Alderfer’s ERG Theory
Maslow's hierarchy of needs was expanded, leading to his ERG theory (Existence,
Relatedness and Growth).
Physiological and safety, the lower order needs, were placed in the Existence category.
Love and self esteem needs were placed in the Relatedness category. The Growth category
contained the self actualization and self esteem needs.
●
Existence needs – need for material and energy exchange
●
Relatedness needs – transactions with human environment, process of
sharing or mutuality
●
Growth needs – people make creative or productive efforts for
themselves
2) Reinforcement Theory:
- When a person is told about an impending change in a reinforcement schedule or system,
behavior often changes very quickly.
3) Equity (Balance) Theory:
● Perceptions people have about how they are being treated as compared with others
● Involves feelings and perceptions, is always a comparative process
● People will work better if they are treated equitably
● Two forms of equity:
● Distributive – fairness people feel they are rewarded in accordance with their
contribution and in comparison with others
● Procedural – perceptions of employees about fairness of company procedures
● We hope/expect that the inputs we give into our job equal the outputs we get
4) Expectancy theory
A process theory about work motivation that focuses on how workers make choices among
alternative behaviors and levels of effort.
● Value, instrumentality (belief that if we do one thing it will lead to another),
expectancy (probability that action or effort will lead to an outcome)
● Strength of expectations may be based on past experiences
● Motivation is only likely when a clearly perceived relationship exists between
performance and an outcome that is seen as a means of satisfying needs
● Value of rewards to individuals in so far as they satisfy their needs
● Probability that rewards depend on effort, as perceived by individuals, their
expectation about relationships between effort and reward
● Two additional variables:
● Ability – individual characteristics and skills
Expectancy Theory - Key Terms
Valence: the desirability of an outcome or set of outcomes (e.g., pay, recognition, stress,
etc.) to an individual.
Instrumentality: a perception about the extent to which performance of one or more
behaviors will lead to the attainment of a particular outcome.
Expectancy: a perception about the extent to which effort will result in a certain
level of performance.
5) Goal-Setting theory
Goal-setting theory is based on the notion that individuals sometimes have a drive to
a clearly defined end state. Often, this end state is a reward in itself. A goal's efficiency is
affected by three features; proximity, difficulty and specificity. An ideal goal should
present a situation where the time between the initiation of behavior and the end state is
close in time. This explains why some children are more motivated to learn how to ride a
bike than mastering algebra. A goal should be moderate, not too hard or too easy to
complete. In both cases, most people are not optimally motivated, as many want a
challenge (which assumes some kind of insecurity of success). At the same time people
want to feel that there is a substantial probability that they will succeed. Specificity
concerns the description of the goal. The goal should be objectively defined and
for the individual. A classic example of a poorly specified goal is to get the highest
grade. Most children have no idea how much effort they need to reach that goal.
Goal theory
Important points:
● Motivation and performance are higher when individuals are set specific goals
● Goals have to be difficult but accepted
● Feedback on performance
● Participation in goal setting is important – goals need to be agreed
● As long as they are accepted – demanding goals lead to better performance than
easy goals
MIDDEL-RANGE Theories:
The idea was introduced by Pinder. He said that instead of developing new theories to
deal with all behaviours, we should concentrate on developing less-ambitious to deal
with.
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PAPER # 3
CITIZENSHIP AND IMPRESSION MANAGEMENT
Purpose of the article: To explore role of impression-management motivation in the
context of citizenship.
- Impression management (Definition): It refers to the process by which people attempt to
influence the image others have of them
-Organizational Citizenship Behavior (OCB) has to motivational base:
1) Job attitudes
2) Disposition personality
1) Job Attitude: employees engage in OCB in order to reciprocate the actions of their
organizations.
2) Rationale holds tht OCB reflect an individual’s predisposition to b helpful,
cooperative or conscientious
An employee desire to help others or the organization because of disposition or a sense of
obligation
Five Categories:
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
Integration
Exemplification
Intimidation
Self-promotion
Supplication
Paper # 4
On the Folly of Rewarding A, While Hoping for B
Whether dealing with monkeys, rats, or human beings, it is hardly controversial to state
that most organisms seek information concerning what activities are rewarded, and then
seek to do (or at least pretend to do) those things, often to the virtual exclusion of
activities not rewarded. The extent to which this occurs of course will depend on the
perceived attractiveness of the rewards offered, but neither operant nor expectancy
theorists would quarrel with the essence of this notion.
In Politics, In War, In Medicine, In Universities, In Consulting, In Sports, In
Government, In Business
Common
Manageme
nt Reward
Follies
We hope for...
But we often reward...
long- term growth;
environmental responsibility
quarterly earnings
teamwork
individual effort
setting challenging "stretch"
objectives; "
achieving goals; "making the numbers"
downsizing; rightsizing;
delayering; restructuring
adding staff; adding budget; adding Hay
points
commitment to total quality
shipping on schedule, even with defects
candor; surfacing bad news early reporting good news, whether it's true or not;
agreeing with the boss, whether or not (s)he's
right
We hope for...
But we reward...
Teamwork and collaboration
The best team members
Innovative thinking and risk taking
Proven methods and not making mistakes
Development of people skills
Technical achievements and
accomplishments
Employee involvement and
empowerment
Tight control over operations and resources
High achievement
Another year's effort
Causes:
1.Fascination with an "Objective" Criterion
2. Overemphasis on Highly Visible Behaviors
3. Hypocrisy
4. Emphasis on Morality or Equity Rather than Efficiency
Conclusion:
Members of organizations have divergent motives and goals.
Three Possible remedies: Selection, Training and Altering the reward system