CIVILIZATIONS IN
CRISIS, CONFLICT
AND CHANGE
EURASIA CIVILIZATIONS
IN CRISIS: CHINA
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The Problem for the Middle Eastern empires and Qing China
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Internal Political Decline and inability to reform
Western Intrusion economically, socially and politically
1750
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Manchu or Qing China
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Came to power in 1644
Manchu were last nomadic invaders to overrun a sedentary state
Took name of Qing
It appeared that China would recover fully under the Manchus
Western merchants contained at the ports of Macao and Canton.
1850
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Manchu or Qing China
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European military intervention exposed Qing dynasty as weak
Vulnerable to external assault
Internal disruptions swept away the imperial system of China,
Little available to take its place
Foreign forces competed for dominance in the wreckage of China
EURASIA CIVILIZATIONS
IN CRISIS: MIDDLE EAST
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The Problem for the Middle Eastern empires and Qing China
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Internal Political Decline and inability to reform
Western Intrusion economically, socially and politically
1750
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The Muslim States in 1750
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Ottoman Empire seemed on verge of collapse in the 18th century
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Internal independence movements
European encroachments
Political disarray at Constantinople
India, Persia weakening and increasingly under pressure from West
Egypt was part of Ottoman with similar internal, external problems
1850
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Persia changed dynasties but made little progress
The Ottoman Empire recovered from is 18th-century malaise.
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Much of the Middle East was lost
Turkish reformers overthrew the sultanate
Quickly reformulated a new government
Egypt had attempted to break away, reform only to be defeated
OTTOMAN PROBLEMS
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The Ottoman Empire depended on capable sultans
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Economic Decline
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The quality of rulers declined
Internal disintegration was rapid
Factional struggles within the palace common
Corruption of provincial officials paralyzed government.
Competition with European imports hurt
Destroyed the market for Ottoman products
Urban artisans rebelled.
Ottomans increasingly dependent on European goods
External Pressure
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Was severe – European armies modern, powerful
Habsburg Empire and Russia seized territory
Independence movements in the Balkans arose
Distant provinces ignored, threw off Ottoman rule
REFORM AND SURVIVAL
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Britain as savior
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Reforming Sultans
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Britain, France intervene in Crimean War
Prevented Russian access; saved the Ottoman Empire from collapse
Sultan Selim III
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Tried to enact military and administrative changes
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Angered the Janissaries, who overthrew him in 1807.
Sultan Mahmud II
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Janissary conservatism led Sultan to destroy corps in 1826.
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Created a diplomatic corps, westernized remaining military forces
Tanzimat reforms from 1839 to 1876
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Westernization was introduced to other facets of Ottoman society
University education was reorganized
Postal, telegraph systems introduced; newspapers were established
Legal reforms were mandated
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New constitution along Western lines appeared in 1876
Considered the culmination of the reforms.
Artisans suffered from the opening of the empire to Western trade
Women gained little from the reforms
THE CHANGING
OTTOMAN MAP
REPRESSION
AND REVOLT
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Reaction
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The reforms produced a Western-educated elite
Many came to view the sultanate itself as archaic
Increasing Turks see Sultan as anti-modern
Sultan Abdul Hamid reacted by nullifying the new constitution
Imprisoned many of the Western-oriented elite
Young Turks
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Resistance to Abdul Hamid's reactionism led to his overthrow in 1908
Young Turks
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A group of military officers seized the government
Leader was Mustapha Kemal, Enver Pasha
Restored the constitution and promised additional reforms
The sultan was reduced to a powerless religious figurehead
The officers proved no more successful than the sultans
At first, emphasized an Ottoman nationality
Increasingly emphasized a Turkish nationality over all others
Arab portions of empire became increasingly resistant to Turkish rule
Turkey In World War I
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Turkey participated in World War I on the side of the Germans
Initiated the final dissolution of the Ottoman Empire
Allies supported Arabs, Greeks, Armenians and partition
HOW EUROPE VIEWED
THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE
Change of Clothes
Butcher, 1st Class
MEHMET ALI
OF EGYPT
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Mehmet (Muhammad) Ali in Egypt
Albanian Ottoman governor of Egypt
Enabled him to ignore the Ottoman sultan and function independently
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Goals
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Introduce a European style state
Reorganize Egyptian society, modernize Egyptian economy
Train a professional western-style bureaucracy
Build a western style military
Muhammad Ali’s Reforms
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Nationalized all land in Egypt, raised taxes throughout Egypt
Declared trade a state monopoly: established a textile industry
Introduced production of cotton as way to boost state wealth, influence
Boosted wages for workers, farmers enormously
Introduced corvee system on peasants to obtain labor: very unpopular
Built a preliminary industrial base to support his army and navy
Sent promising students to study in Europe and hired European advisors
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Muhammad Ali’s Foreign Policy
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Modern army and navy threatened Ottomans and many European powers
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Muhammad Ali extended his control to Arab Syria, Holy Cities, Sudan
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Ottomans asked him to put down Greek Rebellion in 1820s
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Egypt intervened, which prompted European navies to destroy his fleet, army
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Later war with Ottomans over Syria prompted European intervention again
Later years saw his reforms collapse
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IMAGES OF MUHAMMAD
ALI’S EGYPT
EGYPT
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Muhammad Ali’s Khedive successors
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Muhammad Ali's successors continued his general plans with disastrous results
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By the middle of the 19th century
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Cotton production expanded at the expense of food products.
As a single export commodity, cotton vulnerable to price, demand swings in world market
Educational reforms were limited to the elite
The general population barely profited from the reforms.
Khedives were heavily in debt to European creditors
Europeans were attracted to Egyptian cotton and the plan to construct the Suez Canal
Islamic intellectuals met in Egypt to discuss means of expelling the European threat
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Some argued for strict Islamic religious observance
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Others for greater Westernization in science and technology
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The two groups were unable to reconcile their different approaches.
Building the Suez Canal
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Ferdinand de Lessups
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French engineer convinced Khedive to build canal linking Mediterranean, Red Seas
Modern technology made it possible
Opened 1869 to much acclaim
Khedives squandered wealth from canal, increasingly in debt to westerners
French and British investors
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Held the majority of shares in the Suez Canal
Urged their governments to intervene directly in Egypt
An Egyptian army rebellion under Ahmad Orabi
British send military units to Egypt in 1882
Thereafter the administration of Egypt was in the hands of British consuls.
THE SUEZ CANAL
THE SUDAN
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Egypt and the Sudan
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Resistance and Revolt
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Resistance to Egyptian and British influence was focused by Muhammad Achmad
He was head of a Sufi brotherhood in the Sudan
Took title of Mahdi, claimed descent from Muhammad, declared a jihad
He offered to purge Islam of foreign influences and restore purity
Military forces of the Mahdi enjoyed military success against Egyptians
His role as leader of the Sudan insurgence was taken by Khalifa Abdallahi
British Respond
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Egyptian forces long engaged in attempts to extend control down the Nile River
The khedives enjoyed little success
Their control was limited to towns such as Khartoum
Attempts in the 1870s to eliminate the slave trade added to discontent
British expeditionary force defeated the Mahdist army in 1898
The British thus extended their power along the Nile
Much Islamic territory passed under control of Western forces during 19th century
Neither reformers and religious revolutionaries were able to slow the process
Could not halt it entirely
Islamic civilization became increasingly anxious over its fate
CHARGE OF THE
DERVISHES AT OMDURMAN
THE MANCHUS
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Nurhaci
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1644
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Local Chinese official invited the Manchus within the Great Wall
Nomads advanced, captured the Beijing in 1644
The Manchus were able to establish a new dynasty
The Qing
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Able to unite the Manchu nomads
Created eight banner armies
Introduced Chinese administrative reforms into government
Called his dynasty Qing
The Qing incorporated much of former Ming including scholar-gentry
Direct role appointment of local officials
Ethnic Chinese continued to be admitted into imperial government
Manchus, unlike Mongols, retained civil-service examination system.
The Qing Sons of Heaven
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The first Qing rulers were models of Confucianism
Generous patrons of the arts
Kangxi was both a patron and a scholar
MANCHU SOCIETY
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Manchus preserved the Confucian social hierarchy
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Gender
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Wives chosen from one social rank lower than husbands
Women subject to patriarchal authority in home
They might gain some control over household activities
Female infanticide seems to have increased
The Peasants
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Neo-Confucianism was the predominant philosophy
5 Relationships emphasized in education, imperial edicts
Family remained at the core of society
Secret societies and innovation viewed with suspicion
Qing attempted to relieve distress among peasantry
Initially lowered taxes and labor demands
10% of imperial budget went to maintaining infrastructure
Population pressures made their efforts virtually useless
Value of labor fell
Rural landlords gained stranglehold over rural economy
Commerce and the City
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Commercial, urban expansion continued under the Qing
Profits from exports produced new group of merchants
Called compradors, they specialized in silk exports
Also worked in Canton with foreigners as middlemen
QING CHINA:
CANTON TRADE
BREAKDOWN,
DISSINTEGRATION
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By the late 18th century
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Corruption riddled civil-service
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Wealthy families
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Used bureaucracy as means of establishing local authority.
Revenues diverted from state to enrich bureaucrats
Spending on military, public works projects declined
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Cheating common on the civil service exam
Rise of uneducated bureaucrats hurt government
Posts became hereditary or available for purchase
Decline in competency of the military
Floods wiped out some of most productive farmland
Food shortages produced peasant migrations
Rise of banditry and homeless populations
Problems were of such scale that the normal cycle of
dynastic decline and replacement was threatened.
OPIUM WAR
OPIUM WAR AND AFTER
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The Westerners are Coming, the Westerners are Coming!
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A new type of barbarian, the Europeans, threatened China
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In the 1830s
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Emperor appointed Lin Zexu to stamp out opium trade
Lin blockaded Canton and confiscated European opium supplies.
British merchants demanded their government intervene to protect profits
In 1839
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British plan to export opium from India to China
Wanted to improve their balance of trade (stop loss of silver)
Qing recognized threat to its economy and its society
British routed the Chinese junks in the first stages of the Opium War.
British sent a military force ashore, the Qing emperor sued for peace.
British obtain Hong Kong
Forced China to open ports to trade , recognize extraterritoriality of foreigners
By the 1890s
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90 Chinese ports open to European, Japanese, American merchants
Britain, France, Germany, Russia leased certain ports, hinterlands
Trade passed increasingly into the hands of the non-Chinese
Qing court was forced to accept European diplomats.
PARTITIONING CHINA
AND THE BOXER REBELLION
FAILED REFORMS
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Defeat by the British helped to set off series of rebellions against the Qing
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The Taiping Rebellion: 1850s and 1860s
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Self-Strengthening Movement
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French in Indo-China 1885 and British in the Arrow War 1860s
Sino-Japanese War in 1895
The Dowager Empress Cixi
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Manchus continued to obstruct almost all programs of reform
Defeats by Europeans and Japanese continue
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Provincial leaders began to carry out much needed reforms
Built railways and factories, modernized military
Resources moved from the central court to the provinces
Qing Reaction
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A semi-Christian movement under a prophetic leader, who wanted
Land redistribution and the liberation of women
End to influence of the Confucian scholar-gentry
Provincial forces finally defeated rebellion; more than 50 million dead in civil war
Cixi assumed regency for her son, grandson – refused all attempts at reform
Supported Boxer Rebellion as means of ousting foreign influence.
Boxer Rebellion
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Society of Righteous and Harmonious Firsts
Anti-modernization, anti-westernization forces in country side
Attacked western built technology , missionaries, diplomats in Beijing
Europeans, US, Japanese intervene to rescue diplomats
Forced China to accept Western control and intervention in their society, politics
TREATY PORTS AND
REBELLIONS IN QING CHINA
LATE QING REBELLIONS
FALL OF THE QING
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Resistance
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Resistance to the Qing centered in secret societies
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Goals
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Western educated doctor became a leader of China after 1911 Revolution
Sought to build a Chinese nation-state on a western model
Favored wide-spread social reforms especially for peasants and workers
1911 Revolution
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Drew on Western ideas for a reformed government
Wanted to restore Chinese territorial integrity, expel foreigners from their
soil
Sun Yat Sen
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Sponsored local uprisings against the central government
Western-educated compradors and some scholar-gentry involved
Widespread uprisings throughout China by the secret societies
Could not be put down by provincial officials
Military often joined rebellion in open mutiny
In 1912, the last Qing emperor, Puyi, a boy of 12, abdicated
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Prior to abdication Qing had abandoned Confucian examination system
Abandonment of examinations signaled end of patterns in China
IMAGINING THE 1911
REVOLUTION
GLOBAL CONNECTIONS
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Muslims
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China
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Long accustomed to the military threat posed by the West.
Could justify some borrowing from West on basis of a shared JudeoChristian , Greek heritage
More politically fragmented than Chinese but Muslims had time to
learn from early mistakes.
Muslims could always fall back on religious faith as a last resort.
West's military dominance came as a rude surprise.
China had remained intentionally culturally isolated from the West.
They regarded Western culture as barbaric.
Chinese equated survival of civilization with maintenance of the Qing
When the dynasty collapsed, Chinese civilization was destroyed.
Chinese had no great religious tradition to counter European belief in
its inherent superiority.
Versus Other Lands
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China and the Ottoman Muslim lands differed from Africa
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Differed from Latin America
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They were only partially colonized
Often able to maintain independence and seek own internal reforms
Which had deeper ties to the West
Attempted economic modernization, westernization
Differed from Russia and Japan
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Which industrialized and which maintained independence
Both also partially westernized
WHAT IS IT?
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TAIPING REBELLION
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TANZIMAT REFORMS
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SUEZ CANAL
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OPIUM WARS
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SELF-STRENGTHENING MOVEMENT
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BOXER REBELLION
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EXTRATERRITORIALITY
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TREATY PORTS
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OPEN DOOR POLICY
WHO ARE THEY?
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YOUNG TURKS
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MUHAMMAD ALI (MEHMET ALI)
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KHEDIVES
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AL AFGHANI
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THE MADHI
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NURHACI
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MANCHUS/QING
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COMPRADORS
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COMMISSIONER LIN
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HONG XIUGUAN
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SUN YAT SEN