The City in Space and
Time
The Human Mosaic
Chapter 10
Introduction
 Imagine humankind’s sojourn on Earth as a
24-hour day
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Settlements of more than a hundred people
are only about a half-hour old
Towns and cities emerged only a few minutes
ago
Large-scale urbanization began less than 60
seconds ago
Introduction
 Urbanization in the last 200 years has
strengthened links between culture, society,
and the city
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“Urban explosion” has gone hand in hand with
the industrial revolution
Estimates demonstrate the world’s urban
population more than doubled since 1950
Urban population doubled again by 2000
Over 50 percent of Earth’s population live in
cities
Urbanization: Sao Paulo, Brazil
Urbanization: Sao Paulo, Brazil
 Sao Paulo epitomizes the
dynamics of urbanization,
especially capitalism.
Starting as a coffee
exporting center, it had less
than 32000 inhabitants by
1872. Today metropolitan
Sao Paulo is a primate city
of more than 20 million.
Economic development and
flat land engendered
population increase and
sprawl, rising land costs in
the center, and a boom in
construction.
Urbanization: Sao Paulo, Brazil
 Economic success is
denoted by the high-rises
which are a mix of industrial,
commercial and professional
office blocks, as well as
apartment complexes. City
planning is only a recent
phenomenon. Rural to
urban migration is a serious
problem and the city’s rapid
growth has outstripped its
ability to provide jobs,
housing and adequate
services.
Culture regions
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Urban Culture Region
Origin and Diffusion of the City
Evolution of Urban Landscapes
The Ecology of Urban Location
Cultural Integration in Urban Geography
Problem of recognizing urban regions
 Urbanized population—percentage of a
nation’s population living in towns and cities
 Striking urbanization difference between
countries
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Some close to 90 percent
Others less than 20 percent
 Culture regions can be based on varying
rates of urbanization
 We have a pattern of “urban” versus “rural”
countries
Problem of recognizing urban regions
 Within each nation, we can delimit formal and
functional culture regions separating urban and rural
domains
 There is no agreed-upon international definition of
what constitutes a city
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India defines an urban center as 5,000 inhabitants,
with adult males employed primarily in nonagricultural
work
The United States Census Bureau defines a city as a
densely populated area of 2,500 people or more
South Africa counts as a city any settlement of 500 or
more people
Problem of recognizing urban regions
 Some countries revise definitions of urban
settlements to suit specific purposes
 China revised its census definitions with
criteria that vary from province to province
causing their urban population to swell by 13
percent in 1983
Generalizations
 Generalizations made about the differences
in the world’s urbanized population
 Highly industrialized countries have higher
rates of urbanized population than do lessdeveloped countries
 Developing countries are rapidly urbanizing
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Caused by massive migration away from the
country
People flock to the cities searching for a better
life
Generalizations
 Developing countries are rapidly urbanizing
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City migration is often driven by desperation,
as rural supply systems collapse
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For newcomers to the cities, unemployment rates
are often over 50 percent
 One of the world’s ongoing crises will be this
radical restructuring of population and culture
as people move into the cities
Generalizations
 Urban growth comes from two sources
 Migration of people to the cities
 Higher natural population growth rates for
recent migrants
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Because employment is unreliable, large families
construct a more extensive family support system
Increases the chances of someone getting work
Smaller families when a certain dimension of
security is ensured
Smaller families often occur when women enter
the work force
World cities
 Cities over 5 million in population
 Over half of the world’s 20 largest cities are in
the developing world
 Thirty years ago, the list of world cities was
dominated by Western, industrialized cities
 Now the list is even more dominated by the
developing world
World cities
 Mexico City’s growth is linked to Mexico’s oil
industry
 Some countries are trying to regulate urban
growth
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Problems with transportation, housing, and
employment
Failure or success of these policies will
influence city size in the next ten to twenty
years
China closely regulates urban growth
World cities
 Accurate population projections are evasive because
they depend on variables
 Primate city — a settlement city that dominates the
economic, political, and cultural life of a country
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The target for much urban migration
Rapid growth expands its primacy, or dominance
Example of Mexico City — far exceeds Guadalajara,
the second-largest city in Mexico, in size and
importance
Many developing countries are dominated by a primate
city, which was often a former center of colonial power
Primate cities are also found in developed countries —
London and Paris
Culture regions
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Urban Culture Region
Origin and Diffusion of the City
Evolution of Urban Landscapes
The Ecology of Urban Location
Cultural Integration in Urban Geography
The first cities
 In seeking explanation for the origin of cities,
we find a relationship between:
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Areas of early agriculture
Permanent village settlement
The development of new social forms
Urban life
 Early people were nomadic hunters and
gatherers who constantly moved
The first cities
 As they became increasingly efficient in gathering
resources, their campsites became semi-permanent
 As quantities of domesticated plants and animals
increased settlement became more permanent
 The first cities appeared in the Middle East
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Developed about ten thousand years ago
Farming villages modest in size, rarely with more than
200 people
Probably organized on a kinship basis
The first cities
 The first cities appeared in the Middle East
 Probably organized on a kinship basis
 Jarmo, one of the earliest villages
 Located in present-day Iraq
 Had 25 permanent dwellings clustered near grain
storage facilities
 Lacked plows, but cultivated local grains — wheat and
barley
 Domestic dogs, goats, and sheep may have been
used for meat
 Food supplies augmented by hunting and gathering
The first cities
 In agricultural villages, all inhabitants were
involved in some way in food procurement
 Cities were more removed, physically and
psychologically, from everyday agricultural
activities
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Food was supplied to the city
Not all city dwellers were involved in actual
farming
Another class of city dwellers supplied
services — such as technical skills, and
religious interpretation
The first cities
 Two elements were crucial to this social change
 Generation of agricultural surplus prerequisite for
supporting nonfarmers
 Stratified social system
 Meaning the existence of distinct elite and lower
classes
 Facilitates the collection, storage, and distribution of
resources
 Well-defined channels of authority that exercise
control over goods and people
 These two set the stage for urbanization
Models for the rise of cities
 Technical
 The hydraulic civilization model, developed by
Karl Wittfogel
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Large-scale irrigation systems as prime mover
behind urbanization
Higher crop yields resulted
Food surplus supported development of a large
nonfarming population
Strong, centralized government, backed by an
urban-based military
Farmers who resisted new authority were denied
water
Models for the rise of cities
 Technical
 The hydraulic civilization model, developed by Karl
Wittfogel
 Power elite needed for organizational coordination to
ensure continued operation of the irrigation system
 Labor specialization developed
 The hydraulic model cannot be applied to all urban
hearths
 Urban civilization blossomed without irrigation in parts
of Mesoamerica
 The question of how or why a culture might first
develop irrigation
Models for the rise of cities
 Religious
 Paul Wheatley suggests religion was the motivating
factor behind urbanization
 Knowledge of meteorological and climatic conditions
was considered to be within the domain of religion
 Religious leaders decided when and how to plant crops
 Successful harvests led to more support for this
priestly class
 Priestly class exercised political and social control that
held the city together
 In this scenario, cities are religious spaces functioning
as ceremonial centers
 First urban clusters and fortification seen as defenses
against spiritual demons or souls of the dead
Models for the rise of cities
 Multiple factors
 Distinction between economic, religious, and political
functions were not always clear
 A king may have functioned as priest, healer,
astronomer, and scribe
 In some ways secular and spiritual power was fused
 Attempting to isolate one trigger to urbanization is
difficult, if not impossible
 It would be wiser to accept the role of multiple factors
behind the changes leading to urban life
 Technical, religious, and political forces were often
interlinked
Urban hearth areas
 Where the first cities appeared, for example:
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Mesopotamia
The Nile Valley
Pakistan’s Indus River Valley
The Yellow River valley (or Huang Ho) in
China
Mesoamerica
 Next slide gives general dates of urban life
emergence for each region
Urban hearth areas
 Generally agreed first cities arose in Mesopotamia
 River valley of the Tigris and Euphrates in what is now
Iraq
 Cities, small by current standards, covered one-half to
two square miles
 Populations rarely exceeded 30,000
 Densities could reach 10,000 per square mile —
comparable to today’s cities
 Early cities, also called cosmomagical cities,
exhibited three spatial characteristics
Urban hearth areas
 Early cities, also called cosmomagical cities,
exhibited three spatial characteristics
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Great importance accorded the symbolic center of the
city, which was thought to be the center of the known
world
 Often demarcated by a vertical structure of
monumental scale representing the point on Earth
closest to the heavens
 This symbolic center, or axis mundi, took different
forms
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The ziggurat in Mesopotamia
The palace or temple in China
The pyramid in Egypt and Mesoamerica
The Stupa in the Indus Valley
Cosmomagical City: Beijing, China
Cosmomagical City: Beijing, China
 This is the Hall of Supreme
Harmony, the most important
ceremonial building in
Beijing’s Forbidden City.
The hall is set upon an
auspicious number of three
tiers. From the Gate of
Supreme Harmony, the
emperor would be carried on
his palanquin above the
“dragon pavement,” carved
with his dragon and other
auspicious symbols such as
waves, mountains and
clouds.
Cosmomagical City: Beijing, China
 The Forbidden City marked
the inner sanctum of the
Imperial city, a model of
harmony and moral order
expressing the Will of
Heaven.
 Ritual and cosmic
correctness was imbued in
city form through divination
and orientation; cardinal
axiality and concentricity;
and, square configuration
defined by walls and gates.
Urban hearth areas
 Early cities, also called cosmomagical cities,
exhibited three spatial characteristics
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In Mesopotamia, this area was known as the
citadel and housed the elite who lived in
relative luxury
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Streets were paved, drains and running water
were provided
Private sleeping quarters, bathtubs, and water
closets were provided
Privileges did not extend to the city as a whole
Urban hearth areas
 Early cities, also called cosmomagical cities,
exhibited three spatial characteristics
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The city was oriented toward the four cardinal
directions
 Geometric form of city would reflect the order of the
universe
 Walls around the city delimited the known and ordered
world from the outside chaos
Attempt to shape the form of the city according to the
form of the universe
 Thought essential to maintain harmony between
human and spiritual worlds
 Example of Ankor Thorn in India
Urban hearth areas
 Life in Mesopotamia’s early cities from archaeological
evidence
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Dense housing, located just outside the citadel, was
one or two stories tall composed of clay brick, and
contained three or four rooms
Narrow unsurfaced streets had no drainage, and
served as the community dump
At Ur, excavations show that garbage levels rose so
high, new entrances were cut into second stories of the
houses
Just inside the city wall, huts of mud and reed housed
the lower classes
Urban hearth areas
 Early cities of the Nile were not walled, suggesting a
regional power structure kept cities from warring with
each other
 In the Indus Valley, Mohenjo-Daro was laid out in a
grid that consisted of 16 large blocks
 The most important variations in living conditions
occurred in Mesoamerica
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Cities were less dense and covered large areas
Cities arose without benefit of the wheel, plow,
metallurgy, and draft animals
Domestication of maize compensated for technological
shortcomings
Maize yields several crops a year without irrigation in
tropical climates
The diffusion of the city from hearth
areas
 The two hypotheses of how cities spread in
prehistoric times
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Cities evolved spontaneously as native peoples
created new technologies and social institutions
Preconditions for urban life are too specific for most
cultures to invent without contact with other urban
areas
 People must have learned these traits through contact
with city dwellers
 This scenario emphasized the diffusion of ideas and
techniques
The diffusion of the city from hearth
areas
 Diffusionists believe ideas and techniques from
Mesopotamia were shared with people in the Nile
and the Indus River valley
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Archaeological evidence documents trade ties between
the three regions
Soapstone objects made in Tepe Yahyã, 500 miles
east of Mesopotamia, have been found in ruins of both
Mesopotamia and Indus Valley cities
Indus Valley writing and seals have been found in
Mesopotamian urban sites
 An alternate view is that trading took place only after
these cities were well established
The diffusion of the city from hearth
areas
 There is evidence of contacts across the
oceans between early urban dwellers of the
New World and those of Asia and Africa
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Unclear if this means urbanization was
diffused to Mesoamerica
Maybe some trade routes existed between
these peoples
The diffusion of the city from hearth
areas
 Little doubt diffusion is responsible for the dispersal
of the city in historical times
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City used as vehicle for imperial expansion
Urban life is carried outward in waves of conquest as
empires expand
Initially, military controls newly won lands and sets up
collection points for local resources
As collection points lose some military atmosphere
they begin to show the social diversity of a city
Native people are slowly assimilated into the
settlement as workers and may eventually control the
city
The process repeats itself as the empire pushes
outward
The diffusion of the city from hearth
areas
 Imposition of a foreign civilization on native peoples was often
met with resistance
 Examples of imperial city building dot history
 Alexander the Great established at least 70 cities
 The Roman Empire built literally thousand of cities, changing
the face of Europe, North Africa, and Asia minor
 The Persians, the Maurya Empire of India, the Han
civilization of China, and the Greeks performed the same
city-spreading task
 In more recent times, European empires have used city
resources to expand and consolidate their power in colonies
in the Americas, Africa, and Asia
 Expansion diffusion has been critical in dispersing urban life
over the surface of the Earth
Culture regions
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Urban Culture Region
Origin and Diffusion of the City
Evolution of Urban Landscapes
The Ecology of Urban Location
Cultural Integration in Urban Geography
Introduction
 Patterns seen in the city today are a
composite of past and present cultures
 Two concepts underlie our examination of
urban landscapes
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Urban morphology — physical form of the city,
which consists of street patterns, building
sizes and shapes, architecture, and density
Functional zonation — refers to the pattern of
land uses within a city, or existence of areas
with differing functions
The Greek city
 Western civilization and Western cities trace their
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roots to ancient Greece
By 600 B.C., over five hundred towns and cities
existed on the Greek mainland and surrounding
islands
With expansion, cities spread throughout the
Mediterranean — to the north shore of Africa, to
Spain, southern France, and Italy
Cities rarely had more than 5,000 inhabitants
Athens may have reached 300,000 in the fifth century
B.C., including perhaps 100,000 slaves
The Greek city
 Cities had two distinctive functional zones —
the acropolis and the agora
 The acropolis was similar in many ways to the
citadel of Mesopotamian cities
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Had the temples of worship, storehouse of
valuables, and seat of power
Served as a place of retreat in time of siege
The Greek city
 The agora was the province of the citizens
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A place for public meetings, education, social
interaction, and judicial matters
It was the civic center, the hub of democratic
life for Greek men
Later, after the classical period, it became the
city’s major marketplace without losing its
atmosphere of a social club
The Greek city
 Physical separation of religious from secular
functions implies the religious domain was no
longer the only source of authority
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Temples were located on sacred sites chosen
to please the gods
Temples were also sited and designed to
please the human eye and harmonize with the
natural landscape
The Greek city
 Tension created between the religious and
secular created what many consider to be
one of the greatest achievements of Western
architecture
 Earlier Greek cities probably grew
spontaneously without formal guidelines
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Some think many ceremonial areas were
designed to be seen according to prescribed
lines of vision
The human aesthetic was given a degree of
authority not given in cosmomagical cities
The Greek city
 In later Greek cities a more formalized city design
and plan are apparent— example of Miletus in Ioma
(present-day Turkey)
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Laid out in a rigid grid system imposing its geometry on
the physical site conditions
Layout indicates an abstracted and highly rational
notion of urban life
Seems to fit well with the functional needs of a colonial
city
Grid system shows religious and aesthetic needs had
taken a secondary role to pressing demands of
controlling an empire
Roman cities
 Romans adopted many urban traits from the
Greeks and the Etruscans, whom the
Romans had conquered and absorbed in
northern Italy
 As the empire expanded, city life diffused into
areas that had not previously experienced
urbanization
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France, Germany, England, interior Spain, the
Alpine countries, and parts of eastern Europe
Roman cities
 As the empire expanded, city life diffused into areas
that had not previously experienced urbanization
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Most cities were established as military (castra) and
trading outposts
 Focal points for collection of local agricultural products
 Supply centers for the military
 Service centers for long-distance trading network
In England, the trail of city building can be found by
looking for the suffixes -caster and -chester indicating
cities founded as Roman camps
Roman cities
 Roman city landscapes
 Gridiron street pattern was used in later Greek
cities — example of Pavia, Italy
 The forum — a zone combining elements of
the Greek acropolis and agora
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Placed at the intersection of a city’s two major
thoroughfares
Temples of worship, administrative buildings ,
and warehouses
Also libraries, schools, and marketplaces serving
the common people
Roman cities
 Roman city landscapes
 Clustered around the forum were the palaces of the
power elite
 Sanitary, well heated in winter, and spacious
 Not until the twentieth century did such luxury again
exist
 Roman masses lived in shoddy apartment houses
 Often four or five stories high, called insula
 System of aqueducts and underground sewers did not
extend to the poor
 Garbage of perhaps a million Romans was thrown into
open pits
 Even in its best days, Rome’s population was always
at the mercy of plagues
Roman cities
 Rome’s most important legacy was the Roman
method for choosing city sites
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Remains applicable today
Consistently chose sites with transportation in mind
Empire held together by a complicated system of roads
and highways
In choosing a new site for settlement Romans first
considered access while other cultures placed
emphasis on defensive locations
Numerous old Roman town sites were refounded
centuries later — Paris, London, and Vienna
Roman cities
 The Roman Empire was in major decline by
A.D. 400
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Cities and the highway system that linked
them fell into disrepair
The administrative structure collapsed
Outposts were either actively destroyed or
simply left to decay
Within 200 years, many of the cities had
withered away
Roman cities
 Some Roman cities in the Mediterranean
area managed to survive
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Established trade with the Byzantine Empire
After the eighth century, cities in Spain were
infused with new vigor by the Moorish Empire
 Cities in northern regions became small
villages
 Urban decline occurred only in areas that had
been under Roman rule
The medieval city
 Medieval period lasted roughly from A.D.
1000 to 1500
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Time of renewed urban expansion in Europe
Urban life spread north and east in Europe
Germanic and Slavic people expanded their
empires
In only four centuries, 2,500 new German
“cities” were founded
Most cities of present-day Europe were
founded during this period
The medieval city
 Revival of local and long-distance trade resulted from
a combination of factors
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Population increase
Political stability and unification
Agricultural expansion through new land reclamations
New Agricultural technologies
 Trading networks required protected markets and
supply centers, functions that renewed life in cities
 Long-distance trading led to the development of a
new class of people — the merchant class
Medieval Town:
Hirschhorn am Neckar, Germany
Medieval Town:
Hirschhorn am Neckar, Germany
 This town reveals three
important features of
urban morphology:
castle, wall, and
cathedral. Hirschhorn
castle caps the summit
of a fortified spur in the
bend of the Neckar
River, affording a clear
view of the river and
forested valley.
Medieval Town:
Hirschhorn am Neckar, Germany
 Site factors have also
limited expansion
forcing people to build
onto the walls.
 Half-timbering is evident
in a number of
buildings.
The medieval city
 The major functions of the medieval city are
depicted in five symbols
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The fortress
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Usually cities were clustered around a fortified
place
Reflected in place names — German -burg,
French -bourg, English
-burgh all meaning a fortified castle
The terms burgher and bourgeoisie, originally
referred to a citizen of the medieval city
The medieval city
 The major functions of the medieval city are
depicted in five symbols
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The fortress
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Usually cities were clustered around a fortified
place
Reflected in place names — German -burg,
French -bourg, English
-burgh all meaning a fortified castle
The terms burgher and bourgeoisie, originally
referred to a citizen of the medieval city
The medieval city
 The major functions of the medieval city are
depicted in five symbols
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The charter
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Governmental decree from a regional power
granting political autonomy to the town
Freed the population from feudal restrictions
Made the city responsible for its own defense and
government
Allowed cities to coin their own money
These freedoms contributed to development of
urban social, economic, and intellectual life
The medieval city
 The major functions of the medieval city are
depicted in five symbols
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The wall
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Symbol of the sharp distinction between country
and city
Within the wall most inhabitants were free;
outside most were serfs
People inside were able to move about with little
restriction
Goods entering the gates were inspected and
taxed
The medieval city
 The major functions of the medieval city are
depicted in five symbols
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The wall
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Nonresidents were issued permits for entry, but
often required to leave by sundown when the
gates were shut
Suburbs called faubourgs sprang up, and in time
demanded to be included into the city
If the suburbs were allowed to be part of the city,
the wall was extended to include them
The medieval city
 The major functions of the medieval city are
depicted in five symbols
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The marketplace
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Symbolized role of economic activities in the city
City depended on the countryside for food and
produce was traded in the market
Center for long-distance trade linking city to city
The medieval city
 The major functions of the medieval city are depicted
in five symbols
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The marketplace
 At one end stood the fairly tall town hail
 Meeting space for city’s political leaders
 Market hail for storage and display of finer goods
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Brugge, Belgium, had two distinct complexes of
buildings at it center
 Town hall and castle formed an enclosed square
 Next to this was the wasserho.lle, so named because the
building straddled a canal where goods could be directly
brought directly in from barges
 On adjacent edge of marketplace was the great ball that
served as meeting spot for merchant class
The medieval city
 The major functions of the medieval city are
depicted in five symbols
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The cathedral
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Usually the town’s crowning glory
Symbol of the important role of the church
Often close to the marketplace and town ball,
indicating close ties between religion, commerce,
and politics
Church was often prevailing political force
The medieval city
 Problems created for contemporary urban life
by medieval city morphology and landscape
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Streets were narrow, wandering lanes, rarely
more than 15 feet wide
Today, in 141 German cities, 77 percent of
streets are too narrow for two- way traffic
The medieval city
 Functional zonation of medieval cities differed
from that of modern cities
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Divided into small quarters, or districts, each
containing its own cent that served as its focal
point
Within each district lived people engaged in
similar occupations
The medieval city
 Functional zonation of medieval cities differed from that of
modern cities
 Example of coopers — people who made and repaired
wooden barrels
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Attended the same church, and belonged to the same guild
Church and guildhall were in the small center area of their
district
Surrounding the center were their houses and workshops
Many worked in the first story of their home and lived above the
shop
Apprentices lived above the shop owner
More prestigious groups lived in occupational districts near
the city center
Those involved in noxious activities lived closer to city walls
The medieval city
 Some districts were defined by ethnicity
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Jews were forced to live in their own district in
most medieval cities
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In Frankfurt am Main, they lived on the
Judengasse, a street formed from the dried-up
moat that had run along the old wall to the city
This area was enclosed by walls with only one
guarded gate
The area was not allowed to expand, leading by
1610 to a population of 3,000 people and one of
the densest districts in the city
The Renaissance and baroque periods
 Form and function of the city changed significantly
during the Renaissance (1500 — 1600) and baroque
(1600-1800) periods
 Absolute monarchs arose to preside over a unified
nation-state
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Rising middle class slowly gave up their freedoms to
join with the king in pursuit of economic gain
City size grew rapidly because bureaucracies of
regional power structures came to dominate them
Trade patterns expanded with the beginning of
European imperial conquest
City planning and military technology acted to remold
and constrain the physical form of the city
The Renaissance and baroque periods
 A national capital city rose to prominence in
most countries
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Provincial cities were subjected to its tastes
Power was centralized in its precincts
First office buildings were built to house a
growing bureaucracy
Most important, it was restructured to reflect
the power of the central government and
insure control over urban masses
Capitalism in the Renaissance City:
Amsterdam, Netherlands
Capitalism in the Renaissance City:
Amsterdam, Netherlands
 Amsterdam has always been
a commercial city. Situated
where dike crossed the
Amstel, its harbor was easily
accessed from the sea.
Essentially at sea level, its
quays and streets were
flanked by canals.
 It flourished as a trading
center and by the 17th
century, had an extensive
collection of warehouses and
the largest public bank in
northern Europe.
Capitalism in the Renaissance City:
Amsterdam, Netherlands
 As the city prospered, the
walls were expanded and
new canals dug to line
residential streets
designated for a prestigious,
residential neighborhood
with 30 foot (9.1 meter) lots.
 These 17th century merchant
homes are only 20 feet (6.1
meters) wide because
speculators purchased two
30 foot lots and sold them as
three 20 foot lots. The upper
story was used for storage of
goods.
The Renaissance and baroque periods
 Height of baroque planning between 1600
and 1800
 During the 1800s, Napoleon III carried out a
building plan in Paris
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Cobblestone streets carefully paved to prevent
loose ammunition for rioting Parisians
Streets were straightened and widened, and
cul-de-sacs broken down to give army space
to maneuver
Baroque Planning: Paris, France
 Parisians were always
conscious of the beauty of
the Seine and exploited it in
the 16h and 17th centuries
with bridges and
promenades along its banks.
These highlights aside, in
1840 the city remained a
warren of narrow, filthy and
crowded streets.
 But under the direction of
Napoleon III and Baron
Haussman, much of the city
was transformed.
Baroque Planning: Paris, France
 Masses of people were
displaced as boulevards and
avenues, squares and parks,
bazaars and arcades, and
luxurious housing blocks were
installed.
 The 19th century was also an
era of exhibitions where nations
showed off their art and
technology to the world.
 In 1889, Paris displayed
Gustave Eiffel’s tower, the
world’s highest structure,
testament to the age of iron and
steel.
 The photo is taken from Ile de la
Cite, Parish’ original island site
in the Seine River.
Baroque Planning: Paris, France
The Renaissance and baroque periods
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Thousands were displaced as apartment buildings
were demolished
Many ended up in congested working-class sections of
east and north Paris
The east and north sections are still crowded today
 In these developments, we see the coming modern
city
 Washington, D.C., originally designed by a French
planner