EXPLORING EDUCATIONAL CHALLENGES AMONG ECONOMICALLY
DISADVANTAGED NATIVE AMERICAN/ALASKAN NATIVE FAMILIES
A Project
Presented to the faculty of the Division of Social Work
California State University, Sacramento
Submitted in partial satisfaction of
the requirements for the degree of
MASTER OF SOCIAL WORK
by
Valerie Kay Plevney
SPRING
2012
© 2012
Valerie Kay Plevney
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
ii
EXPLORING EDUCATIONAL CHALLENGES AMONG ECONOMICALLY
DISADVANTAGED NATIVE AMERICAN/ALASKAN NATIVE FAMILIES
A Project
by
Valerie Kay Plevney
Approved by:
__________________________________, Committee Chair
Jude M. Antonyappan, Ph.D.
____________________________
Date
iii
Student: Valerie Kay Plevney
I certify that this student has met the requirements for format contained in the University
format manual, and that this project is suitable for shelving in the Library and credit is to
be awarded for the Project.
__________________________, Graduate Coordinator ________________
Dale Russell, Ed.D., LCSW
Date
Division of Social Work
iv
Abstract
of
EXPLORING EDUCATIONAL CHALLENGES AMONG ECONOMICALLY
DISADVANTAGED NATIVE AMERICAN/ALASKAN NATIVE FAMILIES
by
Valerie Kay Plevney
This descriptive study examined educational challenges among economically
disadvantaged Native American/ Alaskan Native families, collected through a
questionnaire completed by 84 tribally connected respondents who receive services from
Shingle Springs Tribal TANF. Study findings indicate a strong positive correlation
between general self-efficacy and intrinsic motivation to learn [r=.716 at p>.01],
indicating a highly motivated group of respondents who believe in their abilities to
succeed. Bicultural beliefs and academic self-efficacy scores indicated a weak positive
correlation [r=.291 at p>.01] suggesting that culturally relevant educational opportunities
are crucial to educational success. Respondents identified financial hardships, childcare,
transportation, pressure to work, fear of failing, and uncertainty about educational
processes as their most influential educational challenges. Recommendations include
strengthening accessibility to culturally relevant educational opportunities and resources
while increasing outreach efforts that integrate cultural components with the strengths
identified such as motivation and academic self-efficacy. In addition, it is recommended
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that innovative educational programs and policies be created to strengthen existing
programs to address the identified educational challenges within this community.
_______________________, Committee Chair
Jude M. Antonyappan, Ph.D.
_______________________
Date
vi
DEDICATION
This study is dedicated to economically disadvantaged families in need of
resources and support to pursue educational goals and also honors families who continue
to pursue education in the face of adversity. This research is evidence of your strengths
and abilities to overcome a multitude of educational challenges. As a community we can
support and empower one another to have the courage and strength to advocate for
culturally relevant educational experiences.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to say thank you to my creator and savior for giving me strength and
everything I will ever need each day. Thank you for saving my life and giving me a
loving perspective. Thank you for helping me to understand that I am important and
beautiful. Thank you for allowing me to see that I am and part of something much larger
than myself. Thank you for giving me life, bringing amazing people into my life, and for
loving me. I live each day to honor you.
I would like to recognize my husband Ruban Plevney from the deepest part of my
soul for believing in me. You are the most loving individual I have ever met and I’ve
learned so much from your respect for others. Your support and love for our family has
empowered me to pursue my dreams. You are my best friend and I feel so grateful to be
spending my life with you.
I appreciate and love my daughters Aniah (Nia Bear) and Athena (Thena Bear)
for teaching me what unconditional love is and what it means to be a mother, role model,
and woman. You both have brought peace to my life and I work everyday to make this
world a better place for you.
I would like to thank both of my mothers Melissa and Julie for sharing your
strength and wisdom with me. I carry your insight and strength with me in everything I
do. Mom, thank you for being strong for us as children, for helping me go into recovery,
and advocating for me to finish high school. Knowing you are here for me through
anything is a blessing and I always recognize your strengths within my own life. Julie,
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thank you for being there for me through some of the most difficult parts of my life. You
and your family have shown me a kind of love that you have to experience to be able to
understand. You’re the best grandmother the girls could ever ask for. I appreciate every
part of who you are. I would like to acknowledge my dad James for teaching me to be
independent. Our relationship has taught me so much about faith, which was a key factor
in why I decided to study social work. I would like to say thank you to my grandparents
for helping me understand how important education is, making you proud has always
been an influential factor in my life. All of my sisters and brothers motivate me to be the
best person that I can be. Don’t ever let anybody’s judgments write your story or make
you feel something that you should not. You all have seen me at my worst and my best.
I thank you for accepting all of me. Josh, I want to say thank you for being an amazing
brother and uncle. You and Roxanna have really been a blessing to us, we appreciate all
of your love and help with the girls.
Finally, I would like to thank Clearlake Community College EOP&S and CSUS.
Through the EOP&S program I was able explore my strengths and develop my own
educational goals. I would like to recognize EOP&S social worker Sissa Nelson and
counselor Pamela Bordisso for helping me build up my self-esteem, encouraging me, and
truly believing in me. Your passion and dedication to help students who are facing
educational barriers achieve their dreams changed my life and I hope one day to do the
same. I would also like to thank the CSUS Social Work Division for my education and
leadership experience. I want to express a special thank you to
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social work professors Jude Antonyappan, David Nylund, and Diania Bajrami for sharing
your passion, knowledge, gifts, and extraordinary teaching styles. You each have
expanded my understanding of what social work truly is and serve as my most influential
professional role models.. I’m grateful to Shingle Springs Tribal TANF for giving me the
opportunity and support to reach my own educational goals, complete this research, and
become a part of an amazing organization. This program is a huge asset to the
community and and positive influence in the lives of so many families.
~Valerie Plevney
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
Dedication ......................................................................................................................... vii
Acknowledgements .......................................................................................................... viii
List of Tables ................................................................................................................... xiv
List of Figures .................................................................................................................. xvi
Chapter
1. THE PROBLEM ............................................................................................................. 1
Introduction ........................................................................................................... 1
Background of the Problem ................................................................................... 3
Statement of the Research Problem....................................................................... 6
Purpose of the Study.............................................................................................. 7
Theoretical Frameworks ........................................................................................ 7
Social Work Implications ...................................................................................... 9
Definition of Key Terms ....................................................................................... 9
Assumptions ........................................................................................................ 11
Limitations........................................................................................................... 12
Justification ......................................................................................................... 12
2. REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE .............................................................................. 14
Introduction ......................................................................................................... 14
Native American/Alaskan Native Educational Opportunities............................. 15
xi
Socioeconomic Educational Challenges ............................................................. 18
Other Unique Educational Challenges Influencing Educational Attainment ...... 25
Cultural as a Strength and Resource.................................................................... 31
Shingle Springs Tribal TANF ............................................................................. 33
3. METHODOLOGY ....................................................................................................... 36
Study Design ....................................................................................................... 36
Study Questions ................................................................................................... 37
Sampling Procedures ........................................................................................... 38
Data Collection .................................................................................................... 38
Instruments .......................................................................................................... 39
Study Population & Sample ................................................................................ 41
Data Analysis ...................................................................................................... 42
Protection of Human Subjects ............................................................................. 43
4. FINDINGS .................................................................................................................... 44
Introduction ......................................................................................................... 44
Response Rates .................................................................................................... 44
Socio-Economic Demographics .......................................................................... 45
Scales ................................................................................................................... 56
Bi-Cultural Belief Scale ...................................................................................... 57
General Self-Efficacy Scale ................................................................................ 58
Academic Self-Efficacy ...................................................................................... 58
xii
Intrinsic Motivation to Learn Scale ..................................................................... 59
Specific Educational Challenges Identified ........................................................ 61
Other Educational Related Questions.................................................................. 71
Summary of Findings .......................................................................................... 75
5. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS ......................................................... 76
Appendix A Consent Form ............................................................................................... 82
Appendix B Questionnaire ................................................................................................ 84
References ......................................................................................................................... 88
xiii
LIST OF TABLES
Table
Page
1. Table 2.1 The 2009 U.S. Poverty Guidelines .............................................................. 18
2. Table 4.1 Age of Respondents ...................................................................................... 45
3. Table 4.2 Gender of Respondents ................................................................................. 46
4. Table 4.3 Whether the Respondent was Native American/ Alaskan Native ................ 47
5. Table 4.4 All Tribal Affiliations Reported ................................................................... 48
6. Table 4.5 Education Levels........................................................................................... 50
7. Table 4.6 Currently Pursuing High School Diploma or G.E.D .................................... 51
8. Table 4.7 Whether the Respondent is Currently Attending College ............................ 52
9. Table 4.8 Colleges and College Majors Reported By Respondents Currently Attending
College .......................................................................................................................... 53
10. Table 4.9 Crosstabulation: Native/ Non-Natives and Education Level ..................... 55
11. Table 4.10 Symmetric Measures: Native/ Non-Natives and Education Level .......... 56
12. Table 4.11 Scales: Descriptive Statistics .................................................................... 59
13. Table 4.12 Pearson’s Product Moment Correlations Between the Four Scales Utilized
in the Study ................................................................................................................. 60
14. Table 4.13 Financial Hardship Identified As a Major Educational Challenge ........... 62
15. Table 4.14 Childcare Identified as a Major Educational Challenge ........................... 62
16. Table 4.15 Transportation as a Major Educational Challenge .................................... 63
xiv
17. Table 4.16 Feeling Like You Should or Have to Work Instead of Attend School as a
Major Educational Challenge ..................................................................................... 64
18. Table 4.17 Fear of Failing as a Major Educational Challenge ................................... 65
19. Table 4.18 Not Knowing What to Study as a Major Educational Challenge ............. 66
20. Table 4.19 Initiating the Educational Goals as a Major Educational Challenge ........ 67
21. Table 4.20 Initiating Educational Goals Cross Tabulated With Education ................ 68
22. Table 4.21 Lack of Family support as a Major Educational Challenge ...................... 69
23. Table 4.22 Lack of Family Support Cross Tabulated With Education ....................... 70
24. Table 4.23 Health as a Major Educational challenge ................................................. 71
25. Table 4.24 If Respondent Would Further Pursue Their Education If They Had More
Support and Financial Resources ................................................................................ 72
26. Table 4.25 Whether Respondent is Aware of the K-12 Indian Education Program in
Sacramento, Ca ........................................................................................................... 73
27. Table 4.26 Respondent Indicated They Would Like More Information About
Learning Disabilities That May Impact School Performance for Themselves or Their
Children....................................................................................................................... 74
28. Table 4.27 Comfort Working With a Computer ......................................................... 75
xv
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure
Page
1. Figure 4.1. Education Level .......................................................................................... 50
2. Figure 4.2. Whether Respondent is Aware of the Local K-12 Indian Education
Program ......................................................................................................................... 73
xvi
1
Chapter 1
THE PROBLEM
Introduction
This study was designed to explore the unique educational challenges that
economically disadvantaged adult Native Americans encounter in obtaining a High
school Diploma, G.E.D., or college degree. Research based evidence indicates that
education increases the preservation of Native American culture, protection of Native
children through legislation and awareness, and empowerment among the community.
Education is considered to be one of the keys to preventing further negative impacts of
multi-generational historical trauma, oppression, institutionalized racism, and systemic
disproportionality on the Native American/ Alaskan Native community.
Education has changed negative life circumstances and fostered cultural growth
among the lives of many in the Native American/ Alaskan Native community. In
addition, education has positively impacted individual development and the biopsychosocial/spiritual health of Native American families and children. However,
attaining a high school education or college degree only happens for few in the Native
American community. Unfortunately, only half of the Ninety percent of Native
American/Alaskan Native students attending public schools k-12 will receive their high
school diploma.
Without a high school education or degree the economic outlook for
any member of a minority community is minimal.
2
Researcher, Tom Rodgers (2008), emphasized a report made by the Economic
Research Service at the U.S. Department of Agriculture, which identified that 60 percent
of Native Americans who live outside the reservations in urban areas live in persistently
poor counties (para, 4). According to a one study, families with low socioeconomic
status often lack the financial, social, and educational supports that characterize families
with high socioeconomic status (Ramey and Ramey, 1994, pp.195). Poor families
usually have inadequate or limited access to community resources. In addition,
considering many Native Americans have culturally conflicting perceptions about asking
the powerful predominately white county agencies for assistance, the socioeconomic
situation for low-income Native families becomes a nightmare.
Many tribes now emphasize education as the key to the social, economic, and
cultural survival of their people. Few tribes have been able to produce an economy and
education system, which supports all of their tribal members within the tribal system.
Many members of the tribe are forced to engage in the mainstream employment and
education system. Without a G.E.D., high school diploma, or degree the probability of
attaining living wage or high paying employment is minimal. Today, minimum wage is
not a living wage and the risk of having no job, family instability, and involvement in the
criminal justice system is much higher for those who do not graduate or have a degree
(Even & Macferson, 2000. Para 16).
According to the National institution for Native Leadership In Higher Education
(2010), 55 out of 100 Native American students will graduate with their high school
3
diploma and out of the 55, 18 will enter into college and 3 will graduate with their
bachelor degree (para. 2) Native American people and culture have suffered greatly due
to long term-bias and discrimination. Their way of life has been taken, language has
been lost, and their traditions and culture have been severed.
Native Americans who have more education and knowledge about the
mechanisms of American Society are empowered to help improve socio-economic issues
among their families, tribes, and people. Creating services to help Native American
youth attain Education is crucial to their survival, prosperity, and biopsychosocial/spiritual health. Exploring and identifying specific educational obstacles to
completing the minimal requirement for economic mobility will expose challenges and
perceptions that can prevent economically disadvantaged Natives from attaining
educational degrees.
Background of the Problem
Researcher John W. Tippeconnic wrote, “Native Americans are the only
indigenous group in the United States, yet, they have continually faced serious political,
economical, and social issues including racial prejudice and discrimination, paternalism,
loss of treaty rights, isolation on economically depressed lands, lack of political power,
and loss of native languages since the colonial period” (Tippeconnic, 2010. pp 18).
Formal education was forced upon early Native Americans in the United States to the
point where children were forcibly removed from their homes to be placed into boarding
schools. Over generations Native Americans have had to endure successive traumatic
4
assaults, which have had negative impacts on families and communities (Cambell, Evans,
2008. Pp 316-321).
Within the “Self-determination era” (McClellan, Tippeconnic/ Fox, and Lowe,
2010, pp 2-5) the passage of the Indian Reorganization Act in 1934 was the eras pivotal
event in the movement toward Native American self-determination in education (AIHEC,
2000, para 4). This act along with many others in this era emphasis progressive
movement and appreciation of Native American culture, insisting that the curriculum
bring in the culture rather than suppressing or eliminating it (AIHEC, 2000, para 7). The
most relevant educational policy reform that has contributed to improved education
environments for Native American and Alaskan Natives is the Indian Education Act of
1972 (Journal of American Indian Education, 1975 para. 1-6). This act provided funding
for special programs for Indian children in reservation schools and for the first time also
provided funds for urban American Indian children attending public schools (Reyhner, J
1989, pp. 35-59). Locally, the Sacramento City Unified School District offers selective
educational services through their Indian Education Program for youth; however, funds
do are typically not used for the transition to college and unavailable to pay for G.E.D.
services.
Elders from many tribes who survived the last century continue to spread their
wisdom, educate, and preserve the Native American culture by keeping their oral
tradition and story telling for their people. Sadly, they are forced to tell the truth, which
involves many stories of kidnapping, torture, murder, and war. As little as fifty years
5
ago, Native Americans were victims of ethnocentrism through relocation programs,
unethical child welfare practices removing their children, and the horrible effects of
contaminated land given to them to live off of by the government. Today, Native
American communities have triumphed over some challenges, successfully creating
federal and state laws, federal programs, and tribal businesses. In this effort, new
culturally relevant educational and employment programs have been developed or are in
development and need pertinent information about the educational challenges to further
understand how to empower, serve, and help their people attain educational degrees.
Native American/ Alaskan Natives have faced genocide and oppression in many
different facets and the currents of those forces continue to affect the community. Tribes
all over United States and Alaska have deemed education as one of the most valued
resources and most tribes require most of their own staff to hold at least a high school
diploma. Although cultural differences remain a significant factor as to why many
Natives drop out or do not even attempt to attend high school and college there are very
few studies, which scale perspectives and directly ask economically disadvantaged
Natives about the challenges they face who have yet to start working towards their high
school completion or college degree. Education is the single most valuable variable that
can statistically lower the probability of social issues among the Native community such
as poverty, alcohol and drug addiction, additional loss of Native language, culture,
traditions, and loss of political power. These forces have created detrimental deeply
rooted amounts of poverty. This social problem has produced unhealthy lifestyles and
6
limited access to resources, including, culturally relevant education and health care.
Poverty stimulates other social issues such as alcohol and drug dependence, which
changes the perception and minds of those who become victims of addiction. Education
is the single most valuable asset that can statistically lower the probability of social issues
among the Native community such as poverty, alcohol and drug addiction, additional loss
of Native language, culture, traditions, and loss of political power.
Statement of the Research Problem
Economically disadvantaged adult Native American/ Alaskan Natives face an
abundant amount of obstacles before pursuing or while working towards a G.E.D., high
school diploma, or college degree. This research will expand our understanding of the
severity of different educational challenges and produce evidence that can be used to
advocate for resources to combat obstacles, ultimately increasing the probability
economically disadvantaged Native adults will pursue and attain a degree. This study
will embrace one of the over arching goals of Shingle Springs tribal TANF which
includes participants becoming self-sufficient, no longer having to rely on welfare as
their sole source of income. In addition, this study will address a Shingle Springs Tribal
TANF strategic goal, which includes ensuring at least 20% of participants are engaged in
their own educational goals.
This study gathers information about educational challenges through the
measurement of bi-cultural beliefs, self-efficacy, academic efficacy, and intrinsic
motivation to learn. A secondary more specific purpose of the study is to gain
7
information to better understand the needs of Shingle Springs Tribal TANF participants
and develop a system or program to assist participants in their endeavor to become selfsufficient and through their educational journey while receiving services from Shingle
Springs Tribal TANF. Historical and environmental factors that have limited educational
access and engagement among economically disadvantaged adult Native American/
Alaskan Native has increased the rates of socioecomic and biosychocosocial-cultural
issues within the community.
Purpose of the Study
The few local Native American/ Alaskan Native agencies offering educational
services need more information about educational challenges encountered even before
educational goals are pursued to help empower and motivate individuals to support
education among the community. The overall purpose of this is to study is to gather
information about educational challenges and to aid in the creation of targeted culturally
relevant educational supportive services, which address challenges and ultimately
increase educational success among economically disadvantaged Native American adults.
This study will access crucial information that may be used in education related business
proposals to tribes as well as local, state, and federal grant proposals regarding the
expansion or development of education programs.
Theoretical Frameworks
This study utilizes an ecological systems perspective and Critical Race Theory to
conceptualize the research problem and support the methodology/ tools utilized. The
8
ecological systems perspective recognizes that each person functions within a complex
network of individual, family, school, and community contexts that affects their capacity
to avoid risk (Brofenbrenner, 1986).
The ecological systems perspective is one of the central theories relevant to this
study because many educational challenges are environmental including historical events,
socioeconomic factors, and lack of culturally relevant educational services. Similarly,
this study recognizes the environmental factors that effect bi-cultural beliefs, selfefficacy, academic efficacy, and intrinsic motivation to learn.
Critical race theory is another key concept this study considers when examining
the persistence of racial inequalities that affect educational success and outcomes in our
society. Critical Race Theory uses a social justice framework and is rooted in
established fields such as anthropology, sociology, history, philosophy, and politics. Dr.
Patricia Hill Collins from the University of Maryland explains critical race theory as
conceptualizing racism and how racism operates within social, cultural, and historical
contexts. This theory gives special notice to the development of white supremacy and
emphasizes the role the legal system has played in racial stratifications. The research
study at hand honors the approach Tara J Yosso (2005) and many critical race theorists
follow regarding education and the commitment to develop schools that acknowledge the
cultural strengths of minority communities, which assist in overcoming social and racial
injustices (pp. 69). Critical race theory essentially confirms historical events and
systemic inequalities, which validates a variety of social issues affecting minority
9
individuals, families, and communities. Researcher Tony N Brown (2003) utilized
critical race theory to conceptualize a variety of mental health challenges that exist due to
racial stratification. The study at hand considers these mental health issues as
educational challenges, which include historical trauma, oppression, and substance abuse
(pp. 292).
Social Work Implications
One of the many social work implications emerging from this study is the notion
that education is a resource and social workers are trained to create, access, and advocate
for resources on behalf of vulnerable populations. In addition, the information explored
will help empower Native people on a micro level, develop and initiate programs on a
mezzo level, and potentially influence Indian education policies and funding on a macro
level. The NASW Code of Ethics devotes an entire section to cultural competence and
every social work program in America encourages diversity training. This study may
help social workers, agencies, and communities further understand the needs of the
Native American/ Alaskan Native community, which is one of the most vulnerable
culturally rich populations.
Definition of Key Terms
1. Native American/ Alaskan Native: Any federally recognized tribal member, any person
who has blood quantum proving he/ she is of Native American / Alaskan Native decent,
any person who can prove he/ she is decedent of a Native American/ Alaskan Native, any
person who identifies as being Native American/ Alaskan Native and is accepted in the
community.
10
2. Low-income: A household income at or below the Department of Health and Human
Services poverty guidelines (US department Health and Human Services [US dept. HHS]
2011)
3. Educational challenge: anything that prevents or discourages a person from beginning or
achieving educational goals, High school diploma, GED, or college degree on a micro,
mezzo, or macro level.
4. Educational success : accomplishing educational goals, obtaining educational certificates
and or degrees
5. Tribal (Temporary Assistance for Needy families) TANF: As defined on the California
Department of Social Services Official webpage (2011), Through PRWORA, Federal,
Tribal, State and local governments are encouraged to foster positive changes in the
United States welfare system by forming partnerships with each other. PRWORA gives
federally recognized Tribes flexibility in operating Tribal TANF Programs designed to:
a. Provide assistance to needy families so that children may be cared for in their
own homes or in the homes of relatives;
b. End the dependence of needy parents on government benefits by promoting job
preparation, work, and marriage;
c. Prevent and reduce the incidence of out-of-wedlock pregnancies and establish
annual numerical goals for preventing and reducing the incidence of these
pregnancies; and
d. Encourage the formation and maintenance of two-parent families
(California Department of Social Services, 2011)
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6. Tribal TANF participant: Any adult Native American or parent of a Native child who
receives services and or cash aid for themselves or their children through any Tribal
TANF program.
7. Adult: Identified as being at least 18 years old, living independently, or emancipated.
8. Indian reservation: An Indian reservation is an area of land managed by a Native
American tribe under the United States Department of the Interior's Bureau of Indian
Affairs, to which the title is held –In trust by the United States for benefit of an Indian
tribe or an individual Indian; By an Indian tribe or an individual Indian, subject to
restriction against alienation under laws of the United States; or By a dependent Indian
community; and Land that is owned by an Indian tribe and was conveyed by the United
States to a Native Corporation pursuant to the Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act (43
U.S.C. 1601 et seq.) or that was conveyed by the United States to a Native Corporation in
exchange for such land (Tribal energy and environmental information clearing house,
2011).
9. Per-capita: money distributed to registered California tribal members of recognized
tribes who own casinos or whom are on the list to receive non-gaming money from the
tribes who do own casinos.
10. Educational supportive services: any social, educational, or financial service that may
prevent or reduce the occurrence, duration, or damage of educational obstacles.
Assumptions
The basic assumption of the study is that further understanding the impact
environmental factors have on the participation in high school completion programs and
college among the Native American/ Alaskan Native population is important to study.
12
Historical multi-generational trauma and poverty plays a significant role in many
educational challenges. Creating services that foster healthy bi-cultural beliefs, selfefficacy, academic self-efficacy, and intrinsic motivation to learn will increase high
school completion programs and college enrollment rates. Education is a tool that
increases an individual’s capacity to give back to their tribal communities.
Limitations
The sample size and diversity among tribal communities limits generalizations to
the entire Native American/ Alaskan Native population. The study does not include a
large qualitative component and may not capture the entirety of some educational
challenges among local Native American/ Alaskan Native communities. There is a
geographic limitation within three counties including Sacramento County. There may be
some significant educational challenges not fully addressed in the study. The bi-cultural
belief scale has been used among many minority populations however it was not tailored
specifically for the Native American/ Alaskan Native community and overall has limited
external validity.
Justification
There has been an insignificant amount of statistical research conducted,
published, or gathered in an organized method regarding educational obstacles from a
Tribal TANF client perspective (Temporarily Assistance for Needy Families). Shingle
Springs Tribal TANF has recently initiated a new supportive educational component
within their program and may use these statistics to create targeted services to aid in
13
education attainment. The study will aid in understanding the perceptions and attitudes
regarding education and educational challenges among economically disadvantaged
Native American/ Alaskan Natives who have at least one child will encounter but will not
produce information about Native Americans with no children.
14
Chapter 2
REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
Introduction
This chapter presents the themes that emerged from the literature reviewed, in
elucidating the importance and the rationale for this study. Literature review indicates
that many Native American/ Alaskan Native communities embrace education as one of
the most valuable resources and tools aiding in the survival of their people, culture, and
traditions. Specific Native American communities have been successful in developing
critical resources and political influences but many tribes and individuals continue to
suffer greatly due to ethnocentrism and violence originating in the Western European
colonization. Yellow-Horse Braveheart (2011) found that the assaults on the Native
American community have resulted in many biopsychosocial-cultural and economic
issues, which can all be considered educational challenges (pp. 282-285) The Native
American/ Alaskan Native population has the lowest high school and higher education
graduation rates in America. Research and statistics highlight socioeconomic issues and
cultural significances as influential factors affecting high school and college graduation
rates. In addition, the population has the highest poverty rates of any ethnicity in every
geographic location across America. Tribal Temporary Assistance for Needy Families
(TANF) programs were created to aid economically disadvantaged Native American
families who are facing these atrocious probabilities by providing selective
socioeconomic-cultural resources, including educational supportive services. Analysis
15
and review of the research literature indicates that American Indian families are an
extremely vulnerable population and are at greater risk than other ethnic groups for
developing' serious biopsychosocial problems such as alcoholism, substance abuse, low
self-concept, and suicide. The literature and government reports, emphasize challenges
that may prevent economically disadvantaged adult Native Americans from pursuing or
attaining a high school diploma, G.E.D., or college degree. In addition, the analysis will
demonstrate the need for the study at hand focusing on the following themes:
chronological development of Native American involvement in the education system;
socioeconomic educational challenges; unique challenges influencing educational
attainment; culture and tradition as sources of resiliency and educational success; and
Shingle Springs Tribal TANF services promoting education.
Native American/Alaskan Native Educational Opportunities
A Native American Elder Julie Hopper (personal communication, 2011) from Big
Valley Band of Pomo Indians in Lakeport, California states, “Traditionally, Native
American tribes have educated their children to understand the complex agricultural and
astronomical ways of our people and spirituality is interconnected to all aspects of life,
including education: but when one way has been violently forced upon your people it
makes it difficult to embrace”. To further understand current Native perspectives
regarding formal education one must understand the history and development of their
involvement. Historians developed an understanding of the history of Native American
16
higher education in the United States as consisting of three eras: colonial, federal, and
self-determination (McClellan, Tippeconnic/ Fox, and Lowe 2005, pp 7-15).
The historians described the “colonial era” as the first contact between Europeans
and Indigenous populations in the United States. They recovered historical documents
indicated tribal leaders politely declining boarding schools due to the effects it might
have on the value of traditional skills. The American Indian Higher Education
Consortium (2000) suggests tribal responses such as these were looked at as Native
Americans’ resistance to assimilation through Euro-American higher education (para.
15).
Although historians and organizations indicate in the “federal era” Native
American higher educational history involved the development of treaty relationships
(AIHEC, 2000 para 4; Carney, 1999, pp 10-24). At this time anthropologists indicate
violent boarding schools for younger Native American children were being forced upon
many tribal communities (Marr, 2004, pp 29-31). In many accounts, children were
abducted from their villages and tribes, not allowed to speak their language, not allowed
to practice their spirituality, and abused. The “federal era” includes boarding school and
one of many initial treaties signed involving scholarship funds, however, funds were not
made available until years later to Choktaw Nation students who attended white
institutions (Olivas, 1990, pp 425-441).
The “self-determination era” led the way for the development of tribal schools
and colleges. According to the American Indian Education Foundation 2010, there are
17
many k-12 tribal schools operating in the United States but often these schools are not
accessible to Native American children and or programs are only offered online, which
cannot replace in person connection and learning (para. 7). According to Belgarde
(1996) “The United States now has thirty-five tribally controlled colleges, which promote
the culture of the tribe they serve, work to strengthen the economies of their Indian
communities, and strengthen the social fabric of the tribal community both internally and
in conjunction with outside communities through empowering individual Indian people”
(p. 9).
History illustrates violent and oppressive historical events that continue to impact
today’s Native American perspectives on education. In addition, research indicates the
development of tribal schools as very valuable resource to the tribal communities;
however, educational gaps remain evident. Approximately, 90 percent of Native
American students attend public schools. For the other 10%, The Board of Trustees for
the American Indian Fund (2009) reported the federal government provides some
assistance to Tribal Colleges but the government does not provide guaranteed higher
education for Native Americans and college remains unaffordable to most (para. 3).
Most educational research regarding Native Americans have utilized Native American
study subjects who are already attending school or college, which proves there is a lack
of primary research regarding challenges they faced before they begin or perspectives/
responses that may keep them from beginning. For the 90 percent of Native Americans
who do not have access to culturally relevant tribal schools and colleges the statistics
18
show how detrimental and alarming this lack understanding can be. Historical events
have created challenges, however, the Indian community is developing unique services to
embrace educational opportunities and success to ensure the survival of the people,
culture, and traditions.
Socioeconomic Educational Challenges
Socioeconomic factors have been found to be the most influential challenges
influencing an individual’s probability of starting or attaining a high school diploma,
G.E.D., or college degree. According to the U.S. department of Health and Human
Services, approximately one in four Native Americans live in poverty (2009). Absolute
Poverty can be described as the lack of a basic human need, such as clean and fresh
water, nutrition, health care, education, clothing, and shelter because of the inability to
afford them. Relative poverty is the condition of having fewer resources or less income
than others within a community, society, or country. According to the United States
Department of Health and Human Services, the following table outlines the 2009 federal
poverty measure.
Table 2.1
The 2009 Poverty Guidelines for the 48 Contiguous States and the District of Columbia
The 2009 Poverty Guidelines for the 48 Contiguous
States and the District of Columbia
Persons in family
Poverty Guideline
1
$10,380
2
14,570
3
18,310
4
22,050
5
25,790
6
29,530
19
7
33,270
8
37,010
For families with more than 8 persons, add $3,740 for each
additional person
In 2005, the United States Census Bureau released an, “Income, Poverty, and
Health Insurance Coverage”, report that concluded 24.3 percent of American Indians and
Alaska Natives as living in Poverty from 2003 to 2004 (p 14). This percentage is more
than double the national rates, which was 11.5 percent, and support the fact that one in
every four Native Americans, live in poverty. These percentages are alarming but many
studies suggest they are not accurate and poverty rates among Native Americans are
actually higher. An employee of the Poverty and Race Research Action Council Bambi
Kraus (2001) wrote:
The Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) determined in 1995 that the Indian
population on and adjacent to the Navajo Reservation was 225,668…
However, the 1990 Census reported the total population on the Navajo
Reservation as only 148,451. According to the Navajo Nation Division of
Economic Development, unemployment on the Navajo Reservation was
43.3% in 1998. As reported in the 1990 Census, unemployment on the
Navajo Reservation was 27.9%. (p. 9)
In addition, the U.S. Census Bureau reported One-Third of all Native Americans
living on reservations. The examination and cross references of these studies and reports
conclude, the Native American population and poverty rates are actually higher and the
20
numbers reported are incorrect. There are approximately 300 Indian reservation scattered
throughout the nation. Surprisingly, approximately 100 of those reservations and the
largest population of American Indians and Alaska Natives (roughly 333,000) are located
in California (Trujillo & Alston, 2005 p. 65). Yet, there are very few accredited Tribal
schools or Colleges within the state. In contrast, studies reveal more than half of all
Native American/ Alaskan Natives are living in mainstream American society.
When families lack basic necessities parents place top priority on housing, food,
clothing, and healthcare. They go into crisis mode and focus on making enough income
to pay the costs for the survival of their family. There are very few tribes who create
their own employment opportunities or agriculture for even 30 percent of their tribal
members, forcing families to look to mainstream America for resources to survive. Many
Natives feel conflicted because their families were forced to live on reservations with
horrible living conditions, contaminated soils, and unsafe environmental factors;
however, strong spiritual connections to the land remain. A Native American elder Julie
Hopper (personal communication, March 10, 2011) states, “On my rez, there are some
houses who still aren’t even hooked up to water or electricity, our land was zoned for
agriculture and pesticides leached into our ground water for years… down by the lake
tules grow and we use those for our medicine we make big heads, grass skirts, and tule
boats.” Many economically disadvantaged families from all impoverished communities
feel forced to attain quick hiring, low-wage, temporary, illegal, or unsecure jobs resulting
in a perpetuated cycle of not having the option to focus the necessary step it takes to
21
receive high school diploma/GED, college education, and not having enough money to
live.
Researcher Lacour and Tissington (2011) found that academic achievement is
directly related to poverty when described as lack of, “financial, emotional, mental,
spiritual, and physical resources as well as support systems, relationships, role models,
and knowledge of hidden rules” (pp 522-527). After decades of research, socioeconomic
challenges continues to cultivate educational obstacles and is one of the strongest
predictors of educational achievement
There are many concerns among the Native American/ Alaskan Native
community because college remains unaffordable to the majority of the population. The
average Native American per-capita income is $8,000, which makes the average $4,000
college tuition cost a huge educational barrier to low-income Natives (Dalaker, J.,2001,
pp 60-214). Contrary to popular belief in California, the overwhelming majorities of
tribes are not wealthy and have not reaped benefits from gaming. Information continues
to reveal Native American/ Alaskan Natives are living in some of the most impoverished
areas in the nation including reservations and the most economically challenged urban
and rural counties.
Poverty creates other social issues such as lack of health care and substance
abuse. In a study surveying health disparities between American Indians/Alaskan
Natives and the general populations researchers provided census information proving the
demographic shifts that have occurred, resulting in 60-70 percent of American Indian
22
population living in mainstream urban settings, were related to federal relocation
programs and termination policies in the 1950’s as well as educational, employment, and
housing opportunities (Castor et al., 2006, pp 1-24). This study suggested urban settings
may offer greater opportunities in some facets but have decreased access to health care
and increased feelings of social and cultural isolation associated with non-reservation
living. Another study conducted by the Center for Disease and Control Preventions
revealed Native Americans face disproportionate rates of mortalities related to heart
disease, cancer, unintentional injuries, chronic live disease/ cirrhosis, diabetes, suicide,
and homicide (2008, pp 12-21). Many studies researching northwest reservations located
next to water sources, old mines, and contaminated land revealed high levels of methyl
mercury in the water, fish, and soil. Environmental researchers and biologists conducting
studies agree even in very low doses the neurotoxin methyl mercury attacks brain
development and is linked to deficits in attention span, fine motor function, language,
visual-spacial ability, and memory (Kuntz ie al. 2009, pp 355-388). These studies
indicate increased rates of physical health related deaths and developmental/ learning
disabilities among specific tribal communities, which is a huge educational challenge that
significantly decreases an individuals probability of attaining a high school diploma,
G.E.D., or college degree.
In the American Journal of Health behavior, researchers indicate American
Indians age 15-24 have the highest rates of suicide in the United States (Pettingell, et al.
2008, pp 465-476). This information is critical to identifying educational challenges
23
because the ages 15-24 are the average developmental ages and or stages where huge
identity stages and educational achievements are likely to occur including High school
and college graduation. Diane Sawyer from television series 20 20 recently investigated
and headlined a story revealing Native Americans living on the South Dakota Pine Ridge
reservation experience suicide at a rate that is ten times greater than the general
population (Sawyer, 2010). These probabilities and circumstances were attributed to
socio economic and alcohol and drug related issues in the area. Pine ridge reservation is
home to the Lakota tribe including heroic Native American warriors like Sitting Bull and
Red Cloud. These detrimental types of health and wellness issues not only make
educational achievement a challenge but also decrease the chances of personal, tribal, and
cultural survival. There are a variety of research studies indicating suicide and many
other kinds of challenging health and wellness issues can be linked to the increased rates
of substance abuse among the Native American community.
According to the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (2001)
American Indian youth are more likely to report depressive symptoms, use alcohol and
marijuana, and more likely to start using at an earlier age (para 4). One study disclosed
mortality rates among American Indians linked to alcoholism are four times that of any
other race (Gallon & Bryan 2003, p 111). In addition, American Indian/Alaska Native
(AI/AN) populations report higher lifetime and recent use of illicit drugs than any other
racial or ethnic group (Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration,
2008, para 2). Many studies regarding Native American alcohol and drug use suggest
24
historical multi-generational trauma, oppression, internalized oppression, and lack of
resources influence increased rates of substance abuse among the Native American
community. A ten-year study revealed substance abuse and dependence in young
adulthood and substance use for significant periods of time could impact cognitive
functioning and have significant impacts on learning (Hanson, K et al, 2011, pp 135154). This study also concluded substance abuse and dependence can create huge
educational challenges including permanently changing brain functioning, chemical
imbalances influencing mental health conditions, and memory impairment.
Today many tribal and spiritual leaders, community members, and advocates
agree holistic community-cultural approaches should be taken when working with
individuals suffering with substance abuse issues. Many tribally operated TANF
programs run clean and sober programs, meaning they have created policies that promote
recovery and addiction free lifestyles. SSTT policy mandates participants receiving cash
aid and supportive services to participate in drug testing (Shingle Springs Tribal TANF,
2008). In addition, the policies require a participant who tests positive for any
substances, to be referred to SSTT prevention coordinator and or engaged in alcohol and
drug services to remain eligible. Shingle Springs Tribal TANF policies view alcohol and
drug use as a barrier to self-sufficiency. If educational attainment is a goal on the
families SSTT family self-sufficiency plan and alcohol and or drug use has been
identified as barrier, the participant may be mandated to do specific weekly work
25
activities that will remove these barriers, to increase the probability of educational goal
attainment and self-sufficiency, which can include alcohol and drug services.
Alarming health disparities and substances abuse issues continue to be huge
educational challenges for many Native Americans, however, tribal agencies and
communities are working together more than ever to provide prevention services and
resources. SAMSHA (2008) reports socioeconomic challenges increase drug culture
among specific communities (discussion section, para 3). A collaborative report issued
by Oregon’s Office of Mental Health and Northwest Indian Training Center indicated
high rates of Native Americans who do not have health insurance and highlighted
medical billing issues faced when trying to access culturally relevant providers (Cruz and
Spence, 2005, pp 1-14). The report indicated these factors together create detrimental
systemic social issue derived from inequalities and legislation requiring tribal services
and resources to use Evidenced Based Programs (EBP) for funding purposes (Cruz and
Spence, 2005 pp 1-14). This study brought awareness and concerns about the
communities’ critical health and wellness challenges. Research conducted proves limited
access to resources and poverty stimulates other social issues such that influence an
individuals desire, motivation, self-efficacy, and ability to learn, which are some of the
most predominant educational challenges.
Other Unique Educational Challenges Influencing Educational Attainment
There are many unique educational challenges Native American/ Alaskan Native
individuals face that originate from historical events and current socioeconomic issues
26
which include self-efficacy, perspectives, students with disabilities, motivation, and
cultural expression. In addition, the enormous amount of diversity within the Native
American and Alaskan Native communities creates challenges when implementing
specific educational support services. There are 526 recognized tribal sovereign nations
and over 209 indigenous languages in United States. Each tribe and community has its’
own sub cultures, however, similarities in spirituality, connection to the land, and respect
for elders is universal in tribal communities.
Self-efficacy has been studied thoroughly for over 50 years. Perceived SelfEfficacy is the belief that one can perform a difficult or trying task, or cope with
adversity in different areas of human functioning. In one of the most significant studies
conducted by Bandura, self-efficacy feeds from four different sources: direct experiences,
indirect experiences, verbal persuasion, and physiological situation (Bandura ,1993 117148). Educational attainment has been directly linked to perceived self-efficacy in high
school and college student’s academic performances, however, there is little research
regarding self-efficacy in adults who are not yet attending or working towards
educational goals. Researchers agree self-efficacy facilitates four personal skills
including goal setting, effort investment, persistence in face of barriers, and recovery
from set backs (Scholz, Gutiérrez-Doña, Sud, & Schwarzer, 2002). These are critical
foundational personal skills needed to overcome the diverse educational challenges many
economically disadvantages Native American/ Alaskan Native Students will face.
27
One study done over a period of ten years was tested in 22 different countries and
hundreds of different ethnicities proved a ten question psychometric perceived selfefficacy scale is reliable and unidimensional across cultures (Scholz, Gutiérrez-Doña,
Sud, & Schwarzer, 2002, pp 242-251). It is important to understand that the local
economically disadvantaged adult Native American/ Alaskan Native perceived selfefficacy and academic self-efficacy to assist in developing and identifying services for
educational success. Aforementioned studies have also linked perceived self-efficacy to
good health, alcohol and drug recovery, stable employment, problem solving, and selfsufficiency.
Although AI/AN students accounted for only 1% of the total public school
enrollment they accounted for 1.3% of all students served under the Individuals with
Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) (U.S.Department of Education [USDE], 2001). They
are over represented in the categories of learning disabilities, speech and language
impairments, developmental delays, and emotional disturbances. Researchers suggest
there are many factors that account for these statistics which include lack of culturally
appropriate assessments, students facing multiple learning challenges, and lack of
parental involvement (Tippeconnic III, J. W., & Faircloth, S. C., 2002). These studies
indicate that school age Native American/ Alaskan Native children are encountering
disabilities that create educational challenges at increased rates, which leads us to believe
these factors may influence why many adults have yet to create or completed educational
goals. To further understand the participants perspective and student needs, the study at
28
hand asks participants if they believe themselves or their children may be suffering with a
disability that feel may impact school performance and asks if they would like more
information about learning disabilities to further understand their perspectives and
student needs.
Bi-cultural beliefs and perspectives are also important when studying Native
American/ Alaskan Native educational challenges because families are mandated by
educational legislation to participate in the American education system. Stated
previously, 90 percent of students attend mainstream high schools and colleges. In a
recent study published in the Journal of College Development bi-cultural beliefs were
positively correlated with American Indian students academic ratings and belief in the
importance of school. These researchers used a bi-cultural efficacy scale based on a
study conducted on the psychological impact of biculturalism which scaled the degree to
which individuals believed that they can be true to their own ethnic identity and
participate effectively in the majority culture (LaFromboise, T., Coleman, H. L. K., &
Gerton, J. 1993, 395-414). The results were promising and revealed American Indian
students believed they could do well in both tribal communities and in mainstream
society. This scale will also be used in the study at hand and will go further by using a
larger sample population, students from local junior colleges, and many individual’s who
have yet to identify or start educational goals. One of the limitations of their study was
the fact that all of their participants were are already attending college but many
participants in the current study will not all be currently pursuing educational degrees.
29
Another concepts to take into consideration are gender differences in bi-cultural beliefs.
In a well-organized qualitative study, conducted by Barrios and Egan, they uncovered
themes that included women receiving conflicting messages about gender from the
dominant white culture and their Native American/ Alaskan Native culture (2002, pp
206-228).
Many recent studies have investigated motivation among vulnerable populations
and found that it may influence academic success and the ability to push through in the
face of adversity. Most Native literature listed giving back to the tribal community as the
most critical motivator. For example, Jackson and Smith (2001) studied 22 Navajo
students and reported that a connection to one’s homeland while in college was a vital
motivator and source of strength in their studies (pp 448-565). Similarly, researcher
Guillory (2010) outlined strategic recommendations included maintaining connections to
family and tribal community as the most crucial strategy to college retention (Guillory,
2010, pp 1-12). Another recent study investigating academic motivation among 87
minority men attending community college found that earning power and the ability to be
a role model for their children were the top academic motivators.
The family life and school partnership believes intrinsic motivation to learn is a student
attribute that encourages achievement and can be fostered and developed (HooverDempsey & Sandler, 2005; Walker et al., 2005).
Cultural expression is included as a unique educational challenge because it has
been found that many colleges have been unsuccessful in creating cultural supportive
30
environments for Native American students (Guillory, 2009, pp 12-16). Research
suggests participation in cultural ceremonies while attending college is a critical element
that contributes to educational success. Universities such as UCLA have led the way for
Native American appreciation and programs, which seem to help college retention rates.
However, very few Native American/ Alaskan Native students have reaped the benefits
of these programs because the majority of students and future students are attending
community colleges with fewer resources and have yet to receive their high school
diploma or G.E.D.
The local Greater Sacramento Los Rios community college district has four local
colleges that do not offer any specific formal services for Native American/ Alaskan
Native students (http://www.losrios.edu/). However, president of the student association
“Indigenous peoples club” at Sacramento City College Emma Snuggs (personal
communication, 2011) suggests Native American student associations have been created
at each school in response to the lack of support and services and these associations have
helped to make the college environment more supportive and safe for Native students to
learn and express their culture and ceremonial traditions.
One research study using 15 successful Native American college students
revealed the lack and need for stable peer mentoring relationships (Jackson et al. 2003,
pp.548-565). Supporting this study is the fact the greater Sacramento Area has not one
local Native specific mentoring program or services to bridge the gap for majority of
Native students from high school to college or from G.E.D. to college. Educational
31
literature also suggests cultural expression can be invested in all aspects of education
including culturally sensitive career counseling that guides students through programs
and to careers that are in demand within the Native American community (Guillory,
2010, pp. 12-16) The study at hand may bring awareness about specific issues or
challenges these students face including the lack of support for cultural expression in the
colleges and lack of support in creating educational goals or starting college.
Culture as a Strength and Resource
Many Native American/ Alaskan Native prevention programs recognize and
utilize culture as a resilience and protective factor when looking at stressful and trauma
related experiences (personal communication Dr. Art Martinez August 2011). In the
progressive study Oregon Tribal Evidenced Based and Cultural Based Practices, Dr.
Terry Tafoya states, “Culture is Prevention” (Cruz, C. & Spence, J. 2005 pg 2). Culture
and spirituality build a strong foundation for success, according to another research
publication regarding American Indian higher educational success. This research study
also suggested a student’s perception of their school or college environment is related to
their educational success and even the ability to be drug free (diverse digits).
An impressive research study yielding strategic recommendations for institutions
to create programs utilized Native American/ Alaskan Native students from three
different Universities and argued the importance of understanding Native American/
Alsakan Native student perspectives to understand the challenges faced and strengths that
32
can be utilized to attain educational goals (Guillory, 2009 pp.10-16). One of the strategic
recommendations from the study suggested to allow, strengthen, and promote a strong
connection between the colleges/ programs NA/AN students attend and the tribal
communities, which would encourage students to stay connected to their culture and tribe
while participating in their educational journey (Guillory, 2009 pp.10-16). The
aforementioned strategic recommendation would decrease the bi- cultural struggle many
students face when entering into higher education program and institutions.
Tribal communities, leaders, and researchers all agree preservation of traditional
Native American culture is extremely important because it serves as the greatest source
of strength, prevention, and intervention among the community.” Dhooper and Moore
(2001) and Yellow Bird (2001) advocated that traditionally, some cultural values among
tribes are virtually universal, like the importance of a connection with the earth, the
creator, family, and community” (as cited in Barraios 2004 pg 210).
A spiritual connection with the creator, traditions, and ceremonies serve as
preventative factors and have recently been studied and researched to create Culturebased interventions. The One Sky Center’s mission is to “Develop scientific framework
on culture-based interventions (CBI) with the intent to translate CBI into the language
and scientific framework used in evidence-based interventions (EBI) and to apply the
existing scientific knowledge base on youth suicide, violence, and substance abuse to
CBI” (Hawkins, E. & Walker, D. 2005, p. 5). Many studies continue to reveal culture as
great source of prevention and strength for Native American/ Alaskan Native students.
33
Shingle Springs Tribal TANF
Many Tribal TANF programs serve economically disadvantaged Native/ Alaskan
Natives and one such program is Shingle Springs Tribal TANF (SSTT). SSTT uses
community preventative approach to working families including referral systems to help
access culturally relevant services as barriers to self-sufficiency are identified. SSTT
participants receiving cash aid and supportive services are mandated to drug test and if
the test is positive for any substances, the participant must be engaged in alcohol and
drug services to remain eligible. Shingle Springs Tribal TANF policies view alcohol and
drug use as a barrier to self-sufficiency. If educational attainment is a goal on a families
SSTT family self-sufficiency plan and alcohol and or drug use has been identified as a
barrier, the participant may be mandated to do specific weekly work activities that will
remove barriers to increase probability of educational goal attainment and selfsufficiency, which can include alcohol and drug services. The goal of the study at hand
is to identify educational challenges among economically disadvantaged Native
Americans, through further understanding the Native American families participating in
the SSTT program. In addition, this study emphasizes educational services SSTT
provides to its’ participants.
SSTT has memorandums of understanding (MOU’s) and strong interagency
referral services with many other Native American agencies including the Sacramento
Native American Health Center (SNAHC). The Sacramento Native American Health
Center is uniquely located adjacent to the SSTT building and provides culturally relevant
34
behavioral health services including alcohol and drug treatment to the entire local
community. SSTT uses a whole community preventative approach to working families
including accessing culturally relevant services with through certified Native American
providers, White Bison and medicine wheel curriculum, drumming circles, talking
circles, 12-step programs, traditional medicine, and western medicine practices
(Sacramento Native American Health Center, 2011). Alarming health disparities and
substance abuse issues continue to be huge educational challenges for many Native
Americans, however, tribal agencies and communities are working together more than
ever to provide prevention services and resources. SAMSHA (2008) reports
socioeconomic challenges increase drug culture among specific communities. A report
issued by Oregons Office of Mental Health and Northwest Indian training Center
indicated high rates of Native Americans who do not have health insurance and medical
billing issues most face when trying to access culturally relevant providers is a
detrimental systemic social issue derived from inequalities and legislation requiring tribal
services to use Evidenced Based Programs (EBP) for funding purposes (Cruz and
Spence, 2005 pp 1-14). This study brought awareness and concerns about the
communities’ critical health and wellness challenges. Education is the The information
from this study would be beneficial for many agencies
Tribal TANF programs are the greatest socio-economic resource for economically
disadvantaged Native Americans. Shingle Springs Tribal TANF considers many socioeconomic related issues such as health concerns, substance abuse issues, and housing that
35
will affects a participants family self-sufficiency plan and educational goals. Many
historical and socioeconomic forces have created detrimental deeply rooted amounts of
educational challenges. Many of these forces continue to produce biopsyhcosocialcultural problems through limited access to resources, including, culturally relevant
education and health care. This study specifically explores the educational challenges and
obstacles to attaining the fundamental requirement for educational success thus offering
additional insight into the program requirements that can address the hallenges identified
through the study.
36
Chapter 3
METHODOLOGY
Study Design
This exploratory study examined educational challenges faced by economically
disadvantaged Native American/ Alaskan Native families before or while working
towards a G.E.D, high school diploma, or college degree. The study is quantitative and
utilized four scales and a short questionnaire aimed to explore specific educational
challenges Tribal TANF recipients face and their perceptions and attitudes regarding
education. There was one open-ended question that produced a small amount of
qualitative data. It is assumed, that educational challenges influence the pursuit and
attainment of an educational degree.
Studying the relationship between these two variables is important because with
the increase in educational challenges that are identified, makes it possible to combat
more educational challenges. Understanding the perspectives, attitudes, and beliefs of
participants is central to the understanding of local Native American/ Alaskan Native
community, social workers, and agencies regarding the type of approach to use when
developing and initiating new programs. Thus exploratory studies are useful in knowing
more about hitherto unstudied issues such as educational challenges faced by the
members of Native American/Alaskan tribes. It is hoped that the study findings may be
useful in making a positive on future or current students degree attainment.
37
This exploratory study is designed to generate new ideas and develop hypothesis
about educational challenges. This research design was selected and is appropriate
because there is a lack of primary data regarding educational challenges that
economically disadvantaged Native Americans encounter. Additionally, the study will
shed light on the current lack of understanding regarding their perceptions and attitudes
towards educational challenges that include finances, bi-cultural beliefs, self-efficacy,
academics, and family.
Study Questions
1. What are the top five educational challenges faced by economically
disadvantaged adult Shingle Springs Tribal TANF participants?
2. What is the role of gender in educational challenges that Shingle Springs Tribal
TANF participants encounter?
3. What percentage of Tribal TANF participants who are not receiving educational
support want to pursue an educational degree?
4. Do participants who are already pursuing an educational degree have different
perspectives and attitudes towards attaining an education degree than those who
are not?
5. Do participants who are already pursuing an educational degree have a different
level of bi-cultural efficacy, academic identity, perception of discrimination, or
family support?
6. How do Shingle Springs Tribal TANF participants score on different scales used?
38
Sampling Procedures
The sampling process ncluded a non-random convenience sample. The clients of
the SSTT agency were chosen due to their availability and the study involved participants
voluntarily consenting to participate by completing the questionnaire. Although every
Sacramento Tribal TANF participant has an equal chance at receiving the questionnaire
not all economically disadvantaged Native American/ Alaskan Natives in Sacramento
had that same chance.
The questionnaires were mailed out with the SSTT monthly participant mail outs.
Taking into consideration time and the volume of participants a selective input
information method was utilized. The documents sent by mail included a flyer about the
study, consent form, and questionnaire.
Data Collection
Study Participants were mailed the flyer, consent form, and questionnaire with
their Monthly newsletter on February 24, 2012. Participants were asked to read and sign
consent form and complete the 25-question questionnaire about their personal beliefs,
academic abilities, self-efficacy, and obstacles they have or believe they will encounter.
The consent form and questionnaire required approximately 15 minutes of their time and
were mailed back or brought into the office with their MER by March 15, 2011. A
locked drop box was positioned in the agency reception area if the participant wished to
drop it off rather than mail it back. When Shingle Springs Tribal TANF received a
participants’ consent form and questionnaire by mail the receptionist placed them in
39
separate piles in random order. At the end of each day the receptionist placed all consent
forms and questionnaires in the drop box located at the agency. At the end of the day on
March 15, 2012 researcher placed all consent forms in large raffle bin, conducted the
raffle, and compiled all questionnaires. Raffle winners received a re-furbished computer
or school supplies purchased by researcher Valerie Plevney. This study was supervised
by the Shingle Springs Tribal TANF agency to ensure all policies were abided by,
cultural appropriateness was attained, and data was collected in a culturally relevant
manner.
Instruments
The study utilized a self-report questionnaire, which included demographics, four
scales, a table where participants circled the top 5 obstacles they have faced or believe
they may face when pursuing their education, and four education related questions. The
demographic section included age, gender, ethnicity, education, and family size. After
researching educational obstacles Native Americans have or may face along with
consulting Shingle Springs executive director, program consultant, educational
coordinator, three Native-American Family advocates, two low-income non SSTT Native
American clients, and many program participants; four scales were deemed as
appropriate, relevant to the population’s culture, and specialized educational and social
issues.
The scales originate from three different sources and included a bi-cultural belief
scale, general self-efficacy scale, intrinsic motivation to learn scale, and an academic
40
self-efficacy scale. The decision to use four scales was made after realizing there is a
lack of primary educational and pyshco-social related data available to the Shingle
Springs Tribe and local Native American community.
The bicultural belief scale was developed by Sumie Okazaki who is the Associate
Professor of the Department of Applied Psychology at NYU Steinhardt School of
Culture, Education, and Human Development. The bicultural belief scale was one of six
scales used to measure bi-cultural efficacy in a very large successful study she and two
expert researchers conducted using the topic “Bicultural Self-Efficacy Among College
Students”. The sub-scale is compromised of four questions and produced a .77 alpha,
which indicates a sufficient level of reliability. The four questions are focused on
person’s beliefs about participation in two different cultures. I communicated through
phone and email with Professor Okazaki who provided me with t confirmation to use the
scale June 20, 2011 in which researcher submitted to Human subjects committee.
The academic self-efficacy and intrinsic motivation to learn scales are each
comprised of three questions which both originate from the Family-School Partnership
lab out of the Psychology and Human Development Department at Peabody College,
Vanderbilt University. The academic self-efficacy scale assesses student beliefs about
personal abilities to complete school related work successfully. The intrinsic motivation
to learn scale assesses the extent to which a student engages in behavior and endorses
beliefs conducive to achievement, specifically in reference to interest in learning for its
own sake, in contrast with learning for external consequences or rewards it may yield
41
(Hoover-Dempsey 2005). Researcher obtained permission to use both scales on the The
Family-school partnership lab website and submitted verification
The General Self-Efficacy (GSE) Scale is a 10-item psychometric scale that is
designed to assess optimistic self-beliefs to cope with a variety of difficult demands in
life (Schwarzer, R., & Jerusalem, M. 1995). The scale was originally developed in 1981
by a professor of psychology and researcher Ralf Scwarzer. Since then, the scale has
been used in a large amount of studies with hundreds of thousands of participants. The
scale asks participants to report their perceived self-efficacy through a variety of
questions about how they feel they do or would perform in specific situations.
Researcher obtained permission to use GSE from website and submitted verification.
There are some internal threats to validity that are important to address, which
include participant’s likelihood to choose answers that are socially or culturally desired.
These scales have been tested for validity and reliability and I’m highly confident this
study will measure and collect the data it is intended to.
Study Population & Sample
The study sample was selected from the populations served by Shingle Springs
Tribal TANF (SSTT). These participants can be characterized as low-income adult
Native American/ Alaskan Native and caretaker of at least one Native American child
who receives services and or cash aid for themselves or the child(ren) through the Shingle
Springs Tribal TANF program. This a Non-probability convenience sampling method
because it is filled out voluntarily by participants and each Tribal TANF participant does
42
not have an equal chance at receiving and filling out the survey due to the amount of
clients Tribal TANF serves. Although non-probability sampling is not as accurate as
probability sampling the number of participants is a strength. Using a non-random
convenience sample prevents the study from having the ability to be generalized to all
economically disadvantaged Native Americans however, taking this into consideration,
almost all economically disadvantaged Native Americans with children are eligible to
receive TANF. This study does not include the unit of income within the demographics
section because all participants are receiving Tribal TANF, which concludes they are all
low-income or living below the poverty level. This study will analyze a group unit of
analysis
Many study participants are currently enrolled in higher education institutions but
it is unknown as to the exact number. All the participants were from Sacramento County.
Approximately 450 families received the questionnaire by mail and 84 responded to the
survey.
Data Analysis
This study utilized the SPSS program to analyze quantitative data. Relationships
between demographics, emerging data points on scales, and identified challenges were
analyzed and interpreted. Pearson’s bivariate correlation was calculated for relevant
scales measured at an interval level. Cross tabulations were conducted and tables, scales,
and graphs were produced to visually interpret data.
43
Protection of Human Subjects
Student researcher Valerie Plevney submitted the initial Human Subjects
application to the California State University, Sacramento Social Work Division human
subjects committee on September 17, 2011. The human subjects application was
approved as “minimal risk” The human subjects application was officially approved on
February 13, 2012 with “minimal risk”. Human subject approval number 11-12-009 was
applied to the study.
The questionnaire did not pose any health related risks and evidence suggests the
probability and magnitude of harm or discomfort anticipated for participants is no greater
than what might be encountered in daily life or during the performance of routine
physical or psychological examination or test, which is outlined as a minimal risk in the
CPHS policies and procedures. Some of the items in the questionnaire may be of a
personal nature and some of the questions allowed the participant to become more aware
of challenges they may face as a student. Researcher Valerie Plevney tested the
questionnaire on three local low-income Native American volunteers who are not Shingle
Springs Tribal TANF participants and received feedback that suggested the questionnaire
might pose a small amount of discomfort but nothing out of the ordinary. In addition, the
researcher received positive feedback that included statements about the questions being
understandable, readable, and real. Participants were required to sign consent forms
ensuring their participation in this research is entirely voluntary.
44
Chapter 4
FINDINGS
Introduction
This chapter presents the findings from the survey conducted to explore
educational challenges among economically disadvantaged Native American Families. A
questionnaire was mailed to every family receiving aid from Shingle Springs Tribal
TANF in Sacramento County. This section will include the identification of educational
challenges and strengths along with patterns and statistical significances of the
relationship between variables of interest. The findings are organized into five different
sections: 1) Response Rates 2) Socio-Economic Demographics 3) Scales 4) Specific
Educational Challenges Identified and 5) Other Educational Findings.
Response Rates
Of the 500 questionnaires mailed out to families a total of 88 questionnaires were
returned with a signed consent form. Four questionnaires were returned without signed
consent forms and six questionnaires did not answer at least one question. All
questionnaires and consent forms utilized were returned to the agency and compiled by
March 15, 2012. The response rate was 18% for Shingle Springs Tribal TANF
Sacramento site. The four questionnaires that were returned without a signed consent
form were not utilized in this study. Taking into consideration the four questionnaires
not utilized, the findings reflect a 17% agency population sample for the Sacramento
area.
45
Socio-Economic Demographics
A total of 84 questionnaires were utilized and completed by adult Shingle Springs
Tribal TANF (SSTT) participants residing in Sacramento County. To be eligible to
receive SSTT every family must have at least one child with verifiable tribal affiliation
and meet income/ asset limits. This indicates that research participants were all
economically disadvantaged Native American/ Alaskan Native families.
The average age of SSTT participants who completed the questionnaire was 29
years. The ages reported ranged from 18-54 years of age. The age reported at the highest
rate was age 22, which 12% of all participants reported. The table below shows that the
SSTT population is diverse in age; however, the majority of participants in this study
were in the age range of 18-33.
Table 4.1
Age of Respondents
N
Valid
84
Missing
0
Mean 29.9048
Median 28.0000
Mode
22.00
Std. Deviation 8.79296
Variance
77.316
Range
36.00
All respondents answered the question regarding gender, where 78.6% (66
respondents) identified as female and 19% (16 respondents) identified as male. TANF
and other family driven programs have historically served more women and children,
46
which indicates that the sample is consistent with current gender statistics state and
nation wide.
Table 4.2
Gender of Respondents
Valid
Male
Female
Total
Missing System
Total
Frequency Percent Valid Percent
16
19.0
19.5
66
82
2
84
78.6
97.6
2.4
100.0
80.5
100.0
Cumulative
Percent
19.5
100.0
There was a 98.8 % response rate to the question asking if the participant was
Native or Non-Native. 75% (63 respondents) stated they were Native and 22.6% (19
respondents) stated they were non-native. A space was provided next to the question
asking the respondent to provide their tribal affiliation(s), which produced qualitative and
quantitative data. Forty one different tribal affiliations were provided out of the 63
respondents whom stated they were Native. There was a wide range of responses that
included what tribe they were a registered member of, and what type of Native American/
Alaskan Native they were considered. Some listed two tribal affiliations, a few listed roll
numbers, and a few did not report at all. Seventy six percent (47 respondents) reported at
least one tribal affiliation, 15% (10 respondents) reported two tribal affiliations, and 9%
(6 respondents) did not report their tribal affiliation. Miwok, Pomo, and Wintun tribal
affiliations were reported at the highest rate. The tables below show the percentages of
47
participants who identified as Native/ Alaskan Native and insight regarding the tribal
affiliations reported by respondents.
Table 4.3
Whether the Respondent was Native American/ Alaskan Native
Valid
Yes
No
5.00
Total
Missing System
Total
Frequency Percent
63
75.0
19
1
83
1
84
22.6
1.2
98.8
1.2
100.0
Valid
Percent
75.9
Cumulative
Percent
75.9
22.9
1.2
100.0
98.8
100.0
48
Table 4.4
All Tribal Affiliations Reported
The symbol ^ signifies the tribal affiliation was reported again
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
31.
32.
33.
34.
35.
36.
37.
38.
39.
40.
41.
Hopland Band of Pomo Indians^
Washoe^
Crow nation
Aleut Alaskan
Kiowa
Pueblo
Big Valley Band of Pomo Indians
Miwok ^^
Shingle Springs Miwok
Pomo^^^^^
Dunlap Mono^^
Omaha Tribe
Wilton Rancheria ^
Salish
Kootenai Tribe
Yuki Nation^^
Wintun^^^^^
Apache^
Aztec
NorthFork Mono
Chuckckansi
Spirit lake Sioux
Cherokee^
Potowatomi
Chippewa^
Ione band of Miwok^
Menominee
Pit River
Yagui^
Navajo Nation^
California Valley Miwok Tribe
Tonona O’odham
Pima
Walilaki^
Round Valley
Seminole
Kiowa
Sioux-lakota
Confederated Salish
Kootnai tribe
Odawa
49
There was a 100% response rate for the socio-demographic question regarding
education. 25% (21 respondents) reported they have no education, 8.3% (7 respondents)
reported they have obtained a G.E.D., 20.2% (17 respondents) reported they received
their High School diploma, 36.9% (31 respondents) reported they have some college, and
9.5% (8 respondents) reported they have a college degree. These figures are consistent
with statictics revealing that less than 12 percent of the Native American/ Alaskan
Natives in United States obtain a college degree. 90.5% of the respondents in this study
are facing a variety of educational challenges that are impeding their ability to obtain a
college degree.
Education seemed to be a factor in whether or not respondents scored a seven or
higher on a scale of 1-10 asking how comfortable respondendts felt working with a
computer, one meaning not at all comfortable and ten meaning very comforatble.
Approximately 48% of respondents with no education reported feeling comfortable or
very comofrtable working with a computer compared to the 87.5% of respondents with a
college degree. The ability to work with a computer and to access resources and
information is one of the greatest tools tribal communities have utilized in the journey
towards soverignty, security of the culture, and education of the people.
50
Table 4.5
Education Levels
Valid
High School
Diploma
GED
Some College
College Degree
None
Total
Figure 4.1. Education Level
Frequency Percent
17
20.2
7
31
8
21
84
8.3
36.9
9.5
25.0
100.0
Valid
Percent
20.2
Cumulative
Percent
20.2
8.3
36.9
9.5
25.0
100.0
28.6
65.5
75.0
100.0
51
Six percent of the respondents reported that they were currently pursuing their
G.E.D or High school Diploma and 94% (78 respondents) were not. These figures reveal
that 76% (16 respondents) who reported no education on the previous socio-demographic
question are not currently pursuing their GED or High school diploma and the other 24%
are.
Table 4.6
Currently Pursuing High School Diploma or G.E.D
Valid
Missing
Total
Yes
No
Total
Perce
Frequency
nt
5
6.0
78
92.9
83
98.8
1
1.2
84
100.0
Valid
Percent
6.0
94.0
100.0
Cumulative
Percent
6.0
100.0
It was found that 33% (28 respondents) reported they were currently attending
college and 67% (56 respondents) reported they were not. A space was provided next to
the question asking the respondent to provide where they are attending college and what
they were majoring in, which produced a unique blend of qualitative and quantitative
data. 100% (28 respondents) who reported they were currently attending college also
reported what college they were attending. Statistics indicate 86% (24 respondents)
reported their college major. Of those respondents, 39% (11 respondents) reported they
were attending Sacramento City College, 29% (8 respondents) reported attending a
variety of local vocational schools, 18% (5 respondents) reported attending American
52
River College, 11% (3 respondents) reported attending California State University of
Sacramento, and 3% (1 respondent) reported attending Consumnes River College. The
college majors that were reported at the highest rate were criminal justice, medical
assisting, nursing, and social work.
Table 4.7
Whether the Respondent is Currently Attending College
Frequency Percent
Valid Yes
28
33.3
No
56
66.7
Total
84
100.0
Valid
Percent
33.3
66.7
100.0
Cumulative
Percent
33.3
100.0
53
Table 4.8
Colleges and College Majors Reported By Respondents Currently Attending College
The symbol ^ signifies the college or college major was reported
again
CSUS-Social work
CSUS-Sociology
CSUS- Art major
Sacramento City College-Social work
Sacramento City College^^
Sacramento City College- Teaching elementary
Sacramento City College-music
Sacramento City College SCC-respiratory care
Sacramento City College SCC-biology
Sacramento City College SCC- Criminal Justice^
Sacramento City College SCC-Nursing
Sacramento City College SCC-Business
American River College-Criminal justice
American River College-Child development
American River College -Psychology
American River College -Baking
American River College-General/transfer
Consumnes River College-Nursing
Inter-coast College -AOD counselor
Cosmo Beauty Academy-Cosmetology
Kash Career College-Nursing
Kaplan College-Medical assistant
Estate School-Real estate
Heald College-Medical administration
Heald College-Medical assistant
Carrington College-Dental assistant
A cross tabulation was completed to compare Native and Non-Native education
levels. Non-natives reported higher percentages in every educational classification with
the exception of the some college and no education. A medium association between
education and ethnicity is indicated by the .379 phi value represented in the tables below.
54
Interestingly, 44% (28 Native respondents) reported some college and Non-natives nearly
doubled Natives in the college degree category. These statistics reveal that the Native/
Alaskan Natives in this study have attempted to obtain a college degree and due to
educational challenges of all kinds did not complete their degree or they are currently
attempting to obtain a college degree.
These figures are consistent with research proving Native/ Alaskan Native
students are commonly faced with many educational challenges that impede their ability
to complete their college educational goals. These facts are important to the study at
hand because it supports the importance of combating educational challenges to assist
Native/ Alaskan Native students overcome educational barriers and ultimately increase
the number of Native/ Alaskan Natives who are able to obtain their college degrees.
55
Table 4.9
Crosstabulation: Native/ Non-Natives and Education Level
Education
High
Count
School % within Whether respondent
Diploma is Native American or not
% of Total
GED
Count
% within Whether respondent
is Native American or not
% of Total
Some
Count
College % within Whether respondent
is Native American or not
% of Total
College Count
Degree % within Whether respondent
is Native American or not
% of Total
None
Count
% within Whether respondent
is Native American or not
% of Total
Total
Count
% within Whether respondent
is Native American or not
% of Total
Whether respondent is
Native American or not
Yes
No
5.00
Total
9
14.3%
7
1
36.8% 100.0%
17
20.5%
10.8%
5
7.9%
8.4%
2
10.5%
1.2%
0
.0%
20.5%
7
8.4%
6.0%
28
44.4%
2.4%
3
15.8%
.0%
0
.0%
8.4%
31
37.3%
33.7%
5
7.9%
3.6%
3
15.8%
.0%
0
.0%
37.3%
8
9.6%
6.0%
16
25.4%
3.6%
4
21.1%
.0%
0
.0%
9.6%
20
24.1%
19.3%
4.8%
.0%
24.1%
63
19
1
83
100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0%
75.9%
22.9%
1.2% 100.0%
56
Table 4.10
Symmetric Measures: Native/ Non-Natives and Education Level
Symmetric Measures
Nominal by
Nominal
N of Valid Cases
Phi
Cramer's V
Value
.379
.268
83
Approx.
Sig.
.154
.154
Scales
Bi-cultural beliefs, General self-efficacy, Academic self-efficacy, and Intrinsic
motivation to learn are all researched factors that contribute to educational success and
degree attainment among ethnic students. All four scales were analyzed individually and
correlated. It was found that all four scales were positively correlated to one another. The
following paragraphs specifically elaborates three correlations that were found to be
statistically significant at p, .01.
There was a strong positive correlation found between General self-efficacy and
Intrinsic motivation to learn of approximately .716 at a significance level of .01. The
findings suggest that if participants were exposed to situations and ideas that supported
their intrinsic motivation to learn it would increase an individual’s General self-efficacy,
which is a key factor in educational goal setting and attainment. There was a medium
positive correlation found between General self-efficacy and Academic self-efficacy of
approximately .524 at a significance level of .01. These findings suggest that providing
57
more academic opportunities will increase an individual’s General self-efficacy, which is
a key factor in educational goal setting and attainment. A weak positive correlation was
found between Bi-cultural beliefs and Academic self-efficacy of approximately .291 at a
.01 significance level. These findings suggest that the participant’s belief that they can
academically succeed is correlated to their bi-cultural beliefs revealing that the Native/
Alaskan Native participants in this study would benefit from being provided more
culturally empowering educational opportunities.
Bi-Cultural Belief Scale
The theory behind the scale interprets scores as the higher the respondent scores,
the more comfortable the respondent feels participating in two or more cultural without
feeling they must give up a part of their own culture. Bi-cultural beliefs are very
important to understand when assisting Native/ Alaskan Native students in their
educational journey due to historical trauma, stereotypes, and lack of culturally relevant
educational settings and services. Bi-cultural beliefs and perspectives can be one of the
major educational challenges, as research and statistics show approximately 95% of
Native students will participate in the mainstream education system.
The 84 respondents in this research study produced a mean Bi-cultural Belief
score of 25.8 out of a possible 36. Approximately 59% of respondents reported a score of
25 or higher and approximately 41% reported a score of 24 or lower. These findings
support the notion that many native students continue to struggle with feeling
comfortable and culturally supported in educational settings.
58
General Self-Efficacy Scale
General self-efficacy has been researched as one of the most influential internal
predictor factors of individuals who have the ability to set and attain goals. Studies prove
Native/ Alaskan Native students will face diverse educational challenges, which
concludes how crucial it is that students also possess a high degree of self-efficacy. In
addition, it is important to understand self-efficacy among our local Native/ Alaskan
Native students. The 84 respondents in this research study produced a mean General
Self-Efficacy score of 32.6 out of a possible 40. Approximately 69% of respondents
reported a score of 31 or higher and approximately 31% reported a score of 30 or lower.
These findings reflect that over half of the participants in this study already have critical
personal skills needed to create educational goals, overcome challenges, and persevere in
the face of adversity.
Academic Self-Efficacy
Academic self-efficacy has been researched as one of the most influential internal
predictor factors of individuals who have the ability to be successful in reaching
education related goals. The 84 respondents in this research study produced a mean
Academic Self-Efficacy score of 10 out of a possible 12. Approximately 90% of
respondents reported a score of 8 or higher and approximately 11% reported a score of 7
or lower. These findings reveal the majority of participants in this study believe they can
succeed academically.
59
Intrinsic Motivation to Learn Scale
Intrinsic motivation to learn is a crucial internal factor that encourages student
achievement. Research studies suggest that giving back to the tribal community is one of
the greatest motivations among Native/ Alaskan Native students. The 84 respondents in
this research study produced a mean intrinsic motivation to learn score of 10.5 out of a
possible 12. Approximately 94% of respondents reported a score of 8 or higher and
approximately 6% reported a score of 7 or lower. These findings suggest that the
majority of the participants in this study have the motivation to learn and are motivated
by wanting to give back to their tribal communities.
Table 4.11
Scales: Descriptive Statistics
Bicultural Beliefs
General Self-efficacy
Academic Self-Efficacy
Intrinsic Motivation to learn
Valid N (listwise)
N
84
84
84
84
84
Minimu Maximu
m
m
4.00
36.00
9.00
40.00
4.00
12.00
1.00
12.00
Mean
25.7857
32.6071
10.0595
10.5714
Std.
Deviation
7.42362
5.60124
2.00812
1.87749
60
Table 4.12
Pearson’s Product Moment Correlations Between the Four Scales Utilized in the Study
Correlations
General
Bicultural
Self
Beliefs
Efficacy
1
.258*
Academic
self
Efficacy
.291**
Intrinsic
Motivation
to learn
.230*
.007
84
.524**
.035
84
.716**
.000
84
1
.000
84
.374**
84
.374**
.000
84
1
.000
84
84
Bicultural Pearson
Beliefs
Correlation
Sig. (2-tailed)
.018
N
84
84
*
General
Pearson
.258
1
SelfCorrelation
Efficacy Sig. (2-tailed)
.018
N
84
84
**
Academic Pearson
.291
.524**
Self Correlation
Efficacy Sig. (2-tailed)
.007
.000
N
84
84
*
Intrinsic Pearson
.230
.716**
Motivatio Correlation
n to learn Sig. (2-tailed)
.035
.000
N
84
84
*. Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).
**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
61
Specific Educational Challenges Identified
All Participants were asked to choose five educational challenges they believe
they will face or have faced when pursuing their education from a list of 14 choices.
Many of the Challenges were cross tabulated with other challenges, socio-demographics,
and questions revealing participants encounter multiple major educational challenges.
Cost, Childcare, transportation, feeling like you should work instead of go to school, fear
of failing, and getting started were the most reported challenges.
Cost is one of the major educational challenges respondents reported in this study.
62% (52 respondents) reported the cost is too high as on of their top five educational
challenges. Research suggests that socio-economic status is a good predictor of whether
or not an individual will attain educational goals. These findings are consistent with
research stating socio-economic factors as the most influential educational challenge.
Many Native/ Alaskan Natives are living at or below the poverty level including all
participants in this study. These findings suggest that more resources and financial
support is needed to assist our most vulnerable families in their endeavor to create and
attain educational goals.
62
Table 4.13
Financial Hardship Identified As a Major Educational Challenge
Valid Yes
No
12.00
51.00
Total
Frequency Percent
52
61.9
30
1
1
84
Valid
Percent
61.9
Cumulative
Percent
61.9
35.7
1.2
1.2
100.0
97.6
98.8
100.0
35.7
1.2
1.2
100.0
It was found that 60% (50 respondents) reported childcare as one of their top five
educational challenges. Of those respondents who reported childcare as one of their top
five educational challenges 71% were currently attending college and 73% also reported
lack of family support. In addition, 64% of those who reported childcare as one of their
top five educational challenges also reported transportation. These findings suggest that
childcare is one of the greatest educational challenges among economically
disadvantaged Native American/ Alaskan Native families and may be able to predict
individual’s chances of encountering multiple major educational challenges.
Table 4.14
Childcare Identified as a Major Educational Challenge
Valid Yes
No
Total
Frequency Percent
50
59.5
34
40.5
84
100.0
Valid
Percent
59.5
40.5
100.0
Cumulative
Percent
59.5
100.0
63
Transportation was the third most reported educational challenge. Statistics show
50% (42 respondents) reported transportation as one of their top educational challenges.
Of those respondents, 40% also reported that they were currently attending college. In
addition, 50% of all respondents who reported not having at least some college reported
transportation as one of their top educational challenges. These findings suggests that
transportation challenges can be a predictor factor in whether or not an individual will
attempt to go to college and or obtain a college degree.
Table 4.15
Transportation as a Major Educational Challenge
Frequency Percent
Valid Yes
No
Total
42
42
84
Valid
Percent
50.0
50.0
100.0
50.0
50.0
100.0
Cumulative
Percent
50.0
100.0
It was found that 45% (38 respondents) reported feeling like they should or have
to work instead of attend school as one of their top educational challenges. These
findings are consistent with the research suggesting many economically disadvantaged
families become stuck in patterns of chronic poverty due to the pressure of bringing home
income. Many families do not have the choice but to take jobs that pay minimum wage
or under living wage due to lack of qualifications and education. Acknowledging,
understanding, and combating this complex educational obstacle is crucial to supporting
and working with economically disadvantaged families.
64
Table 4.16
Feeling Like You Should or Have to Work Instead of Attend School as a Major
Educational Challenge
Valid Yes
Frequency Percent
38
45.2
No
Total
46
84
54.8
100.0
Valid
Percent
45.2
Cumulative
Percent
45.2
54.8
100.0
100.0
It was found that 44% (37 respondents) reported fear of failing as one of their top
educational challenges. These findings suggest that a high percentage of individuals in
this study are struggling with powerful emotions and feelings that can be a huge barrier to
educational attainment. Research suggests that Native/ Alaskan Natives have higher rates
of psychosocial issues stemming from multi-generational historical trauma. These
feelings can be responses to trauma, stress, and oppression at the micro, mezzo, and
macro level. Among the respondents who reported currently attending college 35% also
reported battling fear of failure, which means that they have overcome it enough to be
able to start their educational goals. In addition, 65% of all respondents who reported
they were not currently attending college reported fear of failing as their top educational
challenge. These findings suggest that fear of failing is an issue for a high percentage
individuals in this study and it could be a factor in why as many as 65% of individuals are
not currently attending college.
65
Table 4.17
Fear of Failing as a Major Educational Challenge
Valid Yes
No
7.00
Total
Frequency Percent
37
44.0
46
1
84
Valid
Percent
44.0
Cumulative
Percent
44.0
54.8
1.2
100.0
98.8
100.0
54.8
1.2
100.0
It was found that 44% (37 respondents) who reported not knowing what to study
as one of their major educational challenges. Many students believe they must start
school knowing what they want to study, however, first time or returning students are
almost always recommended to take educational success and career assessment classes in
their first two semesters. This research indicates that many students are unaware of their
right to learn about themselves and what career/ educational degree would best suit their
individual personalities and preferences. In addition, research studies suggests that
wanting to give back to the tribal community is a huge motivator and incentive for
Native/ Alaskan Native students, which indicates that if these students were exposed to
more education regarding how and what kind of degrees can help their communities and
tribes multiple educational challenges can be combated.
66
Table 4.18
Not Knowing What to Study as a Major Educational Challenge
Valid Yes
No
Total
Frequency Percent
37
44.0
47
56.0
84
100.0
Valid
Percent
44.0
56.0
100.0
Cumulative
Percent
44.0
100.0
It was found that 39% (33) respondents reported getting stared as one of their
major educational challenges. There are a variety of challenges interconnected to
“getting started”. For most econmically disadvantaged individuals that have children,
there are many educational challenges they must first face including resources,
transportation, childcare, innerstruggles, and opressive forces. These statistcs prove that
a high percentage of families are struggling or have struggled to get started on their
educational goals. As indicated by the crosstabluation between getting started and
education approximately 67% of individuals who have not attempted college reported
gettings started as one of their major educational challenges. This study signifies that if
interconnected challenges are not addressed the likelihood of getting started on
educational goals and educational success decreases.
67
Table 4.19
Initiating the Educational Goals as a Major Educational Challenge
~.
Yes
Valid No
Total
Frequency Percent
33
39.3
51
84
60.7
100.0
Valid
Cumulative
Percent
Percent
39.3
39.3
60.7
100.0
100.0
68
Table 4.20
Initiating Educational Goals Cross Tabulated With Education
Getting started as
a challenge
Yes
No
Education High
School
Diploma
GED
Some
College
College
Degree
None
Total
Total
Count
% within Getting
started as a challenge
% of Total
Count
% within Getting
started as a challenge
% of Total
Count
9
27.3%
8
15.7%
17
20.2%
10.7%
4
12.1%
9.5%
3
5.9%
20.2%
7
8.3%
4.8%
9
3.6%
22
8.3%
31
% within Getting
started as a challenge
% of Total
Count
% within Getting
started as a challenge
% of Total
Count
% within Getting
started as a challenge
27.3%
43.1%
36.9%
10.7%
2
6.1%
26.2%
6
11.8%
36.9%
8
9.5%
2.4%
9
27.3%
7.1%
12
23.5%
9.5%
21
25.0%
% of Total
Count
% within Getting
started as a challenge
% of Total
10.7%
33
100.0%
14.3%
51
100.0%
25.0%
84
100.0%
39.3%
60.7%
100.0%
69
Lack of family support can be a major issue for many prospective students. 31%
(26 respondents) indicated lack of family support as a major educational challenge.
Although this is a high percentage and definitely an issue for many individuals, these
findings are not consistent with the research that suggests majority of Native/ Alaskan
Native do not have family support regarding educational goals. However, findings also
indicate that 69% of respondents who reported lack of family support as one of their
major educational challenges have not attempted college.
Table 4.21
Lack of Family support as a Major Educational Challenge
Frequency Percent
Valid Yes
No
Total
26
58
84
31.0
69.0
100.0
Valid
Percent
31.0
69.0
100.0
Cumulative
Percent
31.0
100.0
70
Table 4.22
Lack of Family Support Cross Tabulated With Education
Lack of family support
as a challenge
Yes
Education High School
Diploma
Count
% within Lack of family
No
Total
8
9
17
30.8%
15.5%
20.2%
9.5%
10.7%
20.2%
3
4
7
11.5%
6.9%
8.3%
3.6%
4.8%
8.3%
7
24
31
26.9%
41.4%
36.9%
8.3%
28.6%
36.9%
1
7
8
3.8%
12.1%
9.5%
1.2%
8.3%
9.5%
7
14
21
26.9%
24.1%
25.0%
8.3%
16.7%
25.0%
26
58
84
100.0%
100.0%
100.0%
31.0%
69.0%
100.0%
support as a challenge
% of Total
GED
Count
% within Lack of family
support as a challenge
% of Total
Some College Count
% within Lack of family
support as a challenge
% of Total
College
Count
Degree
% within Lack of family
support as a challenge
% of Total
None
Count
% within Lack of family
support as a challenge
% of Total
Total
Count
% within Lack of family
support as a challenge
% of Total
71
Although health issues were not reported by more than 25% of respondents it is
important to acknowledge 19% (16 respondents) reported health issues as a major
educational challenge. Scientific research proves that Native/ Alaskan Natives suffer
from increased health risks. These findings are important because the percentage of
respondents with health issues may actually be higher and there is a very high percentage
of the population that have yet to discover their health related challenges. The question
asked the participant to choose their top five education challenges, many individuals may
not of considered health as an educational challenge.
In addition, if a participant believes a health challenge would be a major educational
obstacle it may be a very serious condition.
Table 4.23
Health as a Major Educational Challenge
Valid Yes
No
34.00
Total
Frequency Percent
16
19.0
67
79.8
1
1.2
84
100.0
Valid
Percent
19.0
79.8
1.2
100.0
Cumulative
Percent
19.0
98.8
100.0
Other Educational Related Questions
Approximately, 93% (78 respondents) reported they would further pursue their
education if they had more support and financial resources. These findings are consistent
with cost identified as the greatest educational challenge. In addition, this huge
72
percentage indicates that increased resources and support would result in increased tribal
TANF participants pursuing education.
Table 4.24
If Respondent Would Further Pursue Their Education If They Had More Support and
Financial Resources
Frequency Percent
Valid
Yes
78
92.9
No
4
4.8
Total
82
97.6
Missing System
2
2.4
Total
84
100.0
Valid
Percent
95.1
4.9
100.0
Cumulative
Percent
95.1
100.0
It was found that 63% (53 respondents) reported they were not aware of the K-12
Indian education program in Sacramento County. These findings suggest that the school
district the family is located in does not have an Indian education program and or they
were not made aware of this vital resource in which every family in this study is eligible
to receive. In addition, these findings suggest that there are untapped resources that may
help families succeed educationally.
73
Table 4.25
Whether Respondent is aware of the K-12 Indian Education program in Sacramento, Ca
Frequency Percent
Valid yes
No
Total
31
53
84
36.9
63.1
100.0
Valid
Percent
36.9
63.1
100.0
Cumulative
Percent
36.9
100.0
Figure 4.2. Whether Respondent is Aware of the Local K-12 Indian Education Program
Research shows that high percentage of Native/ Alaskan Native individuals who
are suffering with learning disabilities at a higher rate than any other ethnicity. The table
74
below show that 56% (47 respondents) reported wanting more information about learning
disabilities that may impact school performance for themselves or their children. These
findings indicate many respondents and or their children may be having educational
issues that may be stemmed from a learning disability or challenge. It seems many
families are not as informed as they would like to be regarding learning disabilities. In
addition, many respondents and or their children may be suffering with a learning
disability, which specific resources cannot be accessed without a diagnosis. 57% of
respondents who have not attempted college indicated wanting more information about
learning disabilities and 54% of respondents who are currently attending college also
reported wanting more information about learning disabilities.
Table 4.26
Respondent Indicated They Would Like More Information About Learning Disabilities
That May Impact School Performance for Themselves or Their Children
Valid Yes
No
Total
Frequency Percent
47
56.0
37
44.0
84
100.0
Valid
Percent
56.0
44.0
Cumulative
Percent
56.0
100.0
100.0
On average respondents scored a 7.6 out of ten regarding their comfort working
with a computer. These findings indicate that the majority respondents feel comfortable
working with a computer and this is a crucial skill that can be used as a strength and
75
resource when creating recommendations, program, and systems to combat educational
challenges.
Table 4.27
Comfort Working With a Computer
N
Valid
Missing
Mean
Median
Mode
Std. Deviation
Variance
Range
84
0
7.5714
8.0000
10.00
2.47535
6.127
9.00
Summary of Findings
Research findings indicate a variety of educational strengths and challenges
among a diverse group of tribally connected families served by Shingle Springs Tribal
TANF. Many of the economically disadvantaged individuals who participated in this
study have enough belief in themselves and the motivation necessary to educationally
succeed as evidenced by the high-levels academic self-efficacy and intrinsic motivation
to learn. Findings indicated Strong positive correlations between general self-efficacy
and academic self-efficacy along with weak positive correlations between bi-cultural
beliefs and academic self-efficacy were found. In addition, Respondents identified
financial hardships, childcare, transportation, pressure to work, fear of failing, and
uncertainty about the educational processes as their most influential educational
challenges.
76
Chapter 5
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
The study findings indicated a number of educational strengths and challenges
faced by the diverse group of tribally connected families served by Shingle Springs
Tribal TANF in the Greater Sacramento Area. The findings support the general historical
facts about the internalization of isolation of tribal communities from the mainstream
American society and the processes by which Native American/ Alaskan Native
communities use their strengths to overcome challenges through education. There were
major findings found in the study that impact the likelihood of Native American/ Alaskan
Native economically disadvantaged families pursuing and attaining educational degrees.
This research expanded the communities’ understanding of the severity of different
educational challenges and produced quantitative and qualitative evidence that can be
used to advocate for resources to address educational obstacles. In addition, by further
understanding the needs of SSTT participants in their endeavor to become self-sufficient
through education this study can play a role in a ensuring Shingle Springs Tribal TANF
meets a strategic goal, which includes ensuring at least 20% of participants engaged in
education related goals. Shingle Springs Tribal TANF is dedicated to supporting families
in reaching their educational goals. The program may utilize findings to apply for grants
and funding to be able to provide increased educational support or add new components
to the existing program.
77
One of the major findings in this study indicated a strong positive correlation
between general self-efficacy and intrinsic motivation to learn [r=.716 at p>.01],
indicating a highly motivated population that believe in their own abilities. These
findings suggest that increased socioeconomic opportunities will further strengthen the
local tribal community. This is a crucial piece of information, which can impact the
perspective of people working within the Native American/ Alaskan Native community
because it is important for programs and individuals serving the community to
understand and acknowledge individuals who have confidence and motivation to
succeed. Environmental factors such as oppression and inaccessibility to resources and
opportunities have impeded their ability to further develop their strengths.
Study findings evidence the fact that increased self-efficacy is directly related to
intrinsic motivation to learn. Intrinsic motivation to learn has been researched as a huge
factor impacting educational success and it is important to reference that research
indicates wanting to give back to the tribal community is one of the greatest motivators
among the Native American/ Native Alaskan community. Connecting education to the
tribal community and assisting individuals in their endeavor to further understand the
educational options may increase motivation to learn and General self-efficacy.
The weak positive correlation that was found between bicultural beliefs and
academic self-efficacy [.291 at p>.01] suggests that while education is valued, high
identification with the cultural beliefs does not necessarily indicate high academic self
efficacy because of the lack of culturally competent educational programs and services.
78
Culturally relevant educational opportunities might impact educational success among
the local Native American/ Alaskan Native community. These findings are critical
because it shows how important it is for prospective and current students to feel culturally
supported in educational settings. This also, indicates the need for cultural presence,
relevant programs, and group support in local colleges. It is important to develop
culturally relevant schools not only in the Greater Sacramento area but also in California.
These findings may impact future educational endeavors of tribes and consortiums ready
to invest in education programs and schools in our area. In addition, the community can
utilize the information to advocate for educational policies and resources within agencies
and at state/ national level. Considering the implications of the findings it is
recommended that prospective and current local Native American/Alaskan Native
students assist in the creation and implementation of increasing a culturally supportive
educational environment within the local community. In addition, it is recommended that
tribal agencies serving prospective or current Native American/ Alaskan Native students
reach out to local community college indigenous peoples clubs and create relationships
with specific resources including EOP on community college campuses.
Respondents identified financial hardships, childcare, transportation, pressure to
work, fear of failing, and uncertainty about the educational processes as their most
influential educational challenges. These challenges may be difficult to face but with
outreach, education, support, resources, and planning, they can be overcome by families
that face educational barriers. Financial hardships can be combatted with educational
79
incentive programs honoring planning, enrollment/attendance, mentorship, grades,
certificates, and degrees. In addition, financial aid and textbook vouchers can address a
portion of these financial hardships. While further examining the cost of attending
college through federal and state guidelines estimated for each student’s unique situation
located on their financial aid summary, Pell grants and BOG fee waivers only pay for
approximately 18% of the cost of attending a local community college. In addition, the
estimated budgets do not include childcare costs for individuals who have children under
four. These findings indicate that participants in this study are facing critical levels of
justifiable financial hardships.
Childcare and transportation are interconnected educational and employment
challenges. Public transportation often does not meet the needs of families with more
than one child less than eight years of age due to multiple schools, child care locations,
and class time schedules. Pressure to work is another challenge that many economically
disadvantaged families in this study face. An incredible 90% of respondents stated they
would pursue education if they had more support and resources but due to the multitude
of challenges families are feeling pressured to work. Decades of research indicate that
education can break cycles of poverty and oppression. The current study findings suggest
that culturally relevant outreach highlighting the importance and value of education that
addresses the pressure to work would be beneficial in the community. Taking into
consideration specific strengths and challenges identified, it is recommended that panels
80
of tribally connected current and prospective students are organized to create support
among the community.
Majority of respondents reported feeling comfortable working with computers,
which is a major educational strength. Having this insight reveals that computer
technology and communication can be used as an outreach tool and educational support
network. It is recommended that the local Native American/ Alaskan Native community
organize working focus groups to discuss how to utilize Internet and current online
resources concurrent to developing new ways to use technology to assist the community
overcome educational challenges.
Local Native American/ Alaskan Native communities embrace and support education.
There are a variety of vital educational strengths within economically disadvantaged
tribal families that can be utilized to overcome educational challenges. The important
area that needs to be addressed is the gap in resources and the educational aspirations of
the young members of the tribal communities studied for this research. The communities
of the young members are in need of resources and services that utilize a truly
empowering approach to combat the multitudes of complex socioeconomic educational
challenges.
81
APPENDICES
82
APPENDIX A
Consent Form
Consent to participate in research
To be eligible for prizes this form must be mailed or turned in with questionnaire
Purpose of the research:
You are being asked to participate in research, which will be in the form of a
questionnaire by student researcher Valerie Plevney from the Sacramento State Social
Work Division and Shingle Springs Tribal Tanf (SSTT). The purpose of this study is to
explore and identify educational challenges and measure bi-cultural beliefs, self-efficacy,
academic efficacy, and intrinsic motivation to learn. This information is important to
better understand the educational needs of SSTT participants and develop programs to
help you in your endeavor to become self-sufficient.
Research Procedures:
You will be asked to complete a 25-question questionnaire about your personal beliefs,
academic abilities, and challenges you have or you believe you will encounter. Please do
NOT include your name. The questionnaire may require approximately 15 minutes of
your time and you are being asked to mail or bring the questionnaire and consent form
into the office with your monthly MER (Monthly eligibility report). When Shingle
Springs Tribal TANF receives your MER, Questionnaire, and consent form your name
will written down to receive two work activity hours and the questionnaire will be placed
in random order. The results of the study will be available to all SSTT clients by June
2012.
Risks:
The questionnaire does not pose any health related risks and will not produce discomfort
greater than what might be encountered in daily life. Some of the items in the
questionnaire may make you feel uncomfortable or upset because you may become more
aware of challenges you may face as a student and or the personal nature of some of the
questions asked. We ask that you do NOT provide your name to keep your identity
concealed. The study is fully confidential and it will not affect your SSTT case in any
way.
Benefits and Compensation:
You may gain insights into some educational challenges you may face while pursuing
your education, you will be given two SSTT work activity hours and be entered into a
drawing to win one of three great prizes including a refurbished computer and school
supplies. It is hoped the information provided will be beneficial for further developing
education programs for SSTT participants.
83
Confidentiality:
We are asking that you do not provide your name to keep your identity concealed and the
study fully confidential. Your responses on the questionnaire will be anonymous.
Contact Information:
If you have any questions about this research, you may contact researcher Valerie
Plevney at (xxx) xxx-xxxx or by email at vkp_hope@comcast.net or CSUS Social Work
research professor Jude Antonyappon at Judea@csus.edu
Your participation in this research is entirely voluntary. Your signature below
indicates that you have read this page and agree to participate in the research.
___________________________________________
Please print name clearly (used for prize drawing)
____________________________
Signature of participant
__________
Date
84
APPENDIX B
Questionnaire
Exploring Educational Challenges
Please DO NOT include you name on this questionnaire
Please answer or circle
1. Age___________
2. Gender______________________
3. Native/ Non-native
TRIBAL AFFILIATION____________________________
4. Number of children under age 18 residing in the home ___________________
5. High school diploma/ GED/ Some College/ College degree/ None
6. Are you currently attending a high school diploma or G.E.D. program? Yes/ No
7. Are you currently enrolled in college? Yes/ No
If yes, please list COLLEGE_________________________ MAJOR____________________
The right answer is the answer that is most true for you.
1. It is acceptable for
an individual from my
heritage to participate
in two different
cultures
2. It is acceptable for a
mainstream
Americans to
participate in two
different cultures
3. Being bicultural
does not mean I have
to compromise my
sense of cultural
identity
Strongly disagree
Disagree
1
2
3
Neutral
4
5
Agree
Strongly agree
6
7
8
9
Strongly disagree
Disagree
1
2
3
Neutral
4
5
Agree
Strongly agree
6
7
8
9
Strongly disagree
Disagree
1
2
3
Neutral
4
5
Agree
Strongly agree
6
7
8
9
85
4. I feel like I fit in
when I am with
mainstream
Americans as well as
people from the same
heritage
5. I am confident that
I could deal efficiently
with unexpected
events
6. If I am in trouble, I
can usually think of a
solution
7. I like to look for
more information
about school subjects
8. I can remain calm
when facing
difficulties because I
can rely on my coping
abilities
9. I can learn things
taught in school
10. I can solve most
problems if I invest
the necessary effort
11. I want to learn
new things
12. I can remain calm
when facing
difficulties because I
can rely on my coping
abilities
13. I can figure out
difficult homework
14. If someone
opposes me, I can find
the means and ways
to get what I want
15. I want to
understand how to
solve problems
Strongly disagree
Disagree
1
2
3
Neutral
4
5
Agree
Strongly agree
6
7
8
9
Not true at all
1
hardly true
2
moderately true
3
exactly true
4
Not true at all
1
hardly true
2
moderately true
3
exactly true
4
Not true at all
1
hardly true
2
moderately true
3
exactly true
4
Not true at all
1
hardly true
2
moderately true
3
exactly true
4
Not true at all
1
Not true at all
1
hardly true
2
hardly true
2
moderately true
3
moderately true
3
exactly true
4
exactly true
4
Not true at all
1
Not true at all
1
hardly true
2
hardly true
2
moderately true
3
moderately true
3
exactly true
4
exactly true
4
Not true at all
1
Not true at all
1
hardly true
2
hardly true
2
moderately true
3
moderately true
3
exactly true
4
exactly true
4
Not true at all
1
hardly true
2
moderately true
3
exactly true
4
86
16. It is easy for me to
stick to my aims and
accomplish my goals
17. I can do even the
hardest of homework
if I try
18. I can always
manage to solve
difficult problems if I
try hard enough
19. Thanks to my
resourcefulness, I
know how to handle
unforeseen situations
20. When I am
confronted with a
problem, I can usually
find several solutions
21. Please circle the
top 5 challenges that
you have faced or
believe you may face
when pursuing your
education
Not true at all
1
hardly true
2
moderately true
3
exactly true
4
Not true at all
1
hardly true
2
moderately true
3
exactly true
4
Not true at all
1
hardly true
2
moderately true
3
exactly true
4
Not true at all
1
hardly true
2
moderately true
3
exactly true
4
Not true at all
1
hardly true
2
moderately true
3
exactly true
4
22. If you had all the
support and financial
means to pursue your
education, would you?
23. Are you aware of
the k-12 Indian
Education program in
Sacramento?
Yes/ No
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
g.
h.
i.
j.
k.
l.
m.
n.
Yes/ No
The cost is too high
Lack of family support
Childcare
Motivation
Alcohol and/or drug challenges
Transportation
Getting started
Fear of failing
Health challenges
Lack of support system
Lack of interest
Not knowing what you want to study
Feeling like you must give up a apart of yourself
Feeling like you have to or should work instead of attend
school
if no why?
87
24. Please circle, On a
scale of 1-10 how
comfortable you feel
working with a
computer
25. Would you like
more information
about disabilities that
may impact school
performance for you
or your children
Not at all
1
2
Somewhat
3
4
5
Comfortable
6
7
8
Very
9
10
Yes/ No
Scoring Instructions
Bicultural Belief Scale =add up responses from 1, 2, 3, and 4
Self Efficacy Scale = add up responses from 5, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16, 18, 19, and 20
Scale ranges from 10-40
Academic Self-Efficacy Scale = add up responses from 9, 13, and 17
Scale ranges from 3-12
Intrinsic Motivation to Learn Scale = add up responses from 7, 11, and 15
Scale ranges from 3-12
88
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