GRAVE FOR RESEARCH STUDIES
Generalizability
The Gist: Can we apply the findings of research to the general population?
If a sample of participants is biased in some way (gender, age, background, experience, etc) the
findings of research may be limited to that type of individual rather than everyone.
Case studies do lack generalizability because the findings are limited to a unique individual, and
may not apply to everyone.
Animal studies can be criticized for lacking generalizability because human and animal behaviour
differs quite a lot. However, the nervous systems of humans and animals are similar (neural
transmission) so biological research may be generalizable on these grounds.
Reliability
The Gist: Are the findings of research consistent? Is the research procedure consistent?
A study is typically consistent if the procedure is standardised and/or highly controlled. In this
sense the laboratory experiment is considered highly reliable.
Observations are likely to involve more than one observer/rater. If more than one researcher is
rating the observed material and they agree on the findings, this is called inter-rater reliability as
the results are less subjective (one persons individual view) and more likely to be objective.
The case study will lack reliability because the procedures used on the individual are designed
specifically to investigate the individual and may not be appropriate for others.
Application/usefulness
The Gist: Are the findings of research any use to society, industry, legal process, education, the
family etc? Have they been used to improve the quality of human or animal life?
When you describe an application, make sure it is thorough i.e. how has it been used/why is it
useful? Is the study findings for basic research or applied research?
Validity
The Gist: Is the research measuring what it intended to measure?
There are many types of validity:
 Ecological validity – If the research is conducted in an artificial environment or a situation
that would not naturally occur, it is said to lack ecological validity. This means that the
findings may not reveal anything useful about real life behaviour.
 Internal validity – refers to the operationalization of the variables. If a researcher intend to
measure aggression in a playground, and chose to measure pushing as an aggressive act,
they might actually be measuring a game rather than aggression.
Demand characteristics are when the participant acts up to the demands of the situation – this is
most likely in laboratory experiments or when the participants are fully informed. This would
threaten the validity of a study because it would measure false behaviour.
In questionnaires, social desirability may threaten validity as participants respond in an
accepted/desirable manner rather than tell the truth.
Case studies, may be one-off examples, but can be valid because many research methods are
used within the case study to ensure the findings can be cross checked – this is known as
triangulation.
Ethics
The Gist: Is the study OK to do?
 Informed consent
 Deception
 Debriefing
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Right to withdraw
Confidentiality
Protection of participants