THE UNITED STATES CONGRESS:
FRAGMENTATION VERSUS INTEGRATION
Can Congress:
•develop a set of
broad, national
policy goals?
The Congress is the seat of legislative authority
and often the center of public debate. The
institution is a collection of several hundred
relatively independent politicians with separate
but overlapping constituencies. The
architecture of the capitol bespeaks its ways:
two chambers, endless corridors, ornate
rotundas and galleries, and a rabbit warren of
grand rooms tiny offices and winding
passageways. There is no culminating point of
authority in Congress; rather there is a
multiplicity of decision centers.
•enact legislation
consistent with
these goals?
•oversee the
implementation of
its enactments?
Congress as a Policy-Making Institution
Much of national public policy is based on legislative
enactments. As the national legislature, Congress therefore
plays an integral role in policy-making. In this role, Congress
shares national policy-making authority with the executive
branch and the courts. The interaction between the Congress
and the executive branch particularly produces most of the
detailed decisions about which specific policies to pursue and
which programs to implement.
Is it possible for Congress, as an institution, to provide the
leadership necessary to to challenge the president in setting
the national agenda and determine substantive policy
commitments? Some political analysts have concluded that
there is an inherent conflict between the two principal functions
of Congress and that this conflict works against Congress
ability to provide the suggested leadership.
What are the two basic functions of Congress?
Two Principal Functions of Congress
• law-making [implies decision-making in a
unified, integrated process]
versus
• representation [implies full deliberation, need
for widespread consent, and ample
opportunity for a variety of interests to be
heard in the decision-making process]
Conditions Supporting A Fragmented Congress
• bicameralism
SOURCE: Randall Ripley,
Congress: Process and
Policy, 2nd edition, W.W.
• large substantive agenda
Norton & Co, Inc., 1978
• power-sharing with bureaucracy
• constituency focus
• openness to organized interests
• well-developed committee system
• weak national parties
• personal ambition of individual members
Conditions Supporting An Integrated Congress
• institutional pride and ambition
• strong party caucuses
• broad substantive policy commitments from leaders
• power-sharing with the president
SOURCE: Randall Ripley, Congress: Process and Policy,
2nd edition, W.W. Norton & Co, Inc., 1978
Principle Policy Consequences of Fragmentation
• stable policy content [incrementalism]
• emphasis on resource allocation
• low concern with oversight
• policy passivity by individual members
SOURCE: Randall Ripley, Congress: Process and Policy,
2nd edition, W.W. Norton & Co, Inc., 1978
Principle Policy Consequences of Integration
• chance of change [meaningful reform]
• emphasis on resource extraction and regulation*
• greater concern with oversight
• policy aggressiveness by individual members
*may depend on dominant ideology, relevant events, or party in
control
SOURCE: Randall Ripley, Congress: Process and Policy,
2nd edition, W.W. Norton & Co, Inc., 1978
Types of Congressional Committees
• Standing [Full] Committees are the substantive committees to which proposed bills are
referred for consideration. These committees are organized around substantive policy
areas. Less than 10% of the more than 10,000 measures sent to committee are ever
“reported out” to the floor, so their main job is to set priorities. They are called standing
committees because they continue from one Congress to the next and hence are generally
viewed as the permanent workshops of congressional law-making.
• Standing Sub-Committees are responsible for narrow policy issues that fall under the
jurisdiction of the full committee. Sub-committees retain a good deal of authority in
determining the fate of bills falling within their jurisdiction.
• Select Committees are created to conduct special investigations or studies and report
back to the chamber that established them. They ordinarily do NOT draft and report
legislation. Some select committees do, however, stay in business over several sessions of
Congress.
• Joint Committees are formed with members from both chambers of Congress, partly to
coordinate investigations or special studies. They are study committees ostensibly set up to
expedite business between the chambers and help focus public attention on major issues
such as the economy, taxation, or scandals. In practice, joint committees do little to
promote efficient consideration of legislation in either chamber.
• Conference Committees are one form of joint committee set up to reconcile differences
between House and Senate versions of legislation. The Constitution provides that no bill
can be sent to the president for his signature or veto unless passed in identical form by both
chambers of Congress. Many major bills must be negotiated in conference committees and
sent back to both chambers for approval before being sent to the president.
Standing Committees of the House
Agriculture
Banking and Financial Services
Commerce
Government Reform and Oversight
House Oversight
International Relations
Resources
Science
Transportation and Infrastructure
Affairs Ways and Means
Appropriations
Budget
Education and the
Workforce
Judiciary
National Security
Rules
Small Business
Veterans’
Standing Committees of the Senate
Agriculture, Nutrition,
and Forestry
Banking, Housing, and
Urban Affairs
Commerce, Science,
and Transportation
Energy and Natural Resources
Environment and Public Works
Governmental Affairs
Rules and Administration
Appropriations
Armed Services
Budget
Finance
Foreign Relations
Judiciary
Small Business
Veterans’ Affairs
Labor and Human Resources
Standing Sub-Committees
Senate Foreign
RelationsCommittee
• African Affairs
• East Asian and
Pacific Affairs
• European Affairs
• International
Economic Policy,
Export, and Trade
Promotion
• International
Operations
• Near Eastern and
South Asian Affairs
• Western Hemisphere
and Peace Corps,
Narcotics, and
Terrorism
Senate Committee on
Environment and Public Works
• Clean Air, Wetlands,
Private Property, and
Nuclear Safety
• Drinking Water,
Fisheries, Wildlife
• Superfund, Waste
Control, and Risk
Assessment
• Transportation and
Infrastructure
Select Committees
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Indian Affairs
Ethics
Intelligence
Aging
Joint Committees
• Economic
• Library of
Congress
• Printing
• Taxation
• Inaugural
Ceremonies
• Conference
The Meanings of Representation
• Formal representation
• Descriptive or demographic representation
• Symbolic representation
• Substantive representation [delegate, trustee, or
politico roles]
The Incumbency Advantage
Why do sitting members of Congress usually succeed in their reelection
bids? Below is a list of some factors contributing to a so-called
“incumbency advantage.” No single factor guarantees a member’s
reelection, but skillful use of these and related resources makes it very
difficult to unseat a healthy incumbent.
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Name recognition
Franking privilege
Campaign contributions
Campaign experience
Governmental experience
Claim credit for federal money in district
Better informed than challengers
Common Criticisms of Congress
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Congress is entrenched.
Congress is inefficient.
Congress is unrepresentative.
Congress is too representative.
Congress is unethical.
Congress lacks collective responsibility;
lacks national focus
• Congress delegates too much to the
executive branch.
Reform Proposals
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Move to a parliamentary system
Extend House terms to 4 years
Term limitations
Public financing of campaigns
Reduce the number and influence of committees and
subcommittees
Strengthen the power and resources of the party leaders
Reduce staffs
Enlarge staffs
Shorter sessions
Set an agenda at the beginning of a session and abide
by it