Preindustrial Agriculture, Medieval Europe And The Agriculture Revolution
Pgs.107-124
Preindustrial Agricultural Systems
At this given point, we have only stated that agriculture is the result of
domestication of plants and animals. As we move through history, the definition of
agriculture is altered due to the changes in our agriculture activities. When we think in
terms of preindustrial agricultural systems, agriculture is defined as the cultivation of
crops with or without animal husbandry and the use/dependence on domesticated animals
for livelihood/consumption.
There are two levels to distinguish the degree of intensity in an agricultural
system. Intensive agriculture requires a great use of inputs to increase production which
requires greater amounts of labor, irrigation, fertilizer, and capital. Second is extensive
agriculture which requires a lesser use of inputs and this can be as simple as plant and
harvest. Cropping decisions vary across the world and is becoming more complex than
before. Every environment is different; therefore, crop selection and cultivation practices
will vary from place to place. Factors such as frequency of cropping, technology,
irrigation and drainage play crucial roles on how one goes about their business.
Livestock is often being integrated with cropping by using their manure to maintain or
build the fertility of the cropland. This enables more frequently cultivated fields to exist
close to their settlement.
Specific tools and techniques are used in the tillage for a cropping system. Axes
and chopping tools are required for forest fallow, stone axes for underbrush and the
practice of burning around trees are necessary to kill them for removal. Materials are
then cleared and burned, and the land is ready for cultivation. Hoes and plows are used
to ensure the weeds don’t overrun the cropland but they may not have been present at this
time rather only a digging stick were used. Crop selection is then chosen depending on
the adaptability of the region, which was discussed in the earlier part of the book.
Pastoralism is prominently on grassland or open woodland with grass cover and
depending on the environment, these grasslands are located in contrasting locations.
Preindustrial Agriculture & the Movement to a Settled Village & then Town Economy
There exists a positive feedback loop which involves population growth and
growing intensity. “Once the system is in motion it tends to encourage increased
intensity, which makes population growth possible, which in turn stimulates more
production”. As these villages developed the natural by-products were political and
societal issues. The developments of these villages were focused around two main
phases:
1. Free from lordship, but there was an existence of slavery
2. Aristocracy arose and each village was ruled by a lord and some had slaves.
Furthermore aristocracy developed in two ways:
1. Following the conquering in a war, the victors imposed themselves as a class of
overlords.
2. When conquest was avoided this was by means of a strong internal defense
system leading to aristocracy.
As population growth increases then the natural response of the villages was to expand
beyond small villages. This leads to a greater degree of social and political structure.
Due to this increased structure it was often to see more of the adults cease to participate
in food production but rather take on the creation of trading institutions and also become
traders (to go beyond producer to producer). Their continued existence and survival was
based on location of communication and transportation.
Medieval Europe: 9th&10th Centuries
Europe’s landscape was filled with clusters of houses and dominated by the
rhythm of agricultural seasons. Stability of these regions was based on two factors:
1. Legal Status: village properties served as a basis for levying and collection
of taxes.
2. Economic: soils nearest the house and stable stood as most fertile and
nourished because of constant fertilization from manuring and digging
creating a soil which could be constantly cultivated. These areas were
known as the garden or TOFT
Within these communities there was the mansus (a large imposing residence) pattern
spread within a village provided a safe haven for possessions, cattle, stocks of food, and
sleeping men. These were the basis of the village and the families stood as the ‘nucleus’.
Although still being agriculturally based these communities still took on other practices
beyond agriculture these ranged from hunting, fishing, and even still gathering.
The organization of production was unique to each village being based on many factors:
-Organized in such a way to fulfill social requirements which determine eating habits.
-Bread, being a basic foodstuff and made of a variety of
cereals, made cereal production essential in agriculture.
-Being the most important crop they were planted on the
arable land which extended from the toft.
Villages used several techniques to get the most out of their production:
Mills- grinding cereal
-constructed on the royal & ecclesiastical properties, relatively few ran by way of water.
Plows- two forms:
a) hook-plough/plow
-symmetrically shaped share, threw earth on both sides & was light, easily handled,
assembled by the ploughman, and had a metal point.
-best suited to regions where technique was elementary, animal teams were weak, and
where metal was not easily assessable.
-Only broke the surface of the ground, therefore spading was required from time to time.
b) Wheeled plough
-asymmetric share and mouldboard
-efficiently could turn the ground no spading necessary
-could deal with heavy soils so thus extending possible farming areas.
-required greater effort to drag thus stronger team required), more complicated to operate,
and also needed artisans to put it together
Note: even with the assistance of plows cereal crops locations were determined by where
the ground could be efficiently broken
At this time crop rotations also came to light.
-The two-field system was common with a simple crop-fallow rotation, thinly seeded,
and also draft animals were left to graze on fallow fields which aided slightly with
fertilization.
-But still the farmers fell to the mercy of Mother Nature and were still too premature to
efficiently understand its operations.
Medieval Manor
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The manorial system arose out the economical and social structure (forms of
property holding) of later Roman Empire and the forms of personal bondage
primarily characteristic of German Lordship.
The most characteristic institution in the economic history of the Middle Ages,
(organization really built around family.
The manor was an estate consisting of the demesne and manse
Demesne
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The lord’s own land
Tenants provided labor to the lord for a specified # of days / week in return as a
rent payment for the use of the holdings
Provided protection for the lord
Was cultivated under the Lord’s management
Manse
Peasant holding including land and usage rights, were subject to the demesne
farm itself
Cultivated for the tenants own use
Properly defined as “the land of the family”
Unit upon which taxes and dues were levied and collected
The lord of the manor gave the peasants protection in return for services and product. An
individual manor was virtually self sufficient economically, administratively and
religiously.
People in the manor had distinct classes that determine potential work assignments,
freedoms and rights
Political and Social Structure
Lord and Officials
 Leader, family and admin
Freeman
 Paid fixed cash rents, served in war and helped plant and harvest
 Free to leave, marry, gain education and enter the church
Villeins and Serfs
 Most numerous, normal citizens
 Owed 2-3 days service / week
 Not free, could do nothing with out the lord’s protection
Cottars and Squatters
 Lowest status (exemption of slaves)
 Holdings were too small for a family
 Made living by working for others whenever possible
Slaves
 No land, and no rights
 Worked out right for the lord, could be sold and purchased like farm animals
 This class did not last long in Western Europe
Slaves did not last long, it was much more efficient for the Lord’s to have this structure
rather than have all slaves and own all the land. It was much less management and
responsibility for the lord’s.
Labor services imposed on the tenants were the essential economic link between them
and the demesne.
Services took one of three main forms;
1. Definite Tasks – were lighter service requirements
2. Demands – left workers with less freedom, sometimes taken away to do the job
3. Nights – Serviced the lord for several days at a time, enabled the lord to employ
the individual in a task that was some distance away from the demesne
Lord’s often owned several demesnes
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Allowed him to control trade, reduce risk of crop failures and losses to
warfare
Some demesne had specialized production to it certain regions
Lord traveled to each one, spending a season at each
Required someone to manage the demesne while he was absent
Despite efforts of the Lord the villa or manor was never a closed economy, community or
system
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Some peasants worked else where
Sold produce in local markets
Led to ports and river transportation of good’s
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Church attendance created links which resulted in economic transactions by
villagers
External Commerce placed pressure on the structured of the manor
 Gifts to the church and others
 Technological growth meant less labor required
 Emerging trade allowed peasants living side by side under different economic
conditions (poor along side of rich)
 These developments placed pressure on the feudal system and led to the break up
of demesne
Medieval Europe: 11th to 13th Centuries
In the 11th to 13th century an increase in population put pressure on the food supply
forcing agricultural expansion. The economy was also expanding due to population
growth as well as massive land clearance, the extension of arable and a steady increase in
grain prices.
The grain production became insufficient to deal with the growing population and
resulted in an increase in poverty. These pressures resulted in expanding cultivated
lands, which were encouraged by the lords. The lords also gave incentives to peasants to
relocate a settle in new villages (villeneuves). This was a big risk because the best lands
were already under cultivation so many existing villages just expanded their borders.
These movements were completed by the 13th century.
Technology allowed agricultural practices to become more efficient with the spread
of literature. Soon waterpower was used as well as irrigation. Peasants were also
supplied with carts, larger ploughs and hand tools such as shovels, iron spades,
pitchforks, pick axes, hatchets, and harrows. The greatest advancement was the harness.
The frontal yoke for the oxen and the shoulder collar for the horse along with shoes for
the animals increased the soil manageability. Oxen were used mostly on non-cultivated
soil and horses on the cultivated land because of their speed. These advancements
resulted in better land preparation increasing yields.
With the expansion of settlements came the permanent enclosure, which most
importantly symbolized ownership as well as kept grazing animals out of the crops. This
movement started more individual farming and less need for communal farming.
Farming practices moved from the two-field rotation (crop then fallow) to the three-field
rotation. Wheat and rye in the winter, barley and oats in the spring then fallow. Manure
was used as fertilizer, if not enough was spread on the field the area would need to be left
to fallow for one or two years. This brought on the four-course rotation where vegetable
crops were introduced to act as a natural fertilizer. This allowed farmers to fallow 1 in
every 3 years. Extended fallowing would be needed if there was not enough ploughing or
enough manure spread on fields.
Crop selection was determined by climate, soil, and prices. Barley production
became popular with the production of beer.
The advancements in the 11th to 13th centuries allowed yields to double from the
9th and 10th century.
The Changing Structure of Society from the 11 to 13 centuries
The new technologies
 Plowing equipment
 Better harnesses
 Tilling methods
Results of new technology on the structure of society
 Increased importance of plowing
 Increase in value placed upon trained individuals
 Decrease in value of the manual laborer
How were manual laborers affected?
 Decline in status
 Reduced privileges
 Reduced overall well-being
Who were the manual laborers?
 Cottars
o Peasants or farm laborers who occupied a cottage and sometimes a
small holding of land usually in return for services
 Borders
o Those individuals who paid via rent or laborer for housing
 Workers without draft animals
Results of new agricultural technologies
 Increase in the price of capital
o Plows, harnesses, horses
 Decrease in the value of the land
o Relative to capital
 Increased demand for the new capital
Consequences of new capital
 Wealthy gained more control over peasants
o Extending loans
o Allowing advances
 Resulted in greater social differences
Important changes
 Changes in farm structure
o Stress cracks in manorial system
 new technology
o Married couples could make it on their own
 Population pressure placed great stress on the tradition of the manse
o Decline and break up of the manor was imminent
o To survive, the household no longer needed extensive lands
o Resulted in the breaking up of family units
o More individualism in agriculture and society
 Enclosure movement was soon to follow
o The process of inclosing (with fences, ditches, hedges, or other
barriers) land formerly subject to common rights. Such land included
fields cultivated by the open-field or strip system, wasteland, and the
common pasture land. (www.encyclopedia.com)
Results of the changes
 Demographic changes worked themselves out in the village communities
 Most productive lands could support more people
o both immigrants and new hearths
 Newcomers and settlers set up outside the old enclosure
o cabins multiplied in 11th and 12th centuries
 middle of 13 century, isolated farms appeared on the edge of cultivated lands
o broke up the solidarity of the village
Similar changes today
 Large capital usage
 reduced need for producers to work in a cooperative manner
 IT has reduced reliance on marketing boards and government agencies
 Increased individualism
o discontent towards the Canadian Wheat Board
Two Questions
 Does history have something to say about the survival of the CWB??
 Can individualism and cooperativism co-exist??
The Manor
 Time line
o A.D. 800 - A.D. 1200
 Period of Growth
o A.D. 1200 – A.D. 1300
 Manor at its height
o A.D. 1300 – A.D. 1500
 Manor experiences its decline
o After A.D. 1500
 Manor only survived in certain features
Causes of the Manor’s Decline
 Growth of technology
o enabled the pursuit of individualism
 Population
o Increase in labor supply during a time of less demand
 Towns
o formed commercial activity outside of the manorial system