Anatomy & Physiology 34B
Study Recommendations for Lecture Exam #4
The fourth lecture exam will include mostly physiological topics from the lecture notes on
Chapters 24-26, and related textbook materials. You will need one #882 Scantron and a #2
pencil with eraser. Refer to your lecture notes and textbook as you use this study guide.
Chapter 24 – Nutrition & Metabolism
- Why do we need to eat food?
- How does the hypothalamus regulate the appetite?
- What is obesity? How is one’s Body Mass Index calculated? What are the dangers of obesity?
- What is a calorie? What is a kilocalorie (Calorie)?
- What are nutrients? Which nutrients contain Calories, and which do not?
- Compare macronutrients, micronutrients, and essential nutrients.
- How much energy do carbohydrates supply per gram?
- What are monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides?
- Where are carbohydrates found in the body, and how are they used?
- What is the normal blood glucose range? Higher than normal is? Lower than normal?
- What percent of the daily caloric intake should be from carbohydrates?
- What are the two main types of dietary fiber? In what types of food are each found? Which
type reduces cholesterol and LDL levels? Why is fiber important in the diet?
- How much energy do lipids provide per gram?
- What are lipids needed for in the body?
- What percent of the daily dietary intake should be from lipids? From saturated fats? From
unsaturated fats?
- What types of foods contain saturated fats? Cholesterol? Unsaturated fats? Which of these are
healthier fats? Which can be converted into cholesterol by the liver?
- What are the 4 major types of lipoproteins in the body? Which are considered to be good to
have in higher concentrations, and which are bad in high concentrations, and why?
- What is considered to be a healthy cholesterol level? What can be done to lower blood
cholesterol levels?
- How much energy do proteins provide per gram?
- What are the functions of proteins in the body?
- What are essential amino acids? Complete proteins? Incomplete proteins? Can a vegetarian
diet provide all of the essential amino acids? How can this be done?
- Do animal proteins or plant proteins have a greater net protein utilization by the body?
- What is dangerous about a long-term high protein diet?
- What conditions lead to positive and negative nitrogen balances in the body?
- What major minerals are important in the body? What are they needed for? What foods
contain them? Why is excessive sodium in the diet unhealthy?
- Which vitamins are water soluble? Which are fat soluble? What foods contain the different
vitamins? What are vitamins used for in the body? What are some problems of vitamin
deficiency? Can excess vitamins be harmful?
- What are the three major pathways of glucose catabolism?
- What are the beginning reactants and end products of glycolysis? Where in a cell does it
occur? What is the net number of ATP produced?
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- What is the main reason for anaerobic fermentation if oxygen is not present after glycolysis?
- In what organelle does aerobic respiration occur?
- What are the beginning reactants and end products of the citric acid cycle? How much ATP is
produced?
- What role do NADH and FADH2 play in the electron transport chain? What is oxygen’s role?
How much ATP is produced? What enzyme is responsible for ATP synthesis in oxidative
phosphorylation?
- How do glycogenesis, glycogenolysis, and gluconeogenesis differ?
- What are lipogenesis and lipolysis? How much ATP can be generated from one fatty acid?
- What is produced during incomplete fatty acid oxidation? What dangerous condition can
result?
- What are amino acids used for in the body? What is deamination? What is the most abundant
nitrogenous waste product formed during amino acid catabolism?
- Describe the events of the absorptive state and postabsorptive state.
- What is the metabolic rate and basal metabolic rate?
Chapter 25 – Urinary System
- What are the major structures and functions of the urinary system?
- Trace the route of blood flow through the kidneys, from the renal artery to the renal vein.
- What is the functional unit of the kidney? Of what two major structures is it composed?
- What is the renal corpuscle composed of? What process occurs in the corpuscle?
- What are the three main parts of the renal tubule? What occurs in each of the parts?
- Trace the route of plasma from the Bowman’s capsule to the urethra
-What are the layers that form the walls of the urinary tract? What specialized tissue lines the
ureters and bladder?
- Why are women more prone to cystitis than men? How does the male and female urethra
differ?
- What are the three major steps in urine formation? Where does each occur?
- What products are filtered out of the plasma in the glomerulus? What blood products are not
filtered out? How is the glomerulus specialized for filtration?
- What force moves the filtrate out of the glomerulus into the Bowman’s capsule?
- What is the glomerular filtration rate (GFR)? What is an average GFR? How is the GFR
regulated?
- What is the juxtaglomerular apparatus? How do the JG cells and macula densa work together
to control blood pressure coming into the glomerulus?
- What is the renin-angiotensin mechanism? What organs and hormones are involved?
- Where does the majority of reabsorption of needed products occur? What products are
reabsorbed? How are they reabsorbed?
- What products are secreted into the renal tubule from the peritubular capillaries?
- What processes occur in the descending and ascending segments of the loop of Henle?
- What processes occur in the distal convoluted tubule and collecting duct? What types of cells
and hormones are involved?
- Why is urine a useful product to analyze in a patient? (What products should and should not be
present in the urine of a healthy person?)
- How do diabetes mellitus and diabetes insipidus differ? Compare and contrast type I and type
II diabetes.
- What are diuretics? What are diuretic drugs used for?
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- What is renal clearance? How is it calculated?
- What is micturation? How does it occur?
Chapter 26 – Water, Electrolyte, and Acid-base Balance
- How is water compartmentalized in the body? In what structures is the majority of water
found?
- How does water move from one compartment to another?
- What is meant by water balance? How is water gained and lost in the body?
- How are water intake and output regulated? List the hormones involved and describe the
function of each hormone.
- How do hypovolemia and dehydration differ? What are the causes for each condition?
- How do volume excess and hypotonic hydration differ?
- Why are electrolytes needed in the body?
- Where is the majority of sodium found? What are the functions of sodium? How is sodium
homeostasis maintained? What happens in imbalances of sodium?
- Where is the majority of potassium located? How is potassium homeostasis maintained? What
happens in potassium imbalances?
- Where is the majority of chloride located? What are its functions? What happens in chloride
imbalances?
- Where is the majority of calcium located? What are its functions? What hormones regulate
calcium homeostasis? What happens in calcium imbalances?
- Where is the majority of phosphate located? What are its functions? How are phosphate levels
regulated?
- What is the normal pH range in the ECF?
- How do strong acids and weak acids differ in function?
- How do strong bases and weak bases differ functionally?
- What is a buffer? Describe 3 chemical buffers in the body. Which one provides the majority of
chemical buffering? Describe 2 physiological buffers. Which one is the most predominant?
- Explain how conditions like acidosis and alkalosis can occur.
- Compare compensated and uncompensated acidosis and alkalosis. What is required in cases of
uncompensated acidosis or alkalosis?
- Is there any relationship between water, electrolytes, and acid-base balances in the body?