
know their African American male students. For some teachers, this may be intimidating,
especially if the students are older. African American males in the classroom are just like
the other students in the classroom. Unfortunately, society and the existing systemic
racism makes some teachers find it difficult to work with African American males. So
many of these teachers shy away from those students and immediately use defense
mechanisms. This does not allow for the teacher to effectively teach their African
American male students. The more the teacher gets to know their African American male
students, the better the students will do in class and become receptive to learning.
Ford & Moore (2004) write about what teachers need to remember, “Nonetheless,
we must also understand that acknowledging group differences is acknowledging cultural
differences. For the sake of our nation’s increasingly diverse student population,
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educators must seek to become culturally aware, knowledgable, and competent” (p.39).
Teachers must become knowledgable about their students’ culture. It is important
teachers to know the students they are teaching; this includes the culture of the students.
When teachers are aware of the cultural differences in the classroom, they can then take
the steps to meet the needs of all students. This includes incorporating cultural books,
making lessons relevant, and getting students up and moving in the classroom.
When speaking about how a teacher must know the students they teach, Kunjufu
(1995) makes several valid points when he writes,
You cannot teach a child you do not love. You cannot teach a child you do not
respect. You cannot teach a child you do not understand. You cannot teach a child
you fear. You cannot teach a child before discarding your political baggage, e.g.,
sexism and racism (p.94).
He then goes on to add, “You cannot teach a child without bonding with him first. To
bond, you must have love, respect and understanding” (p.94). Teachers must not only
love what they do, but they must love their students, even the African American males.
When a teacher truly loves and cares for their students, they will do what is needed for
successful student achievement. I have found it to be more beneficial to not read the cards
that are sent from the student’s former teachers. I do not want to pre-judge my students. I
want to always start with a clean slate so that we can build a class of acceptance and trust.
The students must feel loved and that the teacher cares for them.
All of these recommendations are not going to close the achievement gap alone.
Hopefully, these recommendations can help to decrease the achievement gap
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significantly. With the closed achievement gap, African American males will be closer to
achieving success by attending and graduating from college. To help African American
males succeed, the following things need to be in place: the utilization of culturally
responsive teaching in the classroom, parent involvement, teachers must have high
expectations, African American males need positive role models, and teachers must know
the students they are teaching.
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Appendix A: Consent Form
Human Subjects Consent Form
You are being asked to participate in research which will be conducted by Victoria Carr,
a graduate student in the Bilingual and Multicultural Education at California State
University, Sacramento.
This study will investigate factors related to the success of African American males with
regards to attending college and graduating from college. You will be asked to complete
a questionnaire about your educational experience from primary school up to/through
college. There will be questions about what contributed to making your decision to attend
college and also experiences that might have hindered you throughout your school years,
but how you overcame them.
This questionnaire will require approximately an hour or two of your time. There will be
a slight discussion of the questions to more accurately provide information for the study.
Some of the items in the questionnaire may seem personal, but you don’t have to answer
any question if you don’t want to.
You may gain additional insight into factors that contribute to the success of African
American males. There is also a possibility that you may not benefit from participating in
this study. Hopefully the information gained through this questionnaire will help current
and future educators and local school districts find ways to make college a more
attainable desire for young African American males.
Your responses on the questionnaire will be kept confidential. With your permission, an
audio tape will be used during the time of the discussion if one is needed. Those audio
tapes will be destroyed as soon as they have been transcribed. Until that time, they will be
stored in a secure location.
You will not receive any compensation for participating in this study.
If you have any questions about this research, you may contact Victoria Carr at
(916)XXX-XXXX or by e-mail at Tori2@aol.com. You may also email Dr. Lisa
William-White, advisor, at lywwhite@csus.edu.Your participation in this research is
entirely voluntary. Your signature below indicates that you have read this page and agree
to participate in the research.
________________________________
Signature of Participant
____________________
Date
108
Audio-taping is very important because it will help to provide the researcher with the
exact words used during the discussion. When the writing takes place about the data
collected and what was stated in discussion, accuracy is very important. Please sign
below to state that you are giving permission to be audio-taped.
________________________________
Signature of Participant
______________________
Date
Please know that your participation is greatly appreciated. In the event that you feel
distressed, you may stop any part of your participation at any time. Also, you may contact
the Elk Grove Church of Christ at (916) 689-4579 or at
http://www.elkgrovechurchofchrist.org/ and speak with one of the elders.
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Appendix B: Survey
Age ___________
Did you attend Kindergarten? _________
How would you describe your elementary school years? (Please circle one)
Poor
Fair
Good Great
For the previous question, why would you say that was your experience?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
Describe your Junior/High school experience.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
How old were you when you decided you wanted to go to college? ________
Explain what factor influenced your decision.
110
What college did you attend?
Year you graduated from college (if applicable)? __________
What is your current profession? If you are retired, what was your profession?
Was there a/an individual(s) who encouraged your desire for higher education?
What do you think could be done to help encourage the current African American male
youth to pursue a college education?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
Describe how race/racism has played a role, if at all, in your academic experiences?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
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Appendix C: Life History Interview Questions
1. Please tell me about concrete things that you can recall teachers doing to
encourage learning.
2. Please reflect more deeply on a time where you feel like race or racism played a
role in your schooling.
3. Do you feel you saw yourself represented in the curriculum? Please explain why
or why not in detail.
4. Would you say that your teachers brought your culture into the classroom?
Please explain?
5. How has your religious background helped to shape who you are? Do you feel it
has helped to get you where you are today?
112
References
Akbar, N. (1996). Breaking the chains of psychological slavery. Tallahassee: Mind
Productions & Associates.
Alexander, M. (2010). The new Jim Crow: Mass incarceration in the age of
colorblindness. New York: The New Press.
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