CALIFORNIA S'I'A'l'E UNIVERSI'l'Y 1 NORTHRIDGE
TEACHING UNIT:
ENVIRONHENT2\J.. HEALTH
II
AND 1\.IR POLLUTION
LEVEL:·
JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL
A Graduate Project submitted in partial fulfillwe:;.t
of the requirements for the degree of Master of Se:i.E~nce in
Hec~l th
Science
by
Henry James Rollins
June 1974
The Graduate Project of.Hel1ry,,,:rarnes-Rollins is
approved by:
California State
Uni~ersity,
Northridge
June 1974
I
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I
'" ,_,____ ,,,,,.,,,,,,,.• --·-·--- ,., .... , .............. ·--- ---- .. ----·-· " ...... ""''' .... _________ _j
ii
"The nineteen-seventies absolutely must be
the years when fu~erica pays its debt to
the past by reclaiming the purity of its
air, its waters and our living environment.
It is literally now or never."
Richard M. Nixon, January 1, 1970
iii
'I'ABLE OF CONTEN'I'S
Pag·.~
I.IS'I' OF' TABLES •
vi.
.LIST OF FIGURES
vii
Chap-ter
I.
CO!~CEP'I'S v
OBJECTIVES AND RELNL'ED :t-1lir1'ERIAL •
1
II.
PICTURES,
INCSUDING CAPTIONS
3
III.
IV.
...
'
"'
SUGGESTIONS FOR TEACHERS ON USING SLIDES
BACKGROUND
28
30
MA'rERII~L
30
Introduction
Natural Sources of Air Pollution
Man-made Sources of 1\ir Pollution
34
Transportation Sources
34
Stationary S6urces
38
Radioactive lo;'astes
45
Biological Poisons
45
Lead
45
Air Pollution and Ih.unan Health
46
Particulate Matter
46
Gases .
51
Disease Associated with Air Pollution
55
Effect of Radioactivity on Human Life
57
Presticid.es
59
Lead
59
Air Pollution and the Environment .
60
Summary .
62
iv
·
Page
Chapter
v.
VI.
6
REFERENCES
1:
·.;;
PHOTO CREDITS
70
v
I.IS'l' OF TABLES
Table
Page
.....
1
Composition of the Earth's Atmosphere.
2.
Amounts of Air Pollution in the United
States - 1966
o
o
•
o
•
o
•
vi
..
•.
"
32
39
o
LIS'r OF FIGURES
Page
Figure
1.
Inversion Layer . .
35
2.
Comparison of Emissions from Motor Vehicles
and Emissions from Stationary Sources
37
3.
Projected Fine Partiule Emissions from
Coal-fired Utility Boilers
...
41
4.
Carbon Monoxide:
Number of Days Per Year
Levels Equaled or Exceeded in L.A. Basin. .
42
Oxides of Nitrogen:
Number of Days Per
Year N0 2 and NO~ Equaled or Exceeded
Various Levels ln the L.A. Basin . .
43
Ozone:
Number of Days Per Year With Highest
Concentration Equal To or Greater Than
J.Jevels Shown in the L.A. Basin
44
7.
Clearing Mechanisms of the Human Lungs
for Particulates
. . .
. . . .
47
8.
Deposition of Partie] es Re,tai.ned by the
Human Body
. . . .
. . .
48
9.
Sizes of Particles in Microns
50
Effects of Radioactivity on Man
58
5.
6.
10.
vii
CHAPTER
CONCEPTS, OBJECTIVES lmD
.L
~.ELATED
HATERIALS
The concept. which follows is t.he main idea that
:students .should develop about ai:c pollution crnO. health after
participating in the unit.
The :mat.erial in the unit
:designed to empba.size the major concept.
Behavioral obj ectivcs serve as a guide for t.he
evaluation of t.he student 1 s achievement of the :main concept.
l:.
.
. ..:J'
.
- OJ]ectlves
h
•Be.avloral
1nu~cate
and the
cognit~ve
+-'
~ne
content to b.e covere d
behavior sought in the student.
Air pollution can be detrimental to man's health.
CONCEP'I':
.BEHAVIORAL OBJEC'riVES
A.
After vievving Uw slides, the st.udents \vill be
able to dis·tingui.sh l::an-made versus na·tural
forms of air pollu·ti.on.
a)
definition of a.ir pollution
b)
natural forms of air pollution
c)
B.
_major sources of man-made pollution
1.
transportation
2.
stationary sources
After viewing the slides, the student will be
able to swnmarize the adverse physiological
effects of air pollution to man.
a)
overview of pollution related respiratory
diseases
b)
effects on human heart and circulatory
system.
__.... _..... " ......... g)_ --~ye irritation
1
2
c.
D.
i
..
···-
- --------. ·-·- --·-.
After viewing the slides, the student will be
able to identify major air pollutants.
a)
sulfur compounds
b)
carbon compounds
c)
nitrogen compounds
d)
ozone
e)
lead
f)
radioactivity
After viewing the slides, the student will be
able to describe the dangers of air pollution
to man's environment and its effec·t on his
well-being.
a.)
effects on animals
b)
effects on plants
c)
effects on materials (economic effects)
t-~------·· -~~ .__,_- ··--.. ~-~~"'-·--·· ---··---- ~------~--------~·-·--···--·~---~------------------·--~-----~---·--··-- ----------~--- ·- .... ~~-------~--------···-····-- ···-·'
CHAPTER II
PICTURES, INCLUDING CAPTIONS
1. This is Our Planet Earth from 98,000 Nautical Miles in
Space with Clouds Clearly Visible in its Thin Envelope of
Air. Of All the Materials Taken In By Your Body, Approximately 8 Percent is Food, 12 Percent is Water and 80 Percen~
is Air. You Can Live Without Food About 3 Months, Without
jwater a Few Days, But You Could Only Survive a Few Minutes
lWithout Air.
3
4
2. Webster's Dictionary Defines Air As "The Mixture of
Invisible, Odorless, Tasteless Gases That Surrounds the
arth." When Wa s the Last Time You Can Remember That the
ir You Were Breathing Fulfilled That Definition?
3. Our Air is Composed of About 21 Percent Oxygen, 78
Percent Nitrogen and 1 Percent Other Gases. A Portion of
that 1 Percent is Put There by Man. Some of the Gases Added
to the Atmosphere Can Be Harmful to Both Plant and Animal
ife.
5
4 . Natural Forms of Air Pollution Have Existed Since the
Beginning of the Earth. Volcanoes Spew Forth Assorted
Gases and Particles in the Air.
5. Forest Fires Are a Source of Carbon Dioxide, Carbon
Monoxide and Particulates Like Smoke.
6
6 . Dust Storms Across the Desert Stir Up Many Particles
and Put Them Into the Air. You May Have Seen "Dust Devils,'
Small Whirlpools of Air, Draw Dust and Paper Upward.
,~
7. If You Know Someone Who Has Hayfever, Ask Them About th
Effect of Another One of Nature's Pollutants -Pollen.
7
-------------
8. Nature Has Many Different Ways of Polluting the Air.
Before Man Began to Form Great Cities, Build Large Industries and Drive the "Horseless" Carriage, Nature Was Able
to Scatter Her Pollutants Over Large Areas and Dilute Them.
9. When Cabrillo Sailed Into What Was to Become LosAngeles,
He Noticed the Invisible Ceiling that Nature Put Over Some
Areas, the Smoke from the Indian's Fires Rose Straight Up
But Leveled Off, Going No Higher. This Strange Occurrence
Was Later to be Called By Scientists, An Inversion Layer.
8
10. The Adiabatic Line Shows How Temperatures Normally
Decrease the Higher One Goes Above the Ground. This Allows
for the Dispersal of Gases By the Winds Into the Air. When
High Pressure Cells Move In Over An Area, Like Los Angeles,
the Air Drops Toward the Ground. As It Drops, the Air
Becomes Warm, Changing the Normal Pattern of Low Temperatures Above the Ground. The Lower This Subsidence Inversio
Layer Is, the Smaller the Area for Pollutants to Mix Since
They Will Not Pass. Through the Layer.
- - - - - - - - - - ·.--- - - - - - - - - - .
WARM AIR
""".,.
;..·
•: ~ t.
·~-
;;I • .
~
.
11. Another Type of Inversion Layer is Created At Night,
the Ground Cools the Air Surrounding It, Leaving Warmer
Air Above. This Inversion Layer Also Keeps Air Pollutants
From Dispersing.
9
The World's Number One Polluter is Man- You and I.
here Are Over 90 Million Automobiles in the United States.
he Internal Combustion Engine Which Powers Most Cars
nstitutes the Largest Source of Carbon Monoxide, Hydroarbons, and Nitrogen Oxides To Our Air. All of These Are
otentially Harmful to Your Health.
,r
Burning of Fossil Fuels Such As Coal and Oil is the
gest Source of Sulfur Oxides and Particulate Matter in
Atmosphere.
10
The Sun's Energy Changes Some Pollutants Into Dif eren
orms. These Are Called Photochemical Pollutants. Nitroge
ioxides and Ozones Are Good Examples of this Class of
Irritating Gas. c Sometimes One is Able to Identify an Air
Pollutant By Its Color. Usually, Nitrogen Dioxides Are
llowish Brown, While Sulfur Dioxide, Ozone and Carbon
oxide Are Colorless. Particulate Matter is Usually
sponsible for the Color of Smoke. Perhaps a More Important Effect of Particulate Matter in the Atmosphere Is To
Cut Down Visibility.
15. The Following Slides Include a Summary of the Major
Pollutants With Which We Will Be Dealing. Carbon Monoxide
and Hydrocarbons Are Two Groups of Carbon Compounds. We
Usually Don't Think of Carbon Dioxide As An Air Pollutant
Since It Is Present In Unpolluted Air. Their Primary Sourc
_Is Automobiles.
!
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11
16.
Nitrogen Dioxides and Ozone Are Photochemical Pollutan s.
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17. Sulfur Oxides Are Formed From the Burning of Fossil
Fuels.
12
18. Particulate Matter, For Example Carbon Particles In
Smoke, Comes In Different Sizes. The Smaller the Particles
the Longer They Will Remain in the Air and the Further They
ill Be Dispersed. Tiny Particles Are Taken Deep Into 'the
Lungs Where the Body Is Less Able to Remove Them. These
Small Particles May Carry Additional Poisons Into the Body.
19. Lastly, There Are Two Major Air Pollutants Which We
Haven't Mentioned. Both Are Potentially Dangerous To Human
Life. The First Is Radiation Which Is Produced By Atomic
Fission Such As In An Atomic Bomb Explosion.
13
20. The Other Is Pesticides, Chemicals Designed To Protect
Our Food Supply But Possibly . Damaging Human and Animal Life
in the P
21. The Potential Danger of Air Pollution to Human Life
Can Best Be Seen in Past Disasters Involving Air Pollution.
In 1930, the Highly Industrialized Meuse Valley of Belgium
Was Covered by a Temperature Inversion Which Led To a High
Concentration of Atmospheric Pollutants. Irritation of the
Lungs and Throat Were Experienced by Residents of the Area.
The Elderly and Persons With Respiratory and Heart Diseases
Were Most Affected.
Six Thousand People Became Ill and
Sixty Died During a Four - Day Period. The Year 1948 Saw a
Fog Cover Donora, Pennsylvania. Many of the Citizens
Experienced Respiratory Irritation and Other Assorted
Illnesses. The Death Rate Rose That Year.
London Was
Covered for Four Da ys By a Fog in 1952. Statistics Revealed
Later That Over Three Thousand Deaths Occurred During a
Seven Day Period . London Suffered Another Major Attack of
Air Pollution in 1962.
14
22. New York Suffered Similar Problems in 1953 and 1962.
Here Again, the Peo ple Hardest Hit Were Those With Respiratory Diseases and Elderly Persons.
23. Air Pollution Can Be Responsible For Many of the Minor
Irritations Suffered by Persons Living in Polluted Air.
Perha ps You Have Experienced Some of These Same Symptoms
Without Apparent Cause.
15
24. This is the Lung From What Might Be Called Mr. Typical
Nonsmoker, City Dweller. The Dark Spots in the Lung Are
From Air Pollution Breathed In During the Person's Lifetime
Contrast This With the Lu ng on the Following Slide From a
Person Who Died of Lung Cancer.
25. Lung Cancer Rates Have Risen During the Past Thirty
Years. Although the Rate is Much Higher for Smokers Than
Nonsmokers, People That Live in the City Are More Likely to
Get This Disease Than Their Country Friends. The Whitish
Area Is Cancer. This Lung Also Shows Darkening From
Emphysema.
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26. This is a Close-up View of Cancer That Developed in
the Bronchial Tube That Leads Into the Lungs. The White,
Cone-shaped Tissue Is the Cancer. Usually a Cancer Like
This Goes Unnoticed Until It Is So Big That It Begins to
ause Pain. By This Time, It Would Have Spread To Other
arts of the Body. Approximately One Out of Every Twenty
Persons Identified As Having The Disease Is Cured.
NORMAL
LUNG
27. Normally Tiny Air Sacs in the Lung, Called Alveoli
eceive Air From the Respiratory System's Airways.
It Is
rom These Air Sacs That Oxygen Passes Into the Blood In
xchange For Carbon Dioxide. These Alveoli Are the Main
oints of Entry for Air Pollutants Into the Body.
17
r
28. Notice the Very Small Air Sacs and Coloring of This
Normal Lung.
',
29.
In Emphysema, the Air Sacs Break Down. Notice the
Large Appearing Holes Which Were At One Time Like the Tiny
Air Sacs in the Lung Just Viewed.
18
30. Large Air Sacs Cannot Exchange Gases Properly. The
Lung Loses Its Elasticity and the Person With Emphysema
Finds It Very Difficult to Breathe.
31. Other Respiratory Disease Associated With Air Pollution
Are Chronic Bronchitis and Bronchial Asthma Which Causes
Extra Effort in Breathing. All of These Conditions Become
More Severe in High Pollution Areas.
19
32. Radiation Destroys Living Cells. Broken Carriers of
Heredity May Pass On Harmful Information to Other Cells Whe
Dividing. Excessive Radiation Exposure Could Corne From
Fallout of an Atomic Bomb. Atomic Wastes From Nuclear Powe
Plants Are Also a Potential Hazard. Research for Better
Controls is Now Being Conducted.
33. Pesticides, Which Are Used to Kill Insect Pests and
eeds, Find Their Way Back to Man Either Directly Through
the Air or Through His Food. Studies Have Shown That Pesti
cides Are Spread by High Winds Above the Surface of the
Earth. Man~s Food Supply May Become Contaminated by These
Poisons. Thousands of Small Organisms at the Beginning of
This Food Chain May Take in Small Amounts of a Poison. As
These Organisms Are Eaten By Larger Creatures, the Poisons
May Become More Concentrated. Man, at the End of the Food
Chain, Could Get ..a Harmful Dose.
\' I
20
34. Air Pollutants Corrode, Tarnish, Crack, Weaken and
Discolor Many Materials in Our Environment. Ozone Attacks
ubber and Causes It To Crack.
It Also Damages Cloth and
Discolors_nva..
- -1 -
35. Plants and Animals Are Involved in- an Intricate "Carbo i11
p ioxide-oxygen" cycle in Which Plants Use Carbon Dioxide and
~ roduce Oxygen.
Animals Use Oxygen and Produce Carbon
Dioxide. As We Destroy More Plants By Cutting Them Down
~nd Poisoning Them, We Are Po.t entially Destroying This Cycle.
~ s Yet, There Is No Noticeable Change in the Amount of Oxyge'
On Earth.
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21
36. Ozone in the Air Prevents Certain Sensitive Pine Trees
From Making Food By Use of the Sun's Energy. Pines Above
Los Angeles Are Dying Out by the Acre Because of Ozone in
the Air.
I
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37. The Southern California Area Used To Be An Important
Producer of Spinach Until Air Pollutants Rose To Levels
Which Destroy the Plant.
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22
38. Sulfur Dioxide in the Presence of Moist Air Turns Into
Sulfuric Acid. This Is What Happens When a Plant Is
Subjected To Sulfuric Acid in the Air.
It Also Attacks
Stone Statues and Other Materials in our Environment.
---
I
39. As More Plants Are Destroyed and As More Fossil Fuels
Are Combusted, the Carbon Dioxide Level Will Rise Since It
Cannot Be Recycled Back Into Oxygen. As More and More
Carbon Dioxide Remains in the Atmosphere, It Prevents Heat
Waves From Leaving the Earth. This Is Called the Greenhouse
Effect.
If Not Counterbalanced, the Temperature of the Earth
Would Rise, Causing the Ice Caps to Melt and Mass Flooding.
I
23
40. Particles in the Atmosphere Reflect Sunlight Away From
he Earth. Thus, Less Sunlight Will Reach the Earth. This
Fould Cause a Lowering of the Earth's Temperature, Returning
Us To An Ice Age.
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41. The Rather Bleak Picture of Air Pollution Is Beginning
o Become Brighter. Man Is Rallying With Extensive Research
n All Areas of Pollution Prevention. Newer and Better
ontrol Methods Are Being Devised.
24
42. The Automobile Is Slowly Being Cleansed of its
Dangerous Pollutants. Devices Such As Catalytic Convertors
Are Being Inve s tigated To Help Make Our Air Less Polluted.
43. Faster and Larger Mass Transportation Systems Being
Built Will Help Lessen the Burden of Air Pollution.
25
II
44. As the Energy Crises Become More Severe, We May Reach
a Crossroads of Decision-making. Should We Lower Our
Pollutant Control Standards To Conserve Energy Or Will We
Find Other Methods To Save Energy Which Will Not Dirty
the Air?
·'
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45. Science Continues Its Attempts To Keep the Air Clean.
Here, An Activated Carbon Filter is Used to Pull Pollutants
Out of the Air.
-------~
26
46. Better Methods of Cleaning the Air Are Being Discovered
Every Day. Newer Forms of Clean Energy Sources Are Being
Sought. Here a Spray Tower Is Used To Clean the Gas Passing
Through It.
·'
47. Perhaps in the Near Future, Pollution Control and the
Clean Air It Brings Will Once Again Allow Us To Breathe
Air Which Is Not Hazardous To Our Health. This Cooling
Tower Is Another Example of How Industry is Attempting to
Control Pollution. The Cooling Tower Will Prevent What
Has Been Called Thermal Pollution.
27
48. Together, We Should Be Able to Live in a Land Where
the Air More Closely Resembles Webster's Dictionary
Definition of "Invisible, Odorless, and Tasteless Gases,"
Where Man Has Wo~ked to Clean Up His Envir~nment, Where
the United States Has Again Become -America, the Beautiful
CHAPTER III
SUGGESTIONS FOR TEACHERS AND USING SLIDES
;
:'
There is probably no one best way to teach with
:slides.
The presen·tat.ion may vary according ·t:o the purposes
~f the instructor and the situation under which the slides
are used.
To achieve maximum value from the slide present.a-
'
tion, the following suggestions are being presented.
A.
Prepare
~~£
(1) Note organization of content.
(2) Consult study guide for background information.
(3)
Decide methods to call attention to key
words during class~
{4) List several key questions for which the
slides present information.
B.
Help the class develop a readiness for viewing
the slides-.--{1) Devise preliminary questions, perhaps a
pre-post tes·t.
(2) Give a brief overview of the content.
{3) Relate slide presentation to students and
the current field of study.
(4} List major points.
(5) Indicate a follow-up discussion.
C.
Encourage appropriate student participation
durin~ showing.
(1) Have students make up questions.
(2) List major points.
28
29
De
(3)
Prepare study guide sheets.
{4)
•ra:ke notes.
(5)
Answer specific questions.
Follow-up the showing with the appropriate
activities.
{1)
Should be geared to clarifying unclear
points.
(2)
Evaluate the extent to vllhich the original
purposes were achieved.
(3)
Help the student solidify the learning
opportunity through oral discussion and
application.
(a) Have students take post test.
(b) Have students ask each other questions.
(c) Have students write down main points.
(d) Assign additional research.
(e) Read an appropriate section in the
textbook and compare the presentations.
(5)
Reshow all slides or specific portions.
(6)
Have students evaluate slide presentation
and indicate how they would improve it and
suggest how it might be used for future
classes.
~~·· <-·~··
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CHAPTER IV
BACKGROUND INFORMATION FOR 'I'EACHER
1
INTRODUCTION
AIR:
"'rhe mixture of invisible
odorless, tasteless gases that
surrounds the earth."
(46;19)
Will the children of urbanized America know that the
'air arounC. them can be anything other than a smelling,
irritating and damaging cesspool for man's gaseous and
particulate wastes?
Man takes in approximately three pounds of food,
seven and one-half pounds of· vmter and thirty pounds of air
I
'during a single day.
The body's-total intake may be
calcu~
ilated for a single day as being approximately eight percent
:food, twelve percent water and eighty percent air.
Man can
!
!live without water a few days, and without food about three
months, but he cannot continue to survive without air more
:than a few minutes.
;
i
~ir,
He must have a continuous supply of
whether it is clean or not, to survive.
,I
Air is a prime concern to man for his survival on
:earth, a component of our environment more valuable than
I
(food or water.
It has been sugg·ested that the air of many
;cities could not meet the quality standards, feeble as they
'
~are, for food additives. <27 }
Apathy must not be allowed to bring about more air
!pollution disasters (Belgium - 1930, Donora, Pennsylvania '...
--···~··
-···~···~-
~~
·-···"'-
···--·--·
30
31
1948, London - 1952) before concerned citizens of America
and the \¥orld t.ake steps to preserve their health and wellbeing.
This teaching.unit on air pollution was designed to
inform and motivate junior high school students, who have
known no other condition than polluted skies above: about
the dangers of their exposure.
Solutions to the air pollu·-
tion problem may involve personal sacrifice and social
readjustment.
When these students are at the crossroads of
this decision, they need the facts and the concern to seek
solutions beneficial to their health and others sharing
their community.
A discussion of pure and unpure (polluted) air must
begin with a definition on which to build and expand.
Air
pollution has been described as the presence of "foreign"
substances in the air.
It leaves one to define and deter-
mine what is foreign to the air.
pollution in terms of,
11
Turk has discussed air
the addition of unwanted airborne
matter which changes the composition of the earth's atmosphere, possibly bringing harm to life and altering
:
.
materials."
( 45)
In order to develop a practical definition of air
pollution as it concerns man's contribution and his ability·
to control his wastes, pollution will be confined to the
.changing of the cornposi tion of the earth's atmosphere by
man.
Natural air pollution is a result of non-human events,
32
such as dust, volcanoes, pollen dispersal or fores·t fires
ignited by lightning.
TABLE 1
COMPOSITION OF THE ATMOSPHERE
GAS
CONCENT.RATION (PPM)
Nitrogen
Oxygen
Argon
Carbon dioxide
Neon
Helium
Methane
Krypton
Nitrous oxide
Hydrogen
Xenon
Nitrogen dioxide
Ozone
780,900.
209,400.
9,300.
315.
18.
5.2
1.0 to 1.2
1.0
0.5
0.5
0.08
0.02
0.01 to 0.04
The table above lists the concentrations of gases
in the earth's normal dry atmosphere at sea level. <44 >
Most air pollution appears to be a result of man's
conversion of energy to enrich his life.
The first air
pollution could possibly be traced back to the initial use
of fire by early man.
As man started to develop and expand
his technology and urbanization slowly began to take hold,
air pollution problems on a larger scale appeared.
The short life span of early man, his wide dispersal
on our planet and insignificant industrialization left
little possibility for the accumulation of dangerous pollutants and their harmful effects on the population of the
world.
33
,
In modern times, by-products of man's energy con-;·
.
---.~--~
verson coupled with an increase in world population and
their concentration .in urban areas combined to form an
"air pollution 11 problem that could threaten the existence
of mankind.
Modern industrialized man has reached a time
6f decision in which he must control the wastes produced
by his technology to minimize the health risks to himself
and society.
NATURAL SOURCES OF AIR POLLUTION
Natural air pollution has existed since the beginning(of·time.
The earth has supplied the atmosphere with
smok~ and its associated gases from forest fires and volca-
noes.
Volcanic eruptions and wind storms on deserts are
sources of airborne particulate matter.
Hayfever sufferers
will/attest to the effect of flower pollens upon sensitive
human nasal tissues.
The movement of the earth's atmo-
·sphere, its winds, has been able to scatter these pollutants
over large areas and dilute them.
The sun provides the energy necessary for the pro'duction of oxidants in photochemical smog.
Ozone is a good'
example of a photochemical pollutant.
Temperatures in the atmosphere drop as there is an
increase in height above the surface of the earth.
is known as the environmental lapse rate.
This
This aids in the
dispersal of gaseous pollutants in the air, as the warmer
gases rise above the more dense lower layers.
However, in
34
'---
<-
_,..
'
..
-·
------
-~--"~"-·-,--
••
-~-
--~
-~
-------
---------~~
-~-------
r;.Ira1 areas, a rever-sal of the temperature gradient takes
place .by the rapid radiational cooling of the ground at
ni~ht
and the cooling of the air near the surface of the
This creates an "inversion layer" d"L1ring the day·- ·
earth.
time and is characterized by an increase in temperature \<Ji·th
height
(See Pigure 1).
This tends to reduce vert:ical dilu-
tion of pollu·tcm:t gases in the atmosphere.
'rhe lower the
inversion ·laysr, the more intense the air pollution problem.
In Los Angeles, a "subsidence" inversion layer _is
formed.
Air from high pressure cells moves to low pressure
cells: causing the air t:o warm as it lowers and contracts.
This ;creates an inversion layer that is usually higher in
the atmosphere than the radiation inversion layer previously
desc.ribed.
MAN Ml\DE SOURCES OF AIR POLLUTION
Transportation.
There are over 90 million automo-
biles in the United States.
It is noted on the following
page that a large portion of each pollutant listed with the
exception of particulate matter and sulfur oxides is contri~uted
by transporation sources.
'
The automobile with its internal combustion engine
has several points where pollutants may be emitted into the
air.
Gasoline is a highly volatile liquid
which is lost
from the gas tank and from the carburetor by evaporation.
Large amounts of carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons and nitrogen
oxides are released from the tailpipe, while small amounts
35
\
\
\
\
\
2.0
MAXIMUM
RA'l,E
\
Height.
(Km)
ADIABATIC LAPSE
\
1. 5
1.0
0.5
Surface
NIGHTTIME
SURFACE
INVERSION
~I
I
I
\
\
\
\
\
/
~-
Daily Maximum
Temperature
Figure 1
Inversion Layer (36)
36
••-A•
••
--
•
<>
~-~-
-·-·-
00 o•A
-
--·
·-••• 0
~----
""•"--·••
--
of these pollutants are "blown 11 by the pistons into the
.crankcase.
On older cars the crankcas.e was . vented to the
i
;outside air.
The automobile industry has attempted to control
j
~ach
pollutant at its source.
The gasoline .tank is sealed
:and any evaporated vapors are passed over
:·to remove them.
~ngine.
activ~ted
charcoal
"Blown-by" gases are recycled through the
Catalytic converters attached to the tailpipe and
!
i
:using platinum are being proposed for test in California.
Fuel additives such as tetra-ethyl lead have been
an additional source of pollut.ion.
Lead must be removed
ifrom gasoline to insure proper operation of catalytic
~
converters.
In Los Angeles, the hydr6carbons and nitrogen
dioxides necessary for the production of photochemical smog
:has been contributed almost entirely by motor vehicle
!
!
•
•
( 42)
em1ssJ.ons.
Figure 2 on the following page presents a comparison
!
of emissions from motor vehicles and stationary sources in
i
\Los Angeles County since 1940.
i
~ned
This graph should be exam-
carefully because it does not represent individual
i
~ollutants
and ane might get the impression that all pollut-
iI
:ants have decreased in Los Angele8 which is not the case.
While hydrocarbons and carbon monoxide have decreased,
i
nitrogen oxides have been increased by the control procedures U:sed.
37
,..
., .,
20
/
/
1 . .//.
15
/
.," 2.
/_ ~ ~
v
f -
k/- ----
1950
1940
1.
2.
/
/
.Oc
\
3.
,......... .... .,.."'
~
,
~ \
\
\
''
........._ 4.
--
1960
10
., I /
... .,
--......
'
"
/
Total
Errlissions
in
l,OOO's
Tons/Day
.... ...
--
---
r------
1970
5
1980
1990
Motor Vehicle Emissions with no Control Program
Motor Vehicle Emissions with Present Control
Program
3.
Stationary Source Emissions with No Control
Program
4.
Stationary Source Emissions with Present Control
Program
·Figure 2
Comparison of Emissions From Motor Vehicles and
Emissions From Stationary Sources
(42)
38
Early control systems used to reduce hydrocarbons
mental agencies were not too concerned until scientists
began to examine the effects of nitrogen dioxides.
The
early systems actually increased nitrogen dioxides in the
atmosphere by 175 tons/day in Los Angeles. ( 42 ) It was only
tN.i th 1971 automobiles that automobile manufacturers had to
~nclude
controls for nitrogen dioxides.
Stationary Sources.
The burning of fossil fuels
(coal and oil) from stationary locations accounts for a
large source of sulfur oxides dispersed into the atmosphere.
These include electrical generators, space heating systems
as well as industrial operations and incinerators.
In 1966, the United States used approximately 1.250
billion kilowatt hours of electricity.
More than 9S percent
of this energy was produced by burning coal and oil. {4)
When these fuels are burned, the sulfur is oxidized to
sulfur oxides, which form a serious type of pollution, primarily on the east coast,of the United States.
The rapid increase in the use of electricity {from
:300,000 megawatts in 1969 to an anticipated 600,000 mega!
'
watts in 1980) and a slowdown in the building of other
power sources (i.e.,- nuclear power plants), may add to the
problem of sulfur oxides in the future.
Processes using limestone in conjunction with
I
boilers or stack gas scrubbers have been developed to remove
.
~--.
-·
-"
-.
--~
··-· ··-· - , ..
---~
·-·
-·----· . ·-·- .... --- -..
...
----·-·-
'"""
.......
-----·- ......--- . -·
·-·
TABLE 2
1
.
··--···~------·-
..
.
.
.• ._,., ·- _ _,, •••
-~
--..-+M-';•'"'~i
AMOUNTS OF AIR POLLUTION IN THE UNI'I'ED STATES - 1966 (4}
(listed as millions of tons per year)
Carbon
monoxide
Hydrocarbons
64.5
17.6
7.6
0.4
1.2
91.3
1.9
0.7
6.7
22.9
9.2
41.4
10.7
3.5
0.2
7.2
7.6
29.2
Solid Waste
Disposal
7.6
1.5
0.5
0.1
1.0
10.7
Miscellaneous
9.7
6.0
0.5
0.6
2.9
14.7
94.4
29.3
15.5
31.2
21.9
192.3
7.2
2.2
1.2
(*'.!t)
6.7
17.3
101.6
31.5
16.7
31.2
28.6
209.6
Source
Transportation
Fuel Combustion,
Stationary Sources
Industrial
Processes
Total
Forest Fires
Total
Nitrogen
oxides
Sulfur
oxides*
Particulates
Total
* for the year 1967
** negligible
--····- __________
,_
___ _______
,
w
\.0
40
· 'Gt la~g~ pot·ti;~
;£-
-~~pell~d ~:~i£~~---;~i~cii~~-~-·-· F;~~~-t·l~;;··of
sulfuric acid as a by-:-product, is also a possible solution.
The emission of sulfur oxides will be under fairly
good control by 1980 or 1985 but ·the total sulfur emissions
will have risen over those at the present time. (g)
Electrostatic precipitators have been used to lower
the emissions of particulate matter into the atmosphere.
Particles of less than one micron are not as effectively
removed from effluent gases as larger particles.
These
particles are carried high into the atmosphere, remain
suspended for a long period of time, but upon reaching the
ground and inhaled, penetrate deep into the lungs.
Formation of nitrogen oxides from stationary sources
and from automobiles is highly dependent on flame temperature and oxygen concentration.
Research in this area is
far behind developments to control sulfur oxides.
Control
efforts are being developed around minimizing the formation
of nitrogen dioxides and techniques for removal of the gas
after it has been formed.
The major sources of industrial polluters of the air
are paper mills, iron and steel mills, oil refineries,
smelters, and organic and inorganic chemical manufacturers.
The source charts on the preceding pages show that industries provide approximately 23 percent of the country's
sulfur oxide pollutants, 84 percent of the particulate
matter and over 10 percent of the carbon monoxide and hydrocarbons.
41
Number of
Fine
Particles
Per Year
in
Sextillions
60
1.2
5
3
//
Without
Control
.,..
, ,., With
0.8
0.6
Convential
.Electrostatic
Precipitators
2
1.0
0.4
1
0.2
1970
'75
'80
1
85
'90
'95 2000
Year
Figure 3
Projected Fine Particle Emissions From CoalFired Utility Boilers. (9)
Weight of
Fine
Particles
Per Year
in
Millions
of Tons
42
350
l
· STP.~TE STANDARD
ppm Ave . I 12 hr. )
300
250
Ul
!>i
lti
Q
200
;4-1
·o
'H
'Q)
'.Q
;§
z
150
School and Health
Warning (40 ppm
for 5 min.}
...,
1957
1965
1970
Year
Figure 4
Carbon Monoxide: Nurr~er of Days Per Year Various Levels
Equaled or Exceeded in the Los Angeles Basin
(42)
43
0.25 ppm/1 hour
140
120
100
(/J
:>i
(!j
0
80
'4-1
l
0
H
Q)
~:::1
z
20
1.5 ppm/Instantaneous
Maximum
~
NO
X
10
0
1960
1965
1970
Year
Figure 5
Oxides of Nitrogen: Number of Days per Year N0 and NO
Equaled or Exceeded Various Levels in the2
x
Los Angeles Basin
(42)
44
350
0.10 ppm
(1 hr./Ave.)
300
250
11)
:>-;
l'tl
Cl
200
'4-i
0.15 ppm
(Inst. Max.)
;o
l~
!Q)
:s
,.Q
150
0.25 ppm
Max.)
'---~(Inst.
'Z
100
0.35 ppm
(Inst. Max.)
50
I
1956
I
1960
1965
1970
Years
Figure 6
Ozone: Number of Days per Years with Highest
Concentration to or Greater Than Levels Shown
in the Los Angeles Basin
(42)
45
Radioactive Wastes.
Man has increased his use of
radioactive materials since the discovery of atomic fission
in 1939.
The a·tmosphere may be contaminai:ed by radioactive
pollutants in several ways..
The least important of these
would be from research projects, whe:r:e an accident might
cause the pollution of the atmosphere.
Nuclear povJer
plants r under proper controls, give off small amount.s of
radiat.ion.
The Atomic Energy Commission describes the
nuclear industry as one of the most carefully controlled of
all industries in the United States.
The potential for a
major disaster exis·ts in case of an accidental discharge of
radioactive materials.
Another source of radiation pollution is from
nuclear weapons.
Radioactive pollutants, once in the atmo-
sphere, may be widely dispersed.
Biological Poisons.
Another source of air pollution
to be discussed is pesticides, insecticides, and herbicides biological poisons.
These are used primarily in agricul-
tural- endeavors and defoliation during warfare.
Evidence
continues to mount showing the spread of these poisons into
the atmosphere and their transportation throughout the world
by air currents. (lS)
Lead.
There are many sources of lead contamination
in the environment.
A primary source in air pollut.ion has
been in the emission of automobile smoke, natural emissions
of silicate dusts, volcanic halogen aerosols, and forest
fire smoke. ( 2 l)
46
' "•
'~'
•- '•'
··~~''•
',,._,_
~--~-.,>
' -•--
~~ ••~••
•· .•
.--~-~·•·• '·~·• ·•-•~·•·
~···'c'
•••
"~~-
·-·--•
-<••••~~•-• .. -u•
•·
• ' - ••
-~· •••«•~•' •• ~,·•-·--
''
Contamination of our food supply.takes place by
fallout on crops and pastures, uptake by animals and plants
from effluents used in irrigation materials, and dust
fallout. from mining operations.
AIR POLLUTION AND
HU!~N
HEALTH
Particulate Matter.
Man's respira·tory system
continuously exchanges oxygen and carbon dioxide with the
surrounding environment.
Atmospheric pollutants are drawn·
:into the lungs along with life-giving oxygen.
The lungs
are the prime point of entry of potentially dangerous gases
a!ld particles into the human body.
The lungs, in turn,
stand as man's natural defense against foreign particles
entering his body.
Any irritation can cause ill effects,
not only in the respiratory tract but throughout the body.
The protective mechanisms are
s~~arized
in
,Figure 7 on the following page.
If particles are not rrunoved in one of the five ways
listed in Figure 7, then they may ultimately take their
.Place in various body tissues,
as
seen in Figure 8.
The size of the particles involved is very important
in their distribution in the lungs.
Large particles quickly
·settle to earth, while small particles are drawn into the
respiratory system.
The upper portion of the respiratory
tract filters out the large particles while the smaller
ones penetrate deep into the lungs.
47
1.
.2.
4.
Out with expired
air.
Penetrates
tracheobronch ..;:
ial area, out
with mucus in
sputum.
Caugh.t in nose_,
. out with mucus.
Taken up by
phagocytes in
al veo 1 us ,
1---~~t----'"'
destroyed,
generally out
via mucus
5.
Swallowed,
passes
through
gastrointestinal tract,
excreted.
"The body's defenses against invasion by foreign
particles are considerable, but can be overwhelmed by
excessive amounts of particulate pollution, or by breath' ing particles in combination wi 'ch gases or by particles
!that are infectious, irritating or toxic."
Figure 7
Clearing Mechanisms (8)
1.
J_,ung ·tissue.
If soluble,
i t may be dissolved in
lung fluid and chemically bound with tissue.
If insoluble, i t may
penetrate tissue and
remain there.
2.
/
/
Blood stream.
Particle reaches
blood via nasal
clearing; or by
passing into
pulmonary capillaries with inhal
oxygen; or by penetrating lung
tissue, passes into
lymph and from
lymph to blood; or
is taken up by
phagocyte in
alveoli and
absorbed into
blood; or be
swallowed with
mucus, passes
through digestive
system, is absorbe
into blood and may
reach other parts
of the body in the
blood flow.
4.
Lymph nodes.
Particle passes
from llli!g tissue
~o lymph, :i.s st.ored
J.n lymph nodes.
'J.'he gastrointest.inal system. After
reaching the system
the particle remains
in one of the organs
of the system
instead of passing
into the blood
stream.
l'..,igure 8
Deposition of Particles Retained by
the Human Body (8)
49
The particles may be toxic or 1 they may carry other
chemicals (.i.e. - benzepyrene, a known carcinogen) with
them.
A third possibility is t.hat they might act as a
catalyst for chemical reactions which are harmful to the
body.
Particles larger .than 3 microns in diameter are
filtered 6ut in the upper respiratory tract.
below 3 microns may penetrate to the alveoli.
Particles
As the
particle size decreases to 1 micron, the percentage of
particles deposited in the alveoli increases, but the
retention decreases as the size is reduced from 1 micron to
.75 microns.
Particulate matter below .25 microns is still
being investigated.
Air pollution control groups face the dilemma of
t.rying to set standards for pollutant levels.
Where a
single gas is the cause of a known disease, it is a relatively simple matter to determine the threshold concentration for the gas, then add a margin of safety.
Unfortunately,
the synergistic effects of the pollutant gases in the atrnosphere compound the problem.
Added to this are the varied
exposure of the population involved, different heredity in
terms of susceptibility, the effect of weather and other
environmental factors.
Man's respiratory system needs the air passages open
and freely flowing to function properly.
Air pollutants
.such as sulfur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, and ozone may
··~······"
-··
---·--·-·~-
·-·-··----.
'
\
i
'
(1 micron equals 1/1,000 of a millimeter, or 1/25,000 of an inch)
l
VIRUSES
I
I
I
BACTERI.A
!FOG DROPLETS
0
I
I
RAINDROPS
I
I
DUST
'·
l
I
FLY ASH
I
I
I
AEROSOLS
-
'"'
l
SMOKE, FUiviE
1---
t
;
I
MISTS
---
1,000.
100.
10.
1.0
0.1
0.01
I
0.001.
Figure 9
The Sizes of Particulates in Microns (1)
V1
.
··-·-· ---·-·---- ....-------'
o·
51
cause spasms of the muscles of
t~hB
bronchial airways ..
Circulation of the air and removal of the mucus are
.
.
d ( 8)
1mpa1re
. '
The exposure to particles of lead, cadmium
or asbestos becomes more dangerous.
Sulfur and Its Compounds.
Fossil fuels
(coal and
fuel oil) when burned produce sulfur dioxide, a colorless
gas.
It is a harshly irritating gas which can paralyze
ciliary action \vi thin the lungs and stimulate mucus production as well as causing bronchiospasm and edema. <35 )
Airway
constriction is closely associated with the development of
. cons
.
t r1.c
. t'1 ve ven t1' l a tory d'1sease. (l 2· )
c h ron1.c
Th'1s d'J.seCl.se
is associated with several irritant pollutants.
Sulfur dioxide is converted in the body fluids to
sodium acid sulfite, which in turn, brings about further
chemical changes in the chromosomes.
Mutations have been
produced in bacteria by sulfur dioxide. <40 )
Sulfur dioxide can be further oxidized to form
sulfur trioxide which in a humid atmosphere produces a
sulfuric acid mist.
This acidic mist can cause the leaves
of plant.s t.o yellow and die and can etch marble, iron and
steel.
This gas was one of the first atmospheric pollutants
foi: which air quality standards were set.
Average yearly
concentrations above 0.04 ppm adversely affect health.
This
concentration has been surpassed in Chicago, Philadelphia,
S ·t. L ou1s,
.
.
·
( 4 4)
.
Was h 1ngton,
an d o th.er maJOr
c1· t1es.
.
"""•
---- --~"··-'"···------ ~-------- -----~-----------~~-~---·--------------------- .. ···----
i
-----~---··--·- ---····-- -~- ~- ---~-- ----~·-·-···---~-~
52
· Carbon
Comp9.unC!_~.
Carbon black found . in chimney
smoke and automobile tire rubber is a known carcinogen.
Carbon monoxide :i.s ·the result of incomplete com..
b llS'!'.:l0!1.
No other polllrtant is found at such relatively
high concen·trations in t:h0. urban environment.
Carbon monoxide interacts with hemoglobin in the
human bl.ood .:md int:erferes v.rith oxygen transpor-t. (J?)
It
does this by combining with the hemoglobin and increasing
the o.ffir.dt.y of the remaining hemoglobin for oxy·:;;en.
'This
causes the tissue oxygen tension to drop lm..rer ·Lhan expected
for the unloading of oxygen from the blood.
(?8'1
~
A study
by Horvath ( 24 ) found that subjects exposed to 111 ppm
(the concentrations determined while driving in urban
·t.raffic) raised the carbon monoxide level in the blood to
6.6 percent and impaired the vigilance of the subjects.
The
effect of ca.rbon monoxide exposure i.s ad1i tive since
hemog-lobin is able to expell t.he carbon monoxide molecule
only very slowly.
It has been shcl.vn tbat t.be unborn fetus
~:0r.c::i ti v-e
ext:remel:\:'
brought:
>
'
~:DOUt.:
m,:.~y
be
to insufficient oxygen which could be
•
DY
carnon monox1o.e exposure. · 2)
I
•
"
(
Carbon dioxide is not usually considered a pollutant
since it is present in unpolluted air.
It, like sulfur
dioxode, in the presence of high humidity can produce an
acid (carbonic acid) which is dam.aging to metals.
Carbon dioxide prevents the radiation of long wave
heat loss which could cause a rise in the temperature of
53
the earth. ( 29 )
-. • '-••·-·~
•-·-·~•·•«-•~··
·•• -•·----•- ·"
"•r.~•
•-o..u
~---~--·~
•
=
"------~·~•···~·
•• -·~---•-·~•·-------~
•-'·•~-·--·~·-~~-·~-~
... ~.~-~---· . .-,
This is known as the "greenhouse" effect.
'
The nu1nber of variables involved with the overall atmo...:.
spheric heat b~lance is high so that it is difficult to
evaluate the effect of any given increase of carbon dioxide
in the atmosphere.
Compounds that contain carbon and hydrogen
(hydrocarbons) form another group of dangerous pollutants.
They are produced in part by industrial processes but they
are primarily a product of automobile exhaust.
'l'hese com-
pounds are introduced into the atmosphere by the incomplete
combustion of carbon-containing fuels.
Evaporation of
liquids containing these compounds such as from the handling
6f gasoline or the
spra~ing
of paint contributes to this
type of pollution.
Carcinoma of the lungs like that in humans has been
observed in animals exposed to the inhalation of 3,4
benzepyrene in combination with sulfur dioxide. <27 )
Lung
cancer is being carefully investigated, partly due to its
association with smoking.
The two major metropolitan areas
,of Los Angeles and San Francisco had higher mortality rates
i
:for cancer of the lung than mixed rural and urban counties.
These differences were greater even for nonsmokers which
'confirms reports that urban residence carries a risk of
:
pulmonary cancer.
(11)
An association between air pollution
and stomach cancer has also been observed in Nashville and
Buffalo. ( 2 0, 47 )
l
~-- -
-----·
54.
.,,1
....
-~-·-
----·····<
------
~
Gasoline engine exhaust tar is carcinogenic in mice.
The activity of exhaust tars is due to a large extent to
the presence of some condensed aromatic hydrocarbons. <49 )
When animals have been infected with influenze virus and
exposed to artificial smog (ionized gasoline) lung cancer
has been produced. ( 2 5 )
Oxides of Nitrogen.
There are two important oxides
of nitrogen in terms of air pollution.
These two, nitric
oxide and nitrogen dioxide, are produced by any combustion
that takes place in the air.
Nitric oxide occurs when high
temperatures are reached, or when combustion takes place
at high pressures, as in automobile cylinders.
Automobiles
appear to be the largest single source in urban areas.
In the presence of sunlight, nitric oxide is changed
to nitrogen dioxide by oxygen.
is colored.
This form is more toxic and
It, therefore, can cut down visibility.
Nitrogen dioxide is associated 'i.vith a lowered
'resistance to respiratory infection. (l 5 )
Pneumonia and
influenza viruses were used to show the increased susceptibility of animals when exposed to nitrogen dioxide. (l 4 )
Ozone.
Nitrogen dioxide and ozone are said to have
similar affects; both gases can cause increased airway
'resistance and interfere with the clearing mechanism of
bronchial tubes. <35 )
Ozone is associated with the loss of
elasticity of the lungs due to edema. (l?)
Air purifiers have been marketed along with the
:claim that ·ozon·e is an effective germicide.
The United
55
-~'
.. "
.
·-
'
..
'-
-~-·-·
··-
.
··~
. ·--·--
-~-----
! States Department of Health, Education ·and Welfare has
,reported that .in .concentrations low enough
~co
cause· no
irritation of the human raspiratory tract, ,ozone fails -to
protect against airborne bacterial in£ectionr( 3 )
Ozone is produced 1n the atmosphere on sunny days.
,
i
~n high concentrations it is extremely toxic.
'
It is classi-'
fied in a broad group of chemicals known as oxidants.
The
most common effect of oxidants on humans is eye irrit.ation.
These gases are usually produced in the atmosphere by the
reaction of hydrocarbons and other organic gases with oxides
of nitrogen in sunlight.
They generally have certain toxic
and irritating effects on humans.
They can cause drumage to
vegetation and they cause cracks in natural rubber.
Ozone, like nitrogen dioxide, is associated with an
increase in respiratory infections.
It has been found to
impair the ability of phagocytes to trap streptococcal
•
(12)
bacteria.
Perhaps a primary reason many people do not associate
air pollution with respiratory diseases is that it does not
appear on a death certificate as a cause of death.
The
chronic respiratory diseases that it aggravates over a long
period of time are given as the cause of death.
Diseases Associated With Air Pollution.
Emphysema
is the fastest growing cause of death in the United States.
This disease is characterized by the breakdown of the
alveoli (air sacs) within the lungs.
irritation of the bronchial tubes.
It is caused by the
56
Over a long period of time, the irritation produces
a thickening of the lining of the bronchial ~ub~s with
cellular changes that produce partial obstruction to the
intake and outflow of air.
The resulting destruction of the
alveoli severely restricts·the transfer of oxygen and carbon
dioxide within the lungs.
'I'he Victim of emphysema has an increasingly difficult time breathing.
He may eventually become a cripple,
unable to do the simplest tasks required to live.
Emphysema
is closely associated with smoking and the tars in cigarette
smoke.
Death rates from emphysema are twice as high in the
city as in the country. (l 3 ) This sugges·ts importance of air
pollution as a potential causative agent in emphysema.
The criteria for the determination of chronic
bronchitis is not standardized in the United States.
In
Great Britain, it is defined as chronic productive cough. (l 3 )
Studies in the United States and England established a relationship between air pollution and chronic bronchitis. ( 33 )
It has been stated that if air pollution could be
:eliminated, the incidence of diseases of the respiratory
tract, notably chronic bronchitis, would be reduced. (lg)
Once the normal defense mechanisms of the lung have been
.impaired, any level of air pollution is a serious potential
danger.
Bronchial asthma is a condition which is aggravated
by air pollution.
Asthmatic attacks may be triggered by
many things and it is difficult to determine the exact
57
. role of· air pollution.
'I'he lesson learned in Donora
illuminated the fact that air pollution aggravated asth-.
·matic attacks and contributed to the death of persons
suffering from asthma.
Effects of Radioactivity on Human Life.
•of radioactivity depend upon two major factors:
The effects
a) the
intensity and types of rays and, b) the chemistry of the
.radioisotopes.
The energy of radioactivity causes chemical changes
within the body, usually ¥7ithin the cells of the organism.
Large doses result in death.
If an organism is exposed to
lov1 levels. of radiation, mutations may result.
mutations are usually harmful
These
(See Figure 10).
Radiation may affect many parts of the human body .
. It may damage the blood by destroying white blood cells and
by damaging bone marrow, the spleen, and the lymph nodes.
Lung tumors, skin cancer, bone damage, sterility, and
:cataracts are some specific effects of radiation. <45 )
Exposure to low dosages of radiation and its result: ing delayed damage to human life is harder to determine
that acute effects.
It is known th~t radioisotopes accumu-
, late in food chains.
Stronti.urn-90 has been widely studied.
It is similar to calcium chemically and is concentrated in
the bones of humans and other mammals ...
i
·····-- ........ -·-~ ......................... ~---·-· ......................- .................................._,_. ______ ................... ___............. - .... - ... ...... ..... ........ .. ...........!
58
,.---
.--·-........
..c:
.p
!=:
0
s
.-1
!=:
·r-1
50
..c=
~
:>i
.-1
Ul"d
;=j (!j
0
~
·r-1 ;=j
~-n
·:ll !=:
Cf.lH
:>i
-tJ
.-I'd
:s:
.......
;::j·r-1
{/) (J)
·r-1
roQ)
~-n
.!>1:
.-1
.-1
~
s:.:
Q)
Cf.lH
.-1
..-1.;
~
0
·r-1 ;=j
roQ)
.-1
.-1
·r-1
~
:>-t
.-1
Ul"d
::l Q)
0 ~
·r-1 ;=j
"d
Q)
.-1
.-1
·r-1
~-n
Q)
!=:
Cf.lH
roQ)
r-1
.-1
·r-1
~
~
0
~
600R
425R
300R
200R
25R
R stands for roentgen.
It is a measure of the
intensity of gamma rays in terms of the energy
absorbed by the body. The dose from natural
radioactivity for a human is 5 R during the first
30 years of life.
Figure 10
Effects of Radioactivity on Man.
(45)
59
M.ilk is . an import.::mt source . of calcium for young
offspring of mammals which .puts them at the end of a food
chain which concentrates t.he Strontium-90.
Pesticides.
There is need for much research in the·
area of long-term exposure to persistent pesticides and the
storage of these chemicals in the tissues and body fluids.
Some pesticides have been shown to produce cancer and birth
defects in experimental mammals.
Charles Wurster has stunmarized the danger
of pesticides, especially DDT.
"The chlori-nated hydrocarbon insecticides are now among
the world's most widely distributed synthetic
chemicals.
They are dispersed throughout the
environment in currents of air and water.
The
movement through an ecosystem is explained by
their solubility characteristics and chemical
stability, while their broad toxicity indicates a potential for biological effects on
many kinds of organisms.· The chlorinated
hydrocarbons are seriously degrading biotic
cornmunities in many parts of the world." (48:556)
Lead.
Outward signs of lead poisoning range from
.listlessness, abdominal pain and vomiting to mental retardation~
Lead interacts with the red blood cells and the
regulation of potassium and water exchanges through the
'
(22)
:cell membranes.
The effects are also seen in changes
in the osmotic resistance and erythrocytes' survival time
in circulation.
Inhalation of lead oxides can interfere with
pulmonary phagocytes. ( 6 )
60
AIR POLLUTION AND THE ENVIRONMENT
.Han's alteration of the atmosphere is bringing about
direct and indirect changes in his environment.
One of the
easily observable effects of air pollution is the reduction
of visibility.
Studies have shown that as the level of
oxidants in the air goes up, visibility decreases.
acid mists reduce visibility by scattering light.
Sulfuric
The
appearance of rainbows is decreasing due to this type of
light scattering.
. l
Decreasing of the atmosphere's transparency whether
by industry, automobiles or.dusts from poor agricultural
practices has the same effect, that of lowering the amount
of light energy reaching the earth.
From 1940 to 1960, the
average temperature of the earth dropped. {lO)
Particulates in the atmosphere encourage the formation of low clouds.
At present, on the average, 31 percent
of the earth's surface is covered by low clouds.
Increasing
.this to 36 percent would decrease the tempera·ture of the
earth about 4 degrees Centigrade.
This would be near the
:temperature drop needed to return the earth to an ice
'
!
~age.
(29)
Increasing the carbon dioxide content of the atrno,sphere would produce a "greenhouse" effect, in which the
temperature of the earth would increase.
From the 1880's
to the 1940's the average temperature of the earth rose
0.7 of a degree Fahrenheit.
The carbon dioxide content of
61
'the air rose about 11 percent during the same period of
time. (
10
)
The v1arming which occurred may be due to the
carbon dioxide increase.
Pollutants in the air corrode, tarnish, weaken,. and.
discolor a wide variety of materials.
Steel corrodes about
three times faster in urban an.d industrial areas than in
rural areas.
There are many examples of the corrosive
effect o.f sulfuric acid on stone and cement buildings.
Cleopatra's Needle in New York is a good example of the
destructiveness of air pollution, for it has been exposed
to sulfuric acid mists produced by the burning of high
sulfur containing fuels.
Three thousand years of weathering
in Egypt did less to deteriorate it than has approximately
90 years in New York City.
Ozone damages clothing materials and increases the
breakdown of natural rubber.
Ozone has been shown to
•depress respiration and photosynthesis. (S)
Large areas of
pines in the mountains above Los Angeles have been damaged
by Ozone. (l 6 )
Spinach was at one time a major crop in
'Southern California but can no longer be grown.
If the list of plants that are being damaged and
killed by pollution continues to increase, a vital part of
.the oxygen cycle may be removed.
There is evidence that sulfur dioxide,(?) as well
as fluoride( 34 ) are damaging to plants.
Synergistic effects
of pollutants also have been identified. () 4 )
For example,
62
-
.
--. ·-
···-···-···"-"" ······-----
.. -- ....
---~·J·-.
heavy metals in automobile exhausts have been shown to
pollute soils and enter plan·t tissue. ( 26 ).
( 38 )Radiat.ion
and radioisotopes-continue to be a threat to vegetation and
animals~
( 33)
Virtually every urban area in the nation now
experiences damage to veget.at.ion fr~m polluted air. (l.3)
SUM.IvlARY
Ideally, scientific studies would.be able to
establish threshold values for each type of pollutant below
'which there "\'lOuld be no danger to the health of living
organisms, including man.
To shmv- the complexity of the problem scientists
are confronted with, they are dealing with not only the
primary pollutants directly given off by any given source,
.•
but also, secondary pollutants.
An example of secondary
pollutants would be those produced by the action of the
sun upon the primary pollutants.
effects of each pollutant need
In addition, synergistic
to be determined in order
to est.ablish usable pollution standards.
Governmental agencies are dealing not only with
ichemicals ~1hich in high concentrations could kill but with
I.
!a segment of the population which would be affected by low
;
concentrations of pollutants.
1
Persons suffering with
chronic lung diseases are more susceptible to polluted air
than is the general public.
of risk versus benefit.
This leads back to the question
Who is the government willing to
exclude from large cities in determining tolerable levels
.. ··-·
--~~-- --~--
---.-- ....
.
---· -- ···---·
·----~------ ----~
-- -----.---·-·-- ..
_.-
·---~-------- -----~-----··
--------·-·-
-~--- ---~----. ---------~ -------~-~--------~---
--·--··
I
-----·-----------·--~
63
of air pollution?
Varied health patterns, different
heredity, and exposure of the population to different com:( .
binations of pollutants compound the p:roblem.
Scientists have not been able to identify one
pollutant as a cause of genetic damage because of i:he
complex interactions of pollutants.
It has been suggested
perhaps man will be able to adapt to rising levels of air
pollution.
Unfortunately, i t appears that man does not
have enough time for natural selection to solve the problem.
Would man be willing to accept the loss of those individuals
too weak to survive?
At present, adverse health effects are reflected in
air quality standards only where a specific concentration
of a single pollutant can be demonstrated to cause a harmful
effect on health.
A margin of safety is then added.
Man-made air pollutants consist. not only of those
'listed in the source chart but also radioactive gases and
particles from nuclear power plants and the possibility of
the contamination of the atmosphere by nuclear weapons. (Z 3 )
Radiation has been associated with the breakage of chromo:somes and mutations.
Pesticides, not ordinarily thought of as air pollutants, are being carried around the world in the atmo-:J :
sphere. (lS)
Evidence is growing that particles of biologi-
cal poisons (insecticides, herbicides) are commonly found in
the atmosphere and carried throughout the world by air
;
currents.
( 39)
It has been shown that the photosynthetic
64
processes-of some phytoplankton_found in the
drastically reduced by only small amounts of DDT in the
water.
( 4 8)
It may be concluded that the primary source of the
earth's oxygen supply is now being affected, although
there has been no detectable
chang~s
in the percentage by
volume of the atmospheric oxygen since 1910. (JO)
i
.
"---------------- ---- ------------------------------------------ ----------- -------------------------------------
__
I
,__,)
CHAPTER V
REFERENCES
1.
Air Pollution
Primer~
---·-·n.e-spirat?.ll:-y·-~6Is(;ase
National Tuberculosis and
Association, New York!
1969, p. 32.
2.
Ai_~~}d}.~~~Lh""SL ·:ri ter ia. fg£_f~rbor~-~C?!.~o~iC'~.
3.
Air Qualitv Criteria for Photochemical Oxidants.
---unTFeci"'-~fEatE~s--nepar·tment of HeaJ:~E11·;· Education and
Welfare, National Air Pollution Control Association, Washington, D.C., March 1970, pp. 6-18.
4.
United
S·tates Department. of Health, Education and
Welfare, National Air Pollution Control Association, Washington, D.C., March 1970, pp. 8-9.
Amounts of Air Pollution by Kind and Source Produced
-----rn--·E}::eunii:ecC State-s-:--uni'tedSta·tes Depar'cment of
iieaitii-;-Educat:lon and Welfare, Washington, D.C.,
1970, p. 9.
5.
Barnes, D. L.
"Effects of Chronic Exposure to Ozone on
and Respiration of Pines, 11
Environmc;rrt:al Pollution. Vol. 3, No. 2, April
1~f72-;-f)p-~·- 13 3-ITs-.--·
Photosynt~hesis
6.
Bingham, E., "Aleveolar Macrophages: Reduced Number in
Rats After Prolonged Inhalation of Lead in
Sesquinoxide." §ci!§:'EC~· Vol. 62, No. 3859, 1968.
pp. 1297-1299.
7.
Brant, C. S. and W. Heck.
»Effects of Air Pollution
on Veget.ation." Air Pollution.
2nd Edition,
Vol. 1, Ed. by A. c:-s6ern;-Academ.ic Press,
New York, 1968.
8.
Brod.ine, Virginia.
"Point of Dangerr 11 Environment.
Vol. 14, No. 4, May 1972, pp. 2-15.
9.
Brodine, Virginia.
"Running in Place," Environment.
Vol. 14, No. 1, January 1972, pp. 1-12.
11
10 • Bryson, R. R.
All Other Factors Being Constant •
Theories o£ Global Change," Man's Impac·t on
Environment.
Ed. by T. R. Detwyler, McGraw-Hill,
San Fran-cisco, 1971, pp. 167-174.
65
66
11.
Buell, P., J. Dunn and L. Breslow.
"Cancer of the
Lung and Los Angeles Type Air Poliution, Prospective Study,n Cancer. Vol. 20, No. 12,1967,
pp. 2139-2147-.- - -
12.
Coffin, D. L., "Influence of Ozone on Pulmonary Cells,"
Archives· of Environmental Health" ·Vol. 16, No.3·~:;
1968, p. 633.
13.
Effects of Air Pollution. Uni·ted States Depar-tment: of
Health, .Education and Welfare, National Control
Center for Air Pollution, Washington, D.C., 1967,
pp. 1-18.
14.
Ehrlick, R. "Effects of Nitrogen Dioxide on Res is·tance
to Respiratory Infection," Bacteriological Review.
Vol. 3 o, No. 2, Sept. 19 6 6,-pp .6o4=-614. ------·--·--
15.
Ehrlick, R., and M. C. Henry.
"Chronic Toxicity of
Nitrogen Dioxide," Archives of Environme~tal
Health. Vol. 17, No.-6"';"nec-:-T968·, pp:--·ecJ6=-a65.
16.
Evans, L. S. and P. Miller, "Ozone Damage to Ponderosa
Pines: Histochemical Apprisal:" American ,Journal
,9f Bota~2X,·
Vol. 59. No. 16, 1972, pp:-297~.3~
17.
Frank, R., ~ 0. Flesch and J. D. Brair.
"Effects of
Ozone in Elastic Behavior of Excised Lungs of
Dog·s," Environmental Research. Vol. 16, 1968,
p. 633.
18.
Frost, J.
"Earth, Air, Water," Envi.roP...tllent.
No. 9, 1969, pp. 14-33.
----
19.
Greg, I.
aThe Effects of Air Pollution as Seen in
General Pract.ice," Human_ Environment and Respirat:ory System, Proceedings. London, England,
October 20, 1970, pp. 25-32.
'20.
Vol. 11,
Hagston, R. M., H~ A. Sprague and E. Landau.
"The
Nashville Air Pollution Study: VII, Mortality frcm
Cancer in Relation to Air Pollution," Archives of
Environmental Health. Vol. 15, No. 8, August 1967,
pp
3 7--2-4 8.
:--2
21.
Hankin, L.
"Lead Poisoning- A Disease of Our Time,"
Journal oj: Milk and Food Technology. Vol. 35,
No. 2, February 1972, pp. 86-97.
22.
Hoffman, D., E. Theisz and E. C. Wynder.
"Studies on
the Carcinogens of Gas Exhaust," Journal of Air
Pollution Control Association. Vol. 15, No. 4,
April 1965, pp. 162-165.
57
' 23.
Holland, J.
"Radioactive Pollution of the Atmosphere,"
Biological Implications of the Nuclear Age.
United States Atomic Energy -Commission, Division
of Technological Information, Washington, D.C.,
1969, pp. 125-132.
24.
Horvath, S. M., J. E. Dahms, and J. F. Hanlon.
"Carbon Monoxide and Human Vigilance," Archives
of Environmental Heal·th. Vol$ 23, No. 11,
November 1971, pp. 343-347.
25.
Ka>ciz, P.
and J. Falk, "Atmospheric Factors in
Pathology of Lung C{:lncer,:r Advances in Cancer
Resear~h.
Vol. 7, 1963, p.-sb4:
26.
Langerwerff, J., and A. S. Specht,
"Contamination of
Roadside Soil and Vegetation with Cadmium, Nickel,
Lead, and Zinc," Environinenta1 Science and
Te~hnology. Vol. 4, No. i~1970, pp. 583-586.
27.
Lederberg, J., "Air Pollution: Ingredients are Suspect for Mutation," vJashington Post. October 18,
1969.
28.
Lindquist, V.
"Carbon Monoxide: Its Relationship to
Air Pollution and Cigarette Smoke," Public Health.
London, England, Vol. 86, No. 1, 1972, pp. 20-26.
29.
Ha.cDonald, G. J. F.
"The Modification of Planet Earth
by Man," Te<?.£I~lc~lY.__~e~~iew.
October/November
1969, pp. 27-35.
30.
Machta, L. and E. Hugh.
"Air in 1967 to 1970,"
Science.
Vol. 168, No. 3039~ 1970, pp. 15821584.
31.
Martin, A.
"Pollution: Its Effects on Health,"
Industrial Processing and Health. Vol. 9, 1970,
pp:-1"7-18.
'
32.
Mensen, H.A., and H. E. Heggestad, "Ozone and Sulfur
Dioxide Synergism: Injury to Tobacco Plants,"
Science. Vol. 153, No. 3734, 1966, pp. 424-425.
33.
Menzel, R.
"Airborne Radionuclides and Plants,"
Aqriculture a.:1d the Quality of Our Environment.
ecr:--byN~-Brac1y, American Association for the
Advancement of Science Publication 85, Washington,
D.C. , 19 6 7 , pp. 5 7·-7 5 .
68
· 34.
McCune, D.C. and R. H. Daines.
"Fluoride Criteria
for Vegetation Reflect the Diversity of the Plant
Kingdom," Environmental Science and 'l'echr~_oJ.ogy.
Vol. 3, No. 8, August 1969~ pp. 720-732.
35.
McKee, W.D.
"Environmental Problems and the
Allergist," Annals of Allergy. Vol. 29, No. 10,
October 1971, pp. 510-524.
36.
Pack, D.
"Meteorology of Air Pollution," Man's
Impact on Environment.
ed. by T. R. Detwyler,
McGraw-Hill, San Francisco, 1971, pp. 98--112.
37.
Pernay, F., J. Dumardin, R. Deroanne and J. M. Petit.
"Muscular Exercise During Intoxication by Carbon
Monoxide," Journal of Applied Physio~_ogy.
Vol. 31, No. 4, October 1971, pp. 573-575.
: 38.
39.
' 40.
Purves, D. and E. J. MacKenzie.
"Trace Elements
Con·t.:..unination of Parklands in Urban Areas,"
Journal of Soil Science. Vol. 20, No. 2, 1969.
Rissbrough, R. W., R. J. Huggett, J. Griffen, and
D. Goldberg.
"Pesticides: TransAtlantic
Movement in the N.E. Trades," Science. Vol. 159r
No. 3820, 1971, pp. 1233-1236.
Shapiro, R.
"Reactions of Uracil and Cytocyine
Derivatives with Sodium Bisulfite Diamination,"
Journal_ of the American Chemical Society, Vol. 9 8,
No.2, J·anuary 28, 1970, pp. 422-427.
41.
Smith, e.G., c. A. Nan and C.H. Lawrener, "Separation
and Identification of Polycyclic Hydrocarbons in
Rubber Dus·t," American Industrial Hyg·iene
Association. Vol. 29, No. 3, 1968, 242-247.
42.
"Smog, Is It Getting Better?" APCD Digest.
ed. by
W. Falkner, Air Pollution Control District,
County of Los Angeles, Vol. 11, No. 5, May 1972,
pp. 1-4.
43.
Sterling, T.D., "Incidence of Lung Cancer in the
United States Since 1955 in Relation to·the
Etiology of the Disease," American Journal of
Public Health. Vol. 62, No. 2, February 1972,
pp. 152-158. -
44.
Tebbins, B.D.
"Gaseous Pollution in the Air," Air
Pollution.
2nd Ed. Vol. 1, ed. by A. C. Stern,
Academ1c Press, New York, 1968, pp. 23-46.
69
45.
Turk, A., J. Turk arid J. Wittes.
Ecolcgv, Pollution,
Environment. W. B. Saunders Company, Phifadelphia,
Pa., 1972, pp. 41-108.
46.
Webster's 7th. Ne'l.v C_o11egiate Dictionary, G and C
Merrian Co., Springfield, Mass., 1961, p. 9.
47.
Winkelstein, W. and S. Kantor.
nstomach Cancer,
Positive Association with Suspended Particles in
l",ix:· Pollution," Archives of Environmental Healt.h,
VoL 18, No. 4, April 1969,.pp·:-s44.::::·.547.
48.
Wurster, C. F., nchlorinated Hydrocarbon Insecticides
and the vvorld Ecosystem," Man's Impact on Environment.
ed. by T. R. Detwyler, McGraw Hill Co.,
San Francisco, 1971, pp. 555-564.
49.
Ziethius, R. L.
"Interrelationship of Biochemical
Response to the Absorption of Inorganic Lead,"
Archives of Environmental Health. Val. 22, No.lO,
October 1971, pp. 299-311.
CHl1.PTER VI
PHOTO CREDITS
Ward's Educational Filmstrips
Environmental Pollution: Our World
"Na·t.ure of tl-le-Crisis"---1-5, 21
"Atmospheric Pollu"cion'·' -· 5, 23, 34
"Pollution Control"
2, 13, 20, 42, 45,
461 4 7
Movie
Ne~rsreels
~0
·- NASA
1
}-1
i
!BFA
Environmental Decisions
·'An Inqu~ry 1.n to Air"
EMC Corporation
Our Environment
"Our Spaceship EarthCan It Survive?"
3 1 7 1 8 f 18 1 3 9 f
4, 6, 11, 14, 161
171 31, 32, 36, 37,
38
91
"What is Air?"
:Hinsdale Sanitarium
Lun_2. Slides
40
35
- 24, 25, 26, 28, 30
Eye Gate Co.
Pollution
"Don 1 t Just Stand Therer- 43, 44
Do Something."
Fodor, J. & L. Glass, Cigarette Smoking and Health - A
Teacher's Guide, HRA, IIi'C:"'; 19 71, p. -g/f, 9 5.
- 27, 29
Aero Service Corporation
1
1
- 22
Leighton, P. "Geographical Aspects of Air Pollution",
Man's Impact on Environment, McGraw-Hill, 1971, p. 115
- l.O
70