Honors Biology
Ch. 8 NOTES
Meiosis
Meiosis and Crossing Over
8.12 Explain how chromosomes are paired. Distinguish
between autosomes and sex chromosomes.
Somatic Cells
o body cells
o 23 pairs of chromosomes
o (pairs = 2) (23 = n) (2n = 46)
Homologous Chromosomes
o Each parent donates one set of
chromosomes (n)
o Fertilization brings both together: n
+ n = 2n
o Restores original number.
o Two sets of chromosomes or 2n.
o Example:
#1 chrom. from mom
#1 chrom. from dad
o These are homologous
chromosomes.
Autosomes: All the chromosomes
except the sex chromosomes
Sex Chromosomes:
o In humans, the 23rd pair of
chromosomes.
o Carry genes for traits other than sex
determination.
o XX = female
o XY = male
o Because males have two versions of sex chromosomes
they determine the sex of the offspring.
MEIOSIS
8.13 Distinguish between somatic cells and gametes and between
diploid cells and haploid cells.
Somatic Cells: body cells (2n = diploid)
Gametes: eggs and sperm (n = haploid or monoploid)
Diploid Cells: 2n (chromosomes as homologous pairs)
Haploid Cells: n (one of each homologous pair)
Fertilization: n + n = 2n (zygote)
8.14 List the phases of meiosis I and meiosis II and describe the events
characteristic of each phase.
Phases
Events
Meiosis I
(homologs separate)


Prophase I
2 x 2n
Metaphase I
Anaphase I
2 x 1n
Telophase I &
Mrs. Loyd 
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




90% of time, most complex
Chromatin condenses into distinct
chromosomes
Synapsis & Crossing Over
Nucleoli disappear
Centrosomes move poleward
Spindle forms between centrosomes
Nuclear envelope disappears
Tetrads moved by fibers to middle

 Tetrads move to center
 Form double file
 Spindles attach to each homolog
from opposite poles
 Homologous pairs separate, move to
opposite poles.
 Sister chromatids but only one
homolog
 Chromosomes reach poles.
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Meiosis II
(chromatids
separate / mitotic)
Cytokinesis
Prophase II
Metaphase II
Anaphase II
1 x 1n
Telophase II &
Cytokinesis
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 Cell Divides
 2 haploid cells result
No S phase
o Spindle forms and moves
chromosomes to middle
o Chromosomes aligned on
metaphase plate
o Single file
o Centromeres of sister chromatids
separate, become daughter
chromosomes.
o Move to opposite poles.
o Nuclei form at the cell poles,
cytokinesis occurs at the same time.
o 4 daughter cells (gametes)
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Recognize the phases of meiosis from diagrams and
micrographs.
MEIOSIS I
Interphase (S): Synthesis of DNA (chromatids)
Phase Name
Unique Events
Tetrads (mom + dad),
Prophase I
Crossing over, Synapsis
Metaphase I
Fig. 8.16, p.141
Tetrads align, double file, homologues on
opposite sides of metaphase plate,
Independent assortment happens here.
Homologues separate,
Reduction in chromosome number
Anaphase I
MEIOSIS II
Telophase I
/Cytokinesis
no (S) here
Prophase II
Two, non-identical cells result
Metaphase II
Single file of sister chromatids
Anaphase II
Mitotic division (chromatids separate)
Telophase II
/Cytokinesis
4 haploid cells (gametes) result.
(two sets of twin DNA)
8.15 Describe the similarities and differences between
mitosis and meiosis. Explain how the result of
meiosis differs from the result of mitosis.
SIMILARITIES
PURPOSE
To create
Cells from cells
Affect on
Chromosome #
Affect on Diversity
of offspring
Chromosome
Duplications
Divisions
# of cells
resulting
Phases
Metaphase &
Metaphase I
DIFFERENCES
MITOSIS
MEIOSIS
Growth,
Maintenance,
Gametes for sexual
Repair,
reproduction
Asexual Reprod.
2n2n
2nn
Clones
(no affect)
Crossing over
Independent Assortment
Segregation of Alleles
Random fertilization
(increases greatly)
1
2
2
4
once
Same sequence
Align on
Metaphase plate
Single file
Anaphase &
Anaphase I
Sister chromatids
Separate
2 x 2n  1 x 2n
1 cell / 2 cells
Anaphase II
---------
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Double file
(tetrads)
Homologues separate
2 x 2n  2 x 1n
Chromatids Separate
2 x 1n  1 x 1n
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8.16–8.18 Explain how independent orientation of
chromosomes at metaphase I, random fertilization,
and crossing over during prophase I of meiosis
contribute to genetic variation in sexually
reproducing organisms.
Independent orientation: fig. 8.16
Random fertilization:
Online Activity: The Origin of Genetic Variation
Crossing over: fig. 8.18a,b
Comparing Male and Female Meiosis
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MALE
FEMALE
TIMING
Puberty until
death
MI: before birth
MII: fertilization
LOCATION
testes
ovaries
RESULTING
# OF CELLS
4 sperm
1 ovum
(3 polar bodies)
CONTENTS
OF CELL
DNA
DNA, organelles, mRNA,
tRNA, Monomers, ribomes
Alterations of Chromosome Number and Structure
8.19 Explain how and why karyotyping is performed.
Karyotype: An ordered display of magnified images of an
individual’s chromosomes arranged in pairs, starting with the
longest. Also used: centromere position and banding pattern.
How:
1. blood sample taken
2. cultured and treated to arrest mitosis in metaphase
3. centrifuge separates based on density
a. top: liquid discarded
b. bottom: solid treated with hypertonic solution to
burst RBCs but not WBC.
4. centrifuge separates:
a. top: liquid (remains of RBC) from
b. bottom: WBC
5. microscope slide made of WBC with fixative
6. digital camera captures image
7. computer manipulates image to pair up homologues
8. resulting display is a karyotype
Why:
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o
o
o
Errors in meiosis can lead to gametes containing
chromosomes in abnormal numbers or with major
alterations in their structures.
Fertilization with these gametes results in birth defects.
Chromosomal abnormalities (not gene-level) can be
detected with a karyotype.
Mrs. Loyd 
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8.20 Describe the causes and symptoms of Down
syndrome.
Cause:
o Nondisjunction of the 21st chromosome during meiosis.
o after fertilization it results in three #21 chromosomes
o also called trisomy 21
o Incidence increases with maternal age
o 1 out of 700 children born
o most common serious birth defect in the US
Symptoms:
o round face
o skin fold at the inner corner of the eye
o flattened nose bridge
o small irregular teeth
o short stature
o heart defects
o susceptible to respiratory infections
o leukemia
o Alzheimer’s
o shorter life span
o varying degrees of mental retardation
o most are sexually under-developed
8.21 Define nondisjunction, explain how it can occur, and
describe what can result.
Nondisjunction: When the members of a chromosome pair
fail to separate as they should
How can it occur?
Meiosis I:
o A pair of homologous chromosomes does not separate
during meiosis I.
o Even though the rest of meiosis occurs normally, all the
resulting gametes end up with abnormal numbers of
chromosomes.
o Two of the gametes have three chromosomes; the other
two gametes have only one chromosome each.
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Meiosis II:
o Meiosis I is normal
o But one pair of sister chromatids fails to move apart during
meiosis II.
o Two of the resulting gametes are abnormal; the other two
are normal.
8.22 Describe the consequences of abnormal numbers of
sex chromosomes. Table 8.22
Klinefelter’s Syndrome: Males only, 40% survive gestation,
feminization, hypogonadism, sterile.
Turner’s: Females only, short, thin, tissue between shoulders
and head, infertile.
8.23 Explain how new species form from errors in cell
division.
o At least half of all species of flowering plants are
polyploidy, including such useful ones as wheat,
potatoes, apples, and cotton.
o 2n + 2n  4n (polyploidy)
o Polyploid animals are less common than plants.
o fish
o amphibians
o at least one mammal (burrowing rodent)
http://www.biology.iupui.edu/biocourses/N100/2k2humancsomaldisorders.html
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AUTOSOMAL TRISOMIES
Syndrome: A characteristic set of symptoms
NAME
FREQUENCY
N0TES
Trisomy 13
Patau Syndrome
1/10,000
10% of infants reach 1 year
80% die in the 1st month
Most common chromosomal
cause of miscarriage during
1st trimester
Trisomy 16
Trisomy 18
Edward’s Syndrome
Trisomy 21
Down’s Syndrome
SYMPTOMS
Cleft lip or palate
Close-set eyes
Decreased muscle tone
Extra fingers or toes
Hernias
Hole, split or cleft in iris
Low-set ears
Severe mental retardation
Scalp defects (absent skin)
Seizures
Skeletal (limb) abnormalities
Small eyes
Small head (microcephaly)
Small lower jaw
Undescended testicle
1/6,000
10% of infants reach 1 year
80% die in the 1st month
1/700
Most common trisomy that
infants can survive.
Most common serious
birth defect in the U.S.
kidney malformations
Structural heart defects
Intestines protruding outside the body
Developmental delays
Growth deficiency
Small head
Prominent back portion of head
Low-set malformed ears
Abnormally small jaw
Cleft lip/cleft palate
Widely –spaced eyes
Drooping upper eyelids
Short breast bone
Clenched hands
Absent radius
Characteristic facial features
Round face
A skin fold at the inner corner of the eye
Flattened nose bridge
Small irregular teeth
Short stature
Heart defects
Susceptibility to respiratory infections
Leukemia
Alzheimer’s disease
Shorter than normal life span
Trisomy 9
Trisomy 8
Warkany Syndrome
Trisomy 22
Cat eye Syndrome
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8.24 Describe the main types of chromosomal changes.
Explain why cancer is not usually inherited.
Alterations of chromosome structure involving one chromosome or a
homologous pair
Chromosomal translocation between nonhomologous
chromosomes.
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