International Journal of Advancements in Research & Technology, Volume 1, Issue1, June-2012
ISSN 2278-7763
1
Design and Analysis of Piezoelectric Smart Beam for Active
Vibration Control
Deepak Chhabra1, Kapil Narwal2*, Pardeep Singh3
University Institute of Engineering and Technology, Maharshi Dayanand University, Rohtak, India
Email: 1deepaknit10@gmail.com, 2*mr.k.narwal@gmail.com, 3pardeeppapr@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
This paper deals with the Active Vibration control of beam like structures with distributed piezoelectric actuator and sensor
layers bonded on top and bottom surfaces of the beam. The patches are located at the different positions to determine the better
control effect. The piezoelectric patches are placed on the free end, middle end and fixed end. The study is demonstrated
through simulation in MATLAB for various controllers like Proportional Controller by Output Feedback, Proportional Integral
Derivative controller (PID) and Pole Placement technique. A smart cantilever beam is modeled with SISO system. The entire
structure is modeled using the concept of piezoelectric theory, Euler-Bernoulli beam theory, Finite Element Method (FEM) and
the State Space techniques. The numerical simulation shows that the sufficient vibration control can be achieved by the proposed method.
Keywords : Smart Structure, Finite Element model, State Space model, Proportional Output feedback, PID, Pole Placement
1 INTRODUCTION
T
he development of high strength to weight ratio of mechanical structures are attracting engineers to build light
weight aerospace structures as well as to build tall buildings and long bridges. The development of piezoelectric material has been used as sensors and actuators because if the
forces are applied on that material it produces voltage and this
voltage goes to active devices and controls the vibration. Their
reliability, nearly linear response with applied voltage and
their low cost make piezoelectric materials the most widely
preferred one as collocated sensor and actuator pair. Active
vibration control is the active application of force in an equal
and opposite fashion to the forces imposed by external vibration. The finite element method is powerful tool for designing
and analyzing smart structures. A design method is proposed
by incorporating control laws such as Proportional Output
Feedback (POF) and Proprotional Integral Derivative (PID)
and Pole Placement technique to suppress the vibration. Baz
and Poh [2] investigated methods to optimize the location of
piezoelectric actuators on beams to minimize the vibration
amplitudes. Suleman [15] proposed the effectiveness of the
piezo-ceramic sensor and actuators on the attentuation of vibrations on an experimental wing due to the gust loading. Brij
N Agrawal and Kirk E Treanor [6] presented the analytical
and experimental results on optimal placement of Piezoceramics actuators for shape control of beam structures. Manning,
Plummer & Levesley [11] presented a smart structure vibration control scheme using system identification and pole
placement technique. Kapil Narwal and Deepak Chhabra [8]
presented a detailed analysis insight on the active vibration
control of structures. Raja, S, prathap G & Sihna [14] studied
active vibration control of a composite sandwich beam with
two kinds of piezoelectric actuator or such as extensionbending and shear. Xu & Koko [18] proposed results by using
the commercial FE-package and ANSYS. Baillargeon & Vel [1]
presented vibration suppression of adaptive sandwich cantilever beam using PZT shear actuators by experiments and
numerical simulations. T. C. Manjunath & B. Bandyopadhyay
[17] presented the modeling and design of a multiple output
feedback based discrete sliding mode control scheme application for the vibration control of a smart cantilver beam of three
four and five elements. N.S. Viliani1, S.M.R. Khalili [12] studied the active buckling control of smart functionally graded
(FG) plates using piezoelectric sensor/actuator patches. M.
Yaqoob Yasin, Nazeer Ahmad [10] presented the active vibration control of smart plate equipped with patched piezoelectric sensors and actuators. In most of present researches, FEM
formulation of smart cantilever beam is usually done by ANSYS and by design of control laws are carried out in MATLAB toolbox. The objective of this work is to design and
analysis of piezoelectric smart structures with control laws.
Proportional Output Feedback (POF) Controller, Proportional
Integral Derivative (PID) control law and Pole Placement
Technique is used to suppress the vibrations. The eigenvalues
of the closed loop system are also controlled with Pole Placement Technique. Numerical examples are presented to demonstrate the validity of the proposed design scheme. This paper has organized in to three parts, FEM formulation of piezoelectric smart structure with control laws, Numerical simulation and Conclusion.
2 MODELING OF SMART CANTILEVER BEAM
2.1 Finite Element Formulation of Beam Element
A beam element is considered with two nodes at its end.
Each node is having two degree of freedom (DOF) i.e.
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International Journal of Advancements in Research & Technology, Volume 1, Issue1, June-2012
ISSN 2278-7763
translation and rotation is considered. The shape functions
of the element are derived by applying boundary conditions. The mass and stiffness matrix is derived using shape
functions for the beam element. To obtain the mass and
stiffness matrix of smart beam element which consists of
two piezoelectric materials and a beam element, are added.
The global mass and stiffness matrix is formed. The boundary conditions are applied on the global matrices for the
cantilever beam. The first two rows and two columns
should be deleted as one end of the cantilever beam is
fixed. The actual response of the system i.e. the tip displacement is obtained for all the various models of the cantilever beam with and without the controllers.
éf1 (x)ù= éê1- 3x 2 / lb2 + 2 x3 / lb3 ù
ú
ë
û ë
û
2
[n]= éëf 2 (x)ùû= [ x - 2 x / lb + x3 / lb2 ]
(1)
éf3 (x)ù= [3x 2 / lb2 - 2 x3 / lb3 ]
ë
û
éf 4 (x)ù= - x 2 / lb + x3 / lb2 ]
ë
û
(3)
2
2.2 Beam with Piezoelectric at Different Positions
Fig1. Piezoelectric placed at the free end
(2)
(4)
Fig2. Piezoelectric placed at the middle
Where (n) gives the shape functions.
The equation of motion of the regular beam element is obtained by the lagrangian equation
é ù
d éê¶ T ù
ú+ ê¶ U ú= [Fi ]
ê ú
dt êë¶ qi ú
û ë¶ qi û b
b
b
as M q + K q = f (t )
b
b
(5)
(6)
b
Where M , K and F are the mass, stiffness and force
co-efficient vector matrices respectively of the regular beam
element. The mass and stiffness matrices are obtained as
é 156
22lb
54
- 13lb ù
ê
ú
2
ê
22lb
4lb
13lb
- 3lb2 ú
r
A
l
b
b
b
b
ê
ú
éM ù=
ê
ú ò 420 ê 54
ë
û
13lb
156
- 22lb ú
ê
ú
2
2
ê- 13l
ú
3
l
22
l
4
l
b
b
b
b
ë
û
é 12
ê 2
ê lb
ê
ê 6
ê
l
Eb I b ê
ê b
Kb =
lb ê
ê 12
ê l2
ê b
ê 6
ê
ê l
ê
ë b
6
lb
- 12
lb2
4
- 6
lb
- 6
lb
12
lb2
2
- 6
lb
6 ù
ú
lb ú
ú
ú
2 ú
ú
ú
- 6ú
ú
lb ú
ú
ú
4 ú
ú
ú
û
The equation of motion of the smart structure is finally
given by
Mq + Kq = fent + fcntrl = ft
(7)
Fig3. Piezoelectric placed at the fixed end
2.3 Sensor Equation
The total charge Q(t) developed on the sensor surface is the
spatial summation of all the point charges developed on the
sensor layer. Thus, the expression for the current generated is
obtained as
dQ (t ) d
i (t ) =
=
dt
dt
lp
òe
e dA = ze31b ò n1T qdx,
31 x
A
(8)
0
tb
+ ta
2
This current is converted into the open circuit sensor voltage
Vs using a signal-conditioning device with the gain Gc. The
sensor output voltage is obtained as
where
z=
lp
V (t ) = Gce31 zb ò n1T qdx,
s
(9)
0
This Where d31 is the piezoelectric constant, e31 is the piezoelectric stress / charge constant, Ep is the young’s modulus
and x is the strain that is produced.
t
Where M , K , q, f ent , f cntrl , f is the global mass matrix,
global stiffness matrix of the smart beam, the vector of displacements and slopes, and the external force applied to the
beam, the controlling force from the actuator and the total
force vector respectively.
2.4 Actuator Equation
The actuator strain is derived from the converse piezoelectric
equation. The strain developed ea on the actuator layer is
given by
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International Journal of Advancements in Research & Technology, Volume 1, Issue1, June-2012
ISSN 2278-7763
ea = d31E f
(10)
Where, d31 and Ef are the piezo strain constant and the electric
field respectively. When the input to the piezoelectric actuator
V a t is applied in the thickness adirection ta, the electric field,
Ef which is the voltage applied V t divided by the hickness
of the actuator ta and the stress, s a which is the actuator strain
multiplied by the young’s modulus Ep of the piezo actuator
layer are given by
()
()
V a (t )
Ef =
ta
Finally, the control force applied by the actuator is obtained as
f ctrl = E p d31bz ò n2dxV a (t )
(11)
lp
3
3 CONTROL LAWS
The various control laws such as one control law, which is
based on Proportional Output Feedback by assuming arbitrary
value and one classical control law Proportional Integral Derivative (PID) based on state feedback and one control law
which is based on Pole Placement by state feedback has been
explained as
3.1 Control with POF controller
In the first case, the responses are taken by giving impulse
input. The Proportional Output Feedback controller is designed by taking the arbitrary value of gain. Output Feedback control provides a more consequential design. The
responses are also plotted by changing the position of sensor and actuator on the beam i.e. free end, middle end and
fixed end.
Where z is the distance between the neutral axis of the beam
and the piezoelectric layer or can be expressed as a scalar vector product as
fctrl = hV a (t ) = hu (t )
(12)
n2T is the first spatial derivative of the shape function of
where
the flexible beam, hT is a constant vector which depends on the
type of actuator and its location on the beam, given by
u(t) is nothing but
h = éêë- E p d31bz 0 E p d31bz 0ù
ú
a
û and
the control input to the actuator, i.e. V t from the controller.
If any external forces are acting on the beam, then the total
force vector becomes
()
ft = fext + fctrl .
(13)
Fig. 4 Tip displacement of cantilever beam when piezoelectric patch placed on free end
2.5 State space model of the smart cantilever beam
The following equation can be written in state space from as
follows:
*
*
M * g + C * g + K * g = f ent
+ f ctrl
= ft*
Let the states of the system be defined as
éx1 ù
g = x = ê ú=
êx2 ú
ë û
éx3 ù
ê ú and g =
êx4 ú
ë û
éx3 ù
ê ú
êx4 ú
ë û
Now equation becomes
éx3 ù
éx3 ù
éx1 ù
*
*
M * ê ú+ c * ê ú+K* ê ú= r ent
+ r ctrl
êx4 ú
êx4 ú
êx2 ú
ë û
ë û
ë û
Fig. 5 Tip displacement of cantilever beam when piezoelectric patch placed on middle end
é 0
ù
1
ú
A = ê *- 1
êë- M K * - M *- 1C *ú
û
é 0
ù
B = ê *- 1 T ú
êëM T húû
C T = éêë0 PT T ù
ú
û
D=null matrix
é 0
ù
E = ê *- 1 T úr (t )
êëM T r ú
û
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International Journal of Advancements in Research & Technology, Volume 1, Issue1, June-2012
ISSN 2278-7763
Fig. 6 Tip displacement of cantilever beam when piezoelectric patch placed on fixed end
3.2 Control with PID controller
In a PID controller the control action s generated as a sum
of three terms. It is given by
G1 ( s ) = k p +
ki
+ kd s
s
4
end
3.3 Control with Pole placement technique
Pole Placement Technique is used to for the required control in which we can control according to the desired Eigen
vectors and frequency. The present design technique begins
with a determination of the desired closed-loop poles based on
the transient-response and/or frequency-response requirements such as Eigen vectors, damping ratio.
Kp = Proportional gain
KI = Integral gain
Kd = Derivative gain
We use
kd = 10, k p = 100, ki = 40
Fig. 7 Tip displacement of cantilever beam with and without PID controller when piezoelectric patch placed on free end
Fig. 8 Tip displacement of cantilever beam with and without PID controller when piezoelectric patch placed on middle
end
Fig. 10 Tip displacement of cantilever beam with and without Pole Placement technique when piezoelectric patch placed
on free end
Fig. 11 Tip displacement of cantilever beam with and without Pole Placement technique when piezoelectric patch placed
on middle end
Fig. 9 Tip displacement of cantilever beam with and without PID controller when piezoelectric patch placed on fixed
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Fig. 12 Tip displacement of cantilever beam with and without Pole Placement technique when piezoelectric material on
fixed end position
[5]
[6]
4
RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS
Present work deals with the mathematical formulation and
the computational model for the active vibration control of
a beam with piezoelectric smart structure. A general
scheme of analysing and designing piezoelectric smart
structures with control laws is successfully developed in
this study. It has been observed that without control the
transient response is predominant and with control laws,
sufficient vibrations attenuation can be achieved. Numerical simulation showed that modeling a smart structure by
including the sensor / actuator mass and stiffness and by
varying its location on the beam from the free end to the
fixed end introduced a considerable change in the system’s
structural vibration characteristics. From the responses of
the various locations of sensor/actuator on beam, it has
been observed that best performance of control is obtained,
when the piezoelectric element is placed at fixed end position.
[7]
[8]
[9]
[10]
[11]
[12]
[13]
[14]
[15]
[16]
[17]
[18]
5
Journal of Intelligent Material Systems and Structures 12 : 43 5-449, 2001a.
Benjeddou, A., and Deii, J.-F, “Piezoelectric transverse shear actuation and
sensing of plates, Part 2: Application and analysis’’, Journal of Intelligent Material 2001b.
Brij N Agrawal and Kirk E Treanor, “Shape control of a beam using piezoelectric actuators. Smart Material. Structure”. 8, 729–740, 1999.
Chori, S. B., Park, S. B., & Fukuda, T, “A proof of concept investigation on
Active vibration control of hybrid structures”. Mechatronics, 8, 673-689,
(1998).
Kapil Narwal and Deepak Chhabra, “Analysis of simple supported plate for
active vibration control with piezoelectric sensors and actuators”, IOSR Journal of Mechanical and Civil Engineering, Volume 1, Issue 1, 2278-1684, PP 2639
Kim V. V., Varadan, V. K. & Bao, X. Q., “Finite element modeling of a smart
cantilever plate and comparison with experiments”. Smart Materials and
Structures, 5, 165-170, 1996.
M. Yaqoob Yasin, Nazeer Ahmad, “Finite element analysis of actively controlled smart plate with patched actuators and sensors”. Latin American journal of solid and structure 7, 227 – 247,2010.
Manning, W. J., Plummer, A. R., & Levesley, “M. C. Vibration control of a
Flexible beam with integrated actuators and sensors”, Smart Materials and
Structures, 9, 932-939, 2000.
N.S. Viliani1, S.M.R. Khalili, “Buckling Analysis of FG Plate with Smart Sensor/Actuator’’. Journal of Solid Mechanics Vol. 1, No. 3, pp.201-212,2009.
Raja, S., Prathap G., & Sihna, P. K. “Active vibration control of composite
Sandwich beams with piezoelectric extension-bending and shear actuators”,
2002.
Singh, S. P., Pruthi, H. S., & Agarwal, V. P., “Efficient modal control strategies
for active control of vibrations”, Journal of Sound and Vibration, 262, 563575,2003.
Suleman, “Wind Tunnel Aero elastic Response of Piezoelectric and Aileron
Controlled 3-D Wing”. Can Smart Workshop Smart Materials and Structures,
Proceedings, Sep. 1998.
Sun, C.T., and Zhang, X.D., “Use of thickness-shear mode in adaptive sandwich structures”, Smart Materials and Structures 4: 202-206, 1995.
T. C. Manjunath, B. Bandyopadhyay, “Control of vibration in smart structure
using fast output sampling feedback technique’’, World Academy of Science,
Engineering and Technology 34, 2007.
Xu, S. X., & Koko, T. S, “Finite element analysis and design of actively Controlled piezoelectric smart structures”, Finite Elements in Analysis and Design, 40, 241-262, 2004.
Table 1 .Active Vibration control for different types of controller
REFERENCES
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
Baillargeon, B. P., & Vel, S. S,. “Active vibration suppression of sandwich
beams using shear actuators: experiments and numerical simulations’’, Journal of Intelligent Material Systems and Structures, 16, 517-530, 2005.
Baz and S. Poh , “Performance of an active control system with piezoelectric
actuators’’, Journal of Sound and Vibration, 126:327–343, 1988.
Benjeddou, A,, Trindade, M.A., and Ohayon, R, “New shear actuated smart
structure beam finite element’’, AIAA Journal 37(3): 378-3 83, 1999.
Benjeddou, A. and Deii, J.-F, “Piezoelectric transverse shear actuation and
sensing of plates, Part 1: A three-dimensional mixed state space formulation’’,
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Performance appraisal & promotion process: A measured approach
Jitendra Kumar , Kolkata, India
Email: jkoracle23@gmail.com Phone no. :+91 9038470689
Most of the companies have yearly performance appraisal process for their employees. This process involves rating of employees by their manager.
And Companies rely purely on manager’s state of thinking and perception. Humans have tendency to become biased, corrupt, give favor to some
employees whom they like. This favor is due to some other reasons e.g. personal reason, social reason, political reason, flattering. All these reasons
are not related to the work that the employee is doing for the organization.
Employee must concentrate only on doing their work, responsibility and activities that are useful to the organization and should not bother about their
performance appraisal.
The growth of an organization is based on the work the employees do. Growth is not achieved by keeping and encouraging non performers. The organization should encourage "the doers”. This will increase the efficiency of (a) the employee (who is doing the “work”) (b) the process and (c) the
organization.
Some points worth mentioning:
(1) Some managers lack evaluation and management skills. So, in most of the cases they are unable to handle the situation properly and tend to do
mistakes. To hide their mistakes they present wrong data to the management .Because of this incorrect data, the subordinates have to do more work
than prescribed by the organization. And in most of the cases, subordinates get wrong evaluation of their performance because of this wrong data.
(2) Employees have to perform continuously. They can’t use their past performance impression to gain benefits in the present work condition.
(3) Employee work must be measured regularly. The time delay between two measurements must not be too long.
If the delay is too long then (a) We might miss some work items done by the employee
(b) Fail to give correct weightage to a piece of work.
Weekly measurement is ideal.
(4) Employee performance calculation is supposed to be on the basis of performance with respect to the goal set at the beginning of appraisal cycle.
But in most of the cases employee goals that are set (1) are not clear (2) not precisely measurable (3) work to be done in future is not known clearly
at the beginning of appraisal cycle and sometimes it changes. So manager must have access to change the goal depending on the need.
Calculation of performance on regular basis answers few questions like
(a) What is employee’s current status of performance?
(b) What is required from the employee’s?
(c) How to improve?
Important thing is, these questions are answered regularly and not at the end of performance appraisal cycle. This improves performance, efficiency,
commitment, confidence in employees.
Below are the few examples of situations generally found in many of the organizations:
(1)In an organization under manager M there are two employees E1 and E2 working on the project P1.E2 has good personal relationship with M.
Productive work done by E1 is more than E2. Now project P1 does not require two resources and there is plan to remove one resource. E2 is retained
in the project (because of good repo with M).And a plan is there to remove E1 after the performance evaluation period. So this time, M decides to
give bad rating to E1 (as E1 is not going to continue in P1 in future). In spite of doing good work E1 doesn’t get the reward that he deserves and he
gets frustrated.
Now after the end of appraisal cycle E1 is moved to some other project. Last performance evaluation data of E1 is now with E1's new manager M2.
M2 gets the impression that E1 is not so good at work after seeing the previous performance evaluation .E1 now has to prove it again his worth in
the organization.
On the other hand E2, in spite of not performing well, enjoys the good rating, good rewards and promotion.
(2)There might be a case in which an employee joins a new department.
Sometimes, the just entered employee does not get a good rating (in spite of doing good work) in the next appraisal process. This is because that employee is new to the department and has no “contacts” in the department.
(3) There are cases in which the manager M1, who is measuring the performance of an employee E1, does not work directly with E1. M1, in this
case, depends on the feedback from another employee E2, who is currently monitoring E1. And M1 rely completely on the feed back from E2. E2
feedback might not be fair or correct.
The Algorithm
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This is a general idea or guide for performance appraisal process. Organizations are free to do the changes in the algorithm, depending on their need
but the core idea must not change. Below is the purpose of this algorithm
(0) Continuous evaluation: Measure the work of employees regularly so that
(a) No measurement parameter is missed (b) measurement is effective
(1) To put the performance evaluation process transparent to everyone in the organization.
(2) To increase employees confidence in the performance appraisal process.
(3) To increase the productivity of employee and of the organization.
(4) Prevents employee from wasting their time in unproductive work and doing corruption to get benefit or reward.
(5)Make the employee concentrate only on the work and not on unproductive activities.
(6) Benefits and rewards given to employee must be directly proportional to the work they do.
(7) To place an efficient, purposeful and good working culture in an organization.
(8) To increase healthy competition among employees.
(9)No Scope of favoritism.
(10) No hidden agenda, mischievous intention for an employee by other employees or by the organization.
(11)Feedback and areas of improvement is known regularly. This prevents year end surprise for an employee by the manager.
(12) Employee gets clear idea about their goal, current performance and areas of improvement regularly.
(13) Reduce conflicts.
(14) Make the performance appraisal process easier for managers.
(15) "Work" is the major parameter to measure an employee’s performance. Organization may decide some other parameters
in their policy which can be included along with “work” to measure an employee performance.
Performance Appraisal (PA) Algorithm has following steps:
Step 1: Define Performance number (PN) at organization and at project level.
Step2: Calculate the performance number regularly.
Step 3: Give rewards, increment based on performance number.
Steps details are below:
(1)Performance number (PN) definition process:
Performance number is a numeric value corresponding to a particular piece of work.
This is defined at two levels.
When defined at organizational level, this is called Organization Performance number policy (OPN).
When defined at project level, it is called project Performance number policy (PPN).
OPN Definition:
Organization must decide its organization performance number policy for each level and role.
Level here refers to designation or hierarchical level of the organization.
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Organization Performance Number (OPN)  This has numeric value (may be floating point value, decided by organization)
Some examples of factors that contributes to OPN
(a) On getting appreciations.
(b) Doing some work which benefited the organization
(c) Work which the organization has given some weightage that needs to be added in while calculating performance.
(d) Analysis, design, testing, implementation etc.
(f) Co-ordination, team building etc
It is better to break each OPN contributing factor into as many elements as possible and associate an OPN with each element.
More we break the work item, clearer and detailed definition of OPN will emerge.
OPN definition committee members are decided by the organization.
The OPN definition must be very comprehensive and revised frequently to improve the definition. On getting some better idea
of OPN definition, the current definition must change. This new definition might come from project performance number (PPN)
definition process or from some individuals or from some other source.
PPN Definition:
This number is similar to OPN. This is defined in detailed way at project level and the contributing factors are similar to that of OPN.
This is also not fixed and it is a continuous improving process. On getting some better idea of PPN definition, the current definition must change.
PPN definition committee contains all the project team members, managers and at least one member of OPN definition committee. The
PPN points must be in matching pattern with the OPN policy (in general).
There might be some cases where PPN definition does not match with the organization policy. But the difference must not be too high.
If the team is finding that it is not logical to be in the same pattern with the OPN policy, then they must propose this to the OPN definition
committee. The OPN definition committee has to look into this and may
change the OPN policy.
(2) Performance Number calculation process:
The manager calculates the weekly PPN and this calculation is not relative to other employees. No question of relativity arises in this process.
It is better to calculate the PPN twice in a week .First calculation at the mid of the week and last calculation at the end of the week. PPN calculation
must not go beyond two weeks .Otherwise; it will not be effective because people tend to forget the things. The weightage of performance may
not be identified after a long time effectively and correctly. If the calculation process is too late, we may forget something to add which is necessary
or may add something which is unnecessary.
At the start of yearly performance appraisal process the PPN, also known as master PPN, of each employee is set to zero. To calculate PPN, a meeting is scheduled .In PPN calculation meeting the team, the manager and the moderator are present.
The Manager evaluates the performance of each team member and prepares current measurement cycle PPN. This current PPN is added to the master
PPN in presence of the team.
During calculation process the whole team should be present so that they can see if the calculation of every one is happening properly .At PPN calculation time the master PPN and the current PPN ,just calculated, is visible to the whole team.
Any issue arising out of the meeting must be routed to the moderator for resolution. And after getting resolution the current PPN is revised.
Role of moderator: Moderator is the hawk eye on the calculation process.
Moderator has to ensure
(1) Calculation is taking place fairly and with no discrepancy.
(2) Calculation is taking place according to OPN and PPN policy.
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(3) The grievance are addressed properly .If needed the moderator can seek the help of other moderators or OPN definition committee members.
(4) If new PPN definition is proposed then it must be passed to OPN definition committee to evaluate.
Moderator is invisible to the whole team and the manager.
Only written and verbal communication is done. The setup is such that the team and the manager never get the idea about the identity of the moderator and vice versa. Make both sides invisible to each other. This will help in transparency and no favoritism by the moderator.
This invisibility and masking is important.
Example: case 1: Moderator M identity is known to team member M1.
M1 may influence M to give him favor in any dispute.
Case 2: Moderator M identity is known to manager MGR.
MGR may influence M to give him the favor in any dispute.
Case 3: Moderator M1 is manager of project P1. Moderator M2 is manager of project P2.
M1 and M2 know each other. There might be the case that M1 is moderating P2 and M2 is moderating P1. Both M1 and M2
might bend the rule in their favor and do incorrect calculation.
Below is an example of PPN versus employee graph.
Above flow chart indicates employees project performance number in a project.
X axis represnts performance number and Y axis represents individual employee shown as e1,e2,e3..
(3) Rewards and recognition process:
Rewards and recognition is directly proportional to the PPN earned by an employee. The Organization decides whether the reward is distributed
based on Level or role of an employee.
For each employee, there will be a level performance number (LPN) for a level .Change in LPN will be done at the end of yearly appraisal cycle and
the change is directly proportional to the PPN earned . When ever there is plan to move some employees from one level to other level (it is called
promotion in most of the cases) then this LPN is the only reference document.
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This movement may be from higher level to lower level or lower level to higher level. Top LPN holders are moved first (in the movement from lower
level to higher level).
When ever one employee is moved from one level to other then the employees LPN is set to zero. And each year the LPN is revised (some points
added or deducted).LPN will remain present till the employee stays in that level. So the life of the LPN is for a particular level only. New level corresponds to new LPN.
There is a Set rating number (SRN) .SRN is any floating or whole number decided by the organization. SRN is a variable. It might be same for a
level or same for a project or same for a role, or some other factors. But it must be common for a group.
Reward or increment at the end of appraisal cycle is calculated as below:
Total reward (TR) = PPN*SRN *base pay
Base pay is decided by the organization. It might be (a) level base pay which is fixed for a level and this is implemented at every position or (b) the
last years pay.
This total reward might be increment or one time payment or any other thing.
Yearly performance appraisal cycle flow:
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Promotion flow:
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
I wish to thank Arvind Pal Singh, Vishal Narula and Varun Lakhotia for their review and important suggestion to improve this
work.
REFRENCES: NO REFRENCES
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On New Separation Axioms Via γ-Open Sets*
Hariwan Z. Ibrahim
Department of Mathematics, Faculty of Science, University of Zakho, Kurdistan-Region, Iraq.
Email: hariwan_math@yahoo.com
ABSTRACT
In this paper, we introduce two new classes of topological spaces called γ-R0 and γ-R1 spaces in terms of the concept of γ-open
sets and investigate some of their fundamental properties.
Keywords : γ-open, γ-closure, γ-R0 spaces and γ-R1 spaces.
1 INTRODUCTION
T
HE notion of R0 topological spaces is introduced by Shanin
[4] in 1943. Later, Davis [2] rediscovered it and studied
some properties of this weak separation axiom. In the
same paper, Davis also introduced the notion of R1 topological
space which are independent of both T0 and T1 but strictly
weaker than T2. The notion of γ-open sets was introduced by
Ogata [3]. In this paper, we continue the study of the above
mentioned classes of topological spaces satisfying these
axioms by introducing two more notions in terms of γ-open
sets called γ-R0 and γ-R1.
2 Preliminaries
Throughout the present paper, (X, τ) and (Y, σ) (or simply X
and Y) denotes a topological spaces on which no separation
axioms is assumed unless explicitly stated. Let A be a subset of
a topological space X. The closure of A is denoted by Cl(A).
Definition 2.1. [3] Let (X, τ) be a topological space. An operation
γ on the topology τ is a mapping from τ in to power set P(X) of X
such that V ⊆ γ(V) for each V ∈ τ, where γ (V) denotes the value of
γ at V.
Definition 2.2. [3] A subset A of a topological spac (X, τ) is
called γ-open set if for each x ∈ A there exists an open set U
such that x ∈ U and γ(U) ⊆ A. Complements of γ-open sets are
called γ-closed.
γO(X) denotes the collection of all γ-open sets of (X, τ).
Moreover, γC(X) denotes the collection of all γ-closed sets of
(X, τ).
Definition 2.3. *1+ A γ-nbd of x ∈ X is a set U of X which contains a γ-open set V containing x.
Definition 2.4. *3+ The intersection of all γ-closed sets containing A is called the γ-closure of A and is denoted by τγ-Cl(A).
3 γ-R0 and γ-R1 spaces
We introduce the following definitions.
Definition 3.1. Let A be a subset of a topological space (X, τ)
and γ be an operation on τ. The γ-kernel of A, denoted by
γker(A) is defined to be the set
γker(A) = ∩ {U ∈ γO(X): A ⊆ U}.
Lemma 3.2. Let (X, τ) be a topological space with an operation
γ on τ and x ∈ X. Then y ∈ γker(,x}) if and only if x ∈ τγCl({y}).
Proof. Suppose that yγker(,x}). Then there exists a γ-open set
V containing x such that y  V. Therefore, we have x  τγCl({y}). The proof of the converse case can be done similarly.
Theorem 3.3. Let (X, τ) be a topological space with an operation γ on τ and A be a subset of X. Then, γker(A) = ,x ∈ X: τγCl(,x}) ∩ A≠ φ}.
Proof. Let x ∈ γker(A) and suppose τγ-Cl({x}) ∩ A = φ. Hence x
 X \τγ-Cl(,x}) which is a γ-open set containing A. This is impossible, since x ∈ γker(A). Consequently, τγ-Cl(,x}) ∩ A≠ φ.
Next, let x ∈ X such that τγ-Cl(,x}) ∩ A≠ φ and suppose that x 
γker(A). Then, there exists a γ-open set V containing A and x
 V. Let y ∈ τγ-Cl(,x}) ∩ A. Hence, V is a γ-nbd of y which does
not contain x. By this contradiction x ∈ γker(A) and the claim.
Theorem 3.4. The following properties hold for the subsets A,
B of a topological space (X, τ) with an operation γ on τ:
1.
A ⊆ γker(A).
2.
A ⊆ B implies that γker(A) ⊆ γker(B).
3.
If A is γ-open in (X, τ), then A = γker(A).
4.
γker(γker(A)) = γker(A).
Proof. (1), (2) and (3) are immediate consequences of
Definition 3.1. To prove (4), first observe that by (1) and (2), we
have γker(A) ⊆ γker(γker(A)). If x  γker(A), then there exists
U ∈ γO(X) such that A ⊆ U and x  U. Hence γker(A) ⊆ U,
and so we have x  γker(γker(A)). Thus γker(γker(A)) =
γker(A).
Definition 3.5. A topological space (X, τ) with an operation
operation γ on τ, is said to be γ-R0 if U is a γ-open set and x ∈
U then τγ-Cl({x}) ⊆ U.
Theorem 3.6. For a topological space (X, τ) with an operation γ
operation γ on τ, the following properties are equivalent:
1. (X, τ) is γ-R0.
2. For any F ∈ γC(X), x  F implies F ⊆ U and x  U for
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3.
4.
some U ∈ γO(X).
For any F ∈ γC(X), x  F implies F ∩ τγ-Cl(,x}) = φ.
For any distinct points x and y of X, either τγ-Cl({x}) =
τγ-Cl(,y}) or τγ-Cl(,x}) ∩ τγ-Cl(,y}) = φ.
Proof. (1) ⇒ (2). Let F ∈ γC(X) and x  F. Then by (1), τγ-Cl({x})
⊆ X \ F . Set U = X \τγ-Cl({x}), then
U is a γ-open set
such that F ⊆ U and x  U.
(2) ⇒ (3). Let F ∈ γC(X) and x  F. There exists U ∈ γO(X) such
that F ⊆ U and x  U. Since U ∈ γO(X), U ∩ τγ-Cl(,x}) = φ and
F ∩ τγ-Cl(,x}) = φ.
(3) ⇒ (4). Suppose that τγ-Cl({x}) ≠ τγ-Cl({y}) for distinct
points x, y ∈ X. There exists z ∈ τγ-Cl({x}) such that z  τγCl({y}) (or z ∈ τγ-Cl({y}) such that z  τγ-Cl({x})). There exists V
∈ γO(X) such that y V and z ∈ V; hence x ∈ V. Therefore, we
have x  τγ-Cl({y}). By (3), we obtain τγ-Cl(,x}) ∩ τγ-Cl(,y}) = φ.
(4) ⇒ (1). let V ∈ γO(X) and x ∈ V. For each y  V, x ≠ yand x 
τγ-Cl(,y}). This shows that τγ-Cl({x}) ≠ τγ-Cl(,y}). By (4), τγCl(,y}) = φ for each y ∈ X\V and hence τγ-Cl(,x}) ∩ (∪y∈X\V τγCl(,y})) = φ. On other hand, since V ∈ γO(X) and y ∈ X\V, we
have τγ-Cl({y}) ⊆ X \ V and hence X \ V = ∪ y∈X \V τγ-Cl({y}).
Therefore, we obtain (X \ V ) ∩ τγ-Cl(,x}) = φ and τγ-Cl({x}) ⊆
V. This shows that (X, τ) is a γ-R0 space.
Theorem 3.7. For a topological space (X, τ) with an operation γ
on τ, the following properties are equivalent:
1. (X, τ) is γ-R0.
2. x ∈ τγ-Cl({y}) if and only if y ∈ τγ-Cl({x}), for any
points x and y in X.
Proof. (1) ⇒ (2). Assume that X is γ-R0. Let x ∈ τγ-Cl({y}) and V
be any γ-open set such that y ∈ V. Now by hypothesis, x ∈ V.
Therefore, every γ-open set which contain y contains x. Hence
y ∈ τγ-Cl({x}).
(2) ⇒ (1). Let U be a γ-open set and x ∈ U. If y  U, then x  τγCl({y}) and hence y  τγ-Cl(,x}). This implies that τγ-Cl({x}) ⊆
U. Hence (X, τ) is γ-R0.
Theorem 3.8. The following statements are equivalent for any
points x and y in a topological space (X, τ) with an operation γ
on τ:
1. γker(,x}) ≠ γker(,y}).
2. τγ-Cl({x}) ≠ τγ-Cl({y}).
Proof. (1) ⇒ (2). Suppose that γker(,x}) ≠ γker(,y}), then there
exists a point z in X such that z ∈ γker(,x}) and z  γker(,y}).
From z ∈ γker(,x}) it follows that ,x} ∩ τγ-Cl({z}) ≠ φ which implies x ∈ τγ-Cl({z}). By z  γker(,y}), we have ,y} ∩ τγ-Cl({z}) =
φ. Since x ∈ τγ-Cl({z}), τγ-Cl({x}) ⊆ τγ-Cl({z}) and ,y} ∩ τγ-Cl({x})
= φ. Therefore, it follows that τγ-Cl({x}) ≠ τγ-Cl({y}). Now
γker(,x}) ≠ γker(,y}) implies that τγ-Cl({x}) ≠ τγ-Cl({y}).
(2) ⇒ (1). Suppose that τγ-Cl({x}) ≠ τγ-Cl({y}). Then there exists
a point z in X such that z ∈ τγ-Cl({x}) and z  τγ-Cl({y}). Then,
there exists a γ-open set containing z and therefore x but not y,
namely, y  γker(,x}) and thus γker(,x}) ≠ γker(,y}).
Theorem 3.9. Let(X, τ) be a topological space and γ be an operation on τ. Then ∩ ,τγ-Cl({x}) : x ∈ X} = φ if and only if
2
γker(,x}) ≠ X for every x ∈ X.
Proof. Necessity. Suppose that ∩,τγ-Cl({x}) : x ∈ X} = φ. Assume that there is a point y in X such that γker(,y}) = X. Let x
be any point of X. Then x ∈ V for every γ-open set V containing y and hence y ∈ τγ-Cl({x}) for any x ∈ X. This implies that y
∈ ∩ ,τγ-Cl({x}) : x ∈ X}. But this is a contradiction.
Sufficiency. Assume that γker(,x}) ≠ X for every x ∈ X. If there
exists a point y in X such that y ∈ ∩ ,τγ-Cl({x}) : x ∈ X}, then
every γ-open set containing y must contain every point of X.
This implies that the space X is the unique γ-open set containing y. Hence γker(,y}) = X which is a contradiction. Therefore,
∩ ,τγ-Cl({x}) : x ∈ X} = φ.
Theorem 3.10. A topological space (X, τ) with an operation γ
on τ is γ-R0 if and only if for every x and y in X,
τγ-Cl({x}) ≠ τγ-Cl(,y}) implies τγ-Cl(,x}) ∩ τγ-Cl(,y}) = φ.
Proof. Necessity. Suppose that (X, τ) is γ-R0 and τγ-Cl({x})≠ τγCl({y}). Then, there exists z ∈ τγ-Cl({x}) such that z  τγ-Cl({y})
(or z ∈ τγ-Cl({y}) such that z  τγ-Cl({x})). There exists V ∈
γO(X) such that y  V and z ∈ V, hence x ∈ V. Therefore, we
have x  τγ-Cl({y}). Thus x ∈ [X \τγ-Cl({y})] ∈ γO(X), which
implies τγ-Cl({x}) ⊆ [X \ τγ-Cl(,y})+ and τγ-Cl(,x}) ∩ τγ-Cl({y}) =
φ.
Sufficiency. Let V ∈ γO(X) and let x ∈ V. We still show that τγCl({x}) ⊆ V. Let y  V, that is y ∈ X\V. Then x ≠ y and x τγCl(,y}). This shows that τγ-Cl({x}) ≠ τγ-Cl({y}). By assumption,
τγ-Cl(,x}) ∩ τγ-Cl(,y}) = φ. Hence y  τγ-Cl(,x}) and therefore τγCl({x}) ⊆ V .
Theorem 3.11. A topological space (X, τ) with an operation γ
on τ is γ -R0 if and only if for any points x and y in X, γker(,x})
≠ γker(,y}) implies γker(,x}) ∩ γker(,y}) = φ.
Proof. Suppose that (X, τ) is a γ-R0 space. Thus by Theorem
3.8, for any points x and y in X if γker(,x}) ≠ γker(,y}) then τγCl({x}) ≠ τγ-Cl(,y}). Now we prove that γker(,x}) ∩ γker(,y}) =
φ. Assume that z ∈ γker(,x}) ∩ γker(,y}). By z ∈ γker(,x}) and
Lemma 3.2, it follows that x ∈ τγ-Cl({z}). Since x ∈ τγ-Cl({x}), by
Theorem 3.6, τγ-Cl(,x}) = τγ-Cl({z}). Similarly, we have τγCl(,y}) = τγ-Cl(,z}) = τγ-Cl({x}). This is a contradiction. Therefore, we have γker(,x}) ∩ γker(,y}) = φ.
Conversely, let (X, τ) be a topological space such that for any
points x and y in X, γker(,x}) ≠ γker(,y}) implies γker(,x}) ∩
γker(,y}) = φ. If τγ-Cl({x}) ≠ τγ-Cl({y}), then by Theorem 3.8,
γker(,x}) ≠ γker(,y}). Hence, γker(,x}) ∩ γker(,y}) = φ which
implies τγ-Cl(,x}) ∩ τγ-Cl(,y}) = φ. Because z ∈ τγ-Cl({x}) implies
that x ∈ γker(,z}) and therefore γker(,x}) ∩ γker(,z}) ≠ φ. By
hypothesis, we have γker(,x}) = γker(,z}). Then z ∈ τγ-Cl(,x}) ∩
τγ-Cl(,y}) implies that γker(,x}) = γker(,z}) = γker(,y}). This is a
contradiction. Therefore, τγ-Cl(,x}) ∩ τγ-Cl({y}) = φ and by
Theorem 3.6, (X, τ) is a γ-R0 space.
Theorem 3.12. For a topological space (X, τ) with an operation
operation γ on τ, the following properties are equivalent:
1. (X, τ) is a γ-R0 space.
2. For any non-empty set there exists F ∈ γC(X) such
that A ∩ F ≠ φ and F ⊆ G.
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3. For any G ∈ γO(X), we have G = ∪ {F ∈ γC (X): ⊆ G}.
4. For any F ∈ γC(X), we have F = ∩ {G ∈ γO(X): F ⊆ G}.
5. For every x ∈ X, τγ-Cl({x}) ⊆ γker(,x}).
Proof. (1) ⇒ (2). Let A be a non-empty subset of X and G ∈
γO(X) such that A ∩ G ≠ φ. There exists x ∈ A ∩ G. Since x ∈ G
∈ γO(X), τγ-Cl({x}) ⊆ G. Set F = τγ-Cl({x}), then F ∈ γC(X), F ⊆
G and A ∩ F ≠ φ.
(2) ⇒ (3). Let G ∈ γO(X), then G ⊇ ∪ {F ∈ γC(X): F ⊆ G}. Let x
be any point of G. There exists F ∈ γC(X) such that x ∈ F and F
⊆ G. Therefore, we have x ∈ F ⊆ ∪ {F ∈ γC (X): F⊆ G} and
hence G = ∪ {F ∈ γC(X): F ⊆ G}.
(3) ⇒ (4). Obvious.
(4) ⇒ (5). Let x be any point of X and y  γker(,x}). There exists V ∈ γO(X) such that x ∈ V and y  V, hence τγ-Cl(,y}) ∩ V
= φ. By (4), (∩ {G ∈ γO(X): τγ-Cl({y}) ⊆ G}) ∩ V = φ and there
exists G ∈ γO(X) such that x  G and τγ-Cl({y}) ⊆ G. Therefore
τγ-Cl(,x}) ∩ G = φ and y  τγ-Cl({x}). Consequently, we obtain
τγ-Cl({x}) ⊆ γker(,x}).
(5) ⇒ (1). Let G ∈ γO(X) and x ∈G. Let y ∈ γker(,x}), then x ∈
τγ-Cl({y}) and y ∈ G. This implies that γker(,x}) ⊆ G. Therefore,
we obtain x ∈ τγ-Cl({x}) ⊆ γker(,x}) ⊆ G. This shows that (X, τ)
is a γ-R0 space.
Corollary 3.13. For a topological space (X, τ) with an operation
γ on τ, the following properties are equivalent:
1. (X, τ) is a γ-R0 space.
2. τγ-Cl(,x}) = γker(,x}) for all x ∈ X.
Proof. (1) ⇒ (2). Suppose that (X, τ) is a γ-R0 space. By Theorem 3.12, τγ-Cl({x}) ⊆ γker(,x}) for each x ∈ X. Let y ∈ γker(,x}),
then x ∈ τγ-Cl(,y}) and by Theorem 3.6, τγ-Cl(,x}) = τγ-Cl({y}).
Therefore, y ∈ τγ-Cl(,x}) and hence γker(,x}) ⊆ τγ-Cl({x}). This
shows that τγ-Cl(,x}) = γker(,x}).
(2) ⇒ (1). Follows from Theorem 3.12.
Theorem 3.14. For a topological space (X, τ) with an operation
γ on τ, the following properties are equivalent:
1.
(X, τ) is a γ-R0 space.
2.
If F is γ-closed, then F = γker(F).
3.
If F is γ-closed and x ∈ F, then γker(,x}) ⊆ F.
4.
If x ∈ X, then γker(,x}) ⊆ τγ-Cl({x}).
Proof. (1) ⇒ (2). Let F be a γ-closed and x  F. Thus (X\F) is a
γ-open set containing x. Since (X, τ) is γ-R0, τγ-Cl({x}) ⊆ (X\F).
Thus τγ-Cl({x}) ∩ F = φ and by Theorem 3.3, x  γker(F). Therefore γker(F) = F.
(2) ⇒ (3). In general, A ⊆ B implies γker(A) ⊆ γker(B). Therefore, it follows from (2), that γker(,x}) ⊆ γker(F ) = F.
(3) ⇒ (4). Since x ∈ τγ-Cl(,x}) and τγ-Cl(,x}) is γ-closed, by (3),
γker(,x}) ⊆ τγ-Cl({x}).
(4) ⇒ (1). We show the implication by using Theorem 3.7. Let x
∈ τγ-Cl({y}). Then by Lemma 3.2, y ∈ γker(,x}). Since x ∈ τγCl(,x}) and τγ-Cl(,x}) is γ-closed, by (4), we obtain y ∈ γker(,x})
⊆ τγ-Cl({x}). Therefore x ∈ τγ-Cl({y}) implies y ∈ τγ-Cl({x}). The
converse is obvious and (X, τ) is γ-R0.
Definition 3.15. A topological space (X, τ) with an operation γ
on τ, is said to be γ-R1 if for x, y in X with τγ-Cl({x}) ≠ τγCopyright © 2012 SciResPub.
3
Cl(,y}), there exist disjoint γ-open sets U and V such that τγCl({x}) ⊆ U and τγ-Cl({y}) ⊆ V.
Theorem 3.16. For a topological space (X, τ) with an operation
γ on τ, the following statements are equivalent:
1. (X, τ) is γ-R1.
2. If x, y ∈ X such that τγ-Cl({x}) ≠ τγ-Cl({y}), then there
exist γ-closed sets F1and F2such that x ∈ F1, y  F1, y ∈
F2, x  F2 and X = F1 ∪ F2.
Proof. Obvious.
Theorem 3.17. If (X, τ) is γ-R1, then (X, τ) is γ-R0.
Proof. Let U be γ-open such that x ∈ U. If y U, since x  τγCl(,y}), we have τγ-Cl({x}) ≠ τγ-Cl(,y}). So, there exists a γ-open
set V such that τγ-Cl({y}) ⊆ V and x  V, which implies y  τγCl({x}). Hence τγ-Cl({x}) ⊆ U . Therefore, (X, τ) is γ-R0.
The converse of the above Theorem need not be ture in general
as shown in the following example.
Example 3.18. Consider X = {a, b, c} with the discrete topology
on X. Define an operation γ on τ by γ(A) = A if A = {a, b} or {a,
c} or {b, c} and γ(A) = X otherwise. Then X is a γ-R0 space but
not a γ-R1 space.
Corollary 3.19. A topological space (X, τ) with an operation γ
on τ is γ-R1 if and only if for x, y ∈ X, γker(,x}) ≠ γker(,y}),
there exist disjoint γ-open sets U and V such that τγ-Cl({x}) ⊆
U and τγ-Cl({y}) ⊆ V.
Proof. Follows from Theorem 3.8.
Theorem 3.20. A topological space (X, τ) is γ-R1 if and only if x
∈ X\τγ-Cl(,y}) implies that x and y have disjoint γ-nbds.
Proof. Necessity. Let x ∈ X\τγ-Cl({y}). Then τγ-Cl({x}) ≠ τγCl(,y}), so, x and y have disjoint γ-nbds.
Sufficiency. First, we show that (X, τ) is γ-R0. Let U be a γopen set and x ∈ U. Suppose that y  U. Then, τγ-Cl(,y}) ∩ U =
φ and x  τγ-Cl({y}). There exist γ-open sets Ux and Uy such
that x ∈ Ux, y ∈ Uy and Ux ∩ Uy = φ. Hence, τγ-Cl({x}) ⊆ τγCl(Ux) and τγ-Cl(,x}) ∩ Uy ⊆ τγ-Cl(Ux) ∩ Uy = φ. Therefore, y 
τγ-Cl({x}). Consequently, τγ-Cl({x}) ⊆ U and (X, τ) is γ-R0. Next,
we show that (X, τ) is γ-R1. Suppose that τγ-Cl({x}) ≠ τγ-Cl({y}).
Then, we can assume that there exists z ∈ τγ-Cl({x}) such that z
τγ-Cl(,y}). There exist γ-open sets Vz and Vy such that z ∈ Vz,
y ∈ Vy
And Vz ∩ Vy = φ. Since z ∈ τγ-Cl({x}), x ∈ Vz. Since (X, τ) is γ-R0,
we obtain τγ-Cl({x}) ⊆ Vz, τγ-Cl({y}) ⊆ Vy and Vz ∩ Vy = φ. This
shows that (X, τ) is γ-R1.
REFERENCES
[1]
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[3]
[4]
Ahmad, B. and Hussain, S., Properties of γ-operations in Topological
Spaces, The Aligarh Bulletin of Mathematics, 22 (1) (2003), 45-51.
Davis, A. S., Indexed systems of neighborhoods for general topological spaces, Amer. Math. Monthly, 68 (1961), 886-893.
Ogata, H., Operation on topological spaces and associated topology,
Math. Japonica, 36 (1) (1991), 175-184.
Shanin, N. A., On separation in topological spaces, Dokl. Akad.
Nauk. SSSR, 38 (1943), 110-113.
14
International Journal of Advancements in Research & Technology, Volume 1, Issue1, June-2012
ISSN 2278-7763
1
Temperature Based Condition Monitoring of Rail and
Structural Mill
Lakhan Patidar, Chitragupt Swaroop Chitransh, K.U. Rao
1
Asst. Prof., Department of Mechanical Engineering, SIRT-Excellence, Bhopal, Email Id:- lakhanmanit@rediffmailmail.com, Chitragupt
Swaroop Chitransh
2
M-Tech Student, Department of Mechanical Engineering, MANIT, Bhopal, Email Id:- chitransh86@yahoo.com, K.U. Rao
3
DGM in CBMS Department SAIL BSP, Bhilai (C.G.), Email Id:- kurao@sail-bhilaisteel.com
Abstract— today in this competitive market it is necessary to reduce
shutdowns and to increase our production rate. For this purpose we
apply Condition Monitoring Methods. SAIL is the world‟s largest
producer of rails with an installed capacity to produce 500 000 tons of
rails and 250 000 tons of structural‟s. Bhilai is also the sole supplier
of the country's longest rail tracks of 260 meters. Infrared
Thermography is the latest Condition Monitoring technique that is
adopted in Bhilai Steel Plant. Predictive Maintenance schemes are
being practiced in Bhilai Steel Plant to monitor the health of the
equipment and identify potential problems well in advance and plan
remedial measures, thereby avoiding unwanted failures.
Keywords: Predictive Maintenance, Thermo vision camera, Thermo
graphic image viewer software, Rail and Structural Mill, Temperature
Based Condition Monitoring, Thermo graphic images
—————————— ——————————
I. INTRODUCTION
Rail and Structural Mill in Bhilai Steel Plant produces mainly
rails and heavy structural‟s and is equipped with many complex
electrical drives. So, it is necessary to do proper health
monitoring of equipments. For this purpose we apply predictive
maintenance tool. In addition regular maintenance practices,
Thermography, a condition monitoring technique is also
applied to evaluate the condition of related electrical
equipments and cables, reactor, DC Circuit breaker, cable
joints etc., to prevent any unforeseen breakdowns. The main
reason behind to do Thermography, it is a non invasive non
contact method for even far away locations with higher
accuracy.
II. METHOD
Firstly we take thermal images of a particular region or surface,
and then we apply analytical approach with the help of Thermo
graphic image viewer software, if there found any higher
temperature on any point then we mark them as hot spots. With
the help of hot spots we are able to find out higher side
temperature range on a particular point. It is a modern approach
to find out hot spots in our shorter time. Through this technique
we can generate hot spots on different points on a single
surface. Accuracy level may be vary depends on software user.
The Major Profiles Produced in the RSM Mill are
1. Rails
a) IRS 52 Kg/m
b) Thick Web Asymmetric Rail
2. Heavy Beams
a) 600 * 210 * 12 mm
b) 500 * 180 * 10.2 mm
c) 450 * 150 * 9.4 mm
d) 400 * 140 * 8.9 mm
e) 350 * 140 * 7.5 mm
f) 50 * 125 * 6.9 mm
3. Channels
a) 400 * 100 * 8.8 mm
b) 300 * 90 * 7.6 mm
c) 250 * 82 * 7.6 mm
4. Angles
a) 200 * 200 * 20/16 mm
b) 150 * 150 * 20/16 mm
5.) Crane Rails
a) CR 120
b) CR 100
c) CR 80
6.) Crossing Sleepers
a) It depends as per requirement 80kg/mm², 100 kg/mm²,
120 kg/mm².
Introduction of Power Supply Units
For 1 D motor:
 Power capacity: 4 MW ,
 Speed : 70 rpm
 Current carrying capacity : 4940 amp
 Supply : 865 V
For 2D motor:
 Power capacity: 7.1 MW
 Speed : 90 rpm
 Current carrying capacity : 6190 amp
 Supply : 8040 V
Transformer: 11KV and 6.6 kV, capacity to step down
11000V, 6600V into 850V supply.
Different components used in power transmission unit for RSM
a) Copper cables 150 square mm.
b) Normal nut bolt joints.
c) Circuit Breaker, Load bearing capacity up to 8KA.
d) Reactors, to filter current into pure D.C.
Supply.
e) Thyristors, to convert AC supply into DC supply.
f) D.C. motor, to supply rectified power in different
Sections.
III. PURPOSE TO DO THERMOGRAPHY
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In Bhilai Steel Plant, Rail and Structural Mill Shop Machine
works on very high temperature to produce temperature up to
1300°c. So proper temperature monitoring is essential to reduce
hazards. To reduce hazards of failure we apply Thermography.
Thermo graphic Images of Different Power Units at Rail &
Structural Mill (RSM) Shop, Sail BSP.
(Before Repair)
(After Repair)
Fig.4 Description: RSM 2D DCCB1 Reactor bottom
(Before Repair)
(After Repair)
Fig.1 Description RSM Busbar of 1DDCCB2 (At shunt)
(Before Repair)
(After Repair)
Fig.5 Description: RSM 2D DCCB2 Reactor
(Before Repair)
(After Repair)
Fig.2 Description RSM Busbar of 1DDCCB1 (At Shunt)
(Before Repair)
(After Repair)
Fig.3 Description: RSM Bus bar of 1D DCCB
(Before Repair)
(After Repair)
Fig.6 Description: RSM 1D/2 Reactors
(Before Repair)
(After Repair)
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Fig.7 Description: RSM 2D DCCB outgoing
3
Temp◦c ↑
Readings on 15/03/2010→
Discussions
IV. RESULT AND DISCUSSIONS
Graph1.)
Above graph shows that readings taken on 15/03/2010 having
higher side temperature readings, when we compared it with
previous readings at 1,2,3,4,5 it shows temperature more than
caution range then we mark it as in alarm range generally
represented by red color. But at 6, 7 temperatures is in caution
range generally represented by yellow color. To reduce
temperature at different units firstly check for looseness of
joints and cables, if fault not found then we cut a loop of cable
for testing purpose. It is generally cut where temperature range
is in alarm range. After testing if there problem exist
insulation then we change cable for that particular area. But in
this case, temperature increasing due to looseness of joints.
After tightening of joints temperature come into its normal
range.
Temp◦c ↑
Readings on 15/02/2010→
Where, 1 = Temperature at bus bar of 1D DCCB2.
2 = Temperature at bus bar of 1D DCCB2.
3 = Temperature at outgoing bus bar of
1DDCCB Bottom.
4 = Temperature at 2D DCCB1 reactor.
5 = Temperature at 2D DCCB2 reactor.
6 = Temperature at 1D/2 reactor.
7 = Temperature at 2D DCCB outgoing.
Discussions
Above graph shows reading taken on 15/02/2010 at different
power supply units of Rail & Structural Mill Shop, BSP. With
the help of graph we can easily find out temperature range for
different power units represented by 1,2,3,4,5,6,7. In this graph
1, 3, 4,5,6,7 having temperature of normal range but at 2
temperatures are more than normal range which marked as in
caution range. Generally represented by yellow color.
Graph2.)
Graph3.)
Temp◦c↑
Readings on 20/03/2010→
Discussions:
Above graph shows that readings taken on 20/03/2010 still
having higher side temperature at 4, 5, then we marked it as in
caution range. Other readings are in normal range. To reduce
this excessive temperature, we check looseness of cables and
joints if there found any looseness then resolve it by taking
proper action. The reason for increasing temperature at 4, 5 is
looseness of clamping nut bolts. After repair temperature is
minimized.
Graph4.)
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benefits which show that Thermography is a very effective
predictive tool to reduce catastrophic hazards in our short time.
The above mentioned applications clearly indicate the
usefulness of Infrared Thermography as an effective condition
monitoring tool. Locating the surface „Hot spots‟ developed
due to internal defects in critical units and loose connections in
electrical joints well in advance and taking corrective
measures well in time
has helped in avoiding many
breakdown in Bhilai Steel Plant. Thus Infrared Thermography
utilizing Thermo vision camera has become a very powerful
resource for Predictive Maintenance in Bhilai Steel Plant.
Temp◦c↑
Readings on 25/03/2010→
Discussions
Above graph shows that all readings are in normal range taken
on 25/03/2010.It shows that no maintenance work is needed at
this stage. With the help of „hot spots‟ we can easily find out
excessive temperature at a particular point.
Remedies
 Installation of highly resistive copper nut bolts.
 Installation of clamping must be done by experts only.
 Regular monitoring of loose parts at different power
supply units.
 Installation of good insulated power cables.
 Installation of highly efficient circuit breaker.
 Proper installation of bus bars and cable joints.
Result
Total energy savings at different units:
 Energy savings at 1
↔ 44.45%
 Max energy savings at 2 ↔ 60.34%
 Energy savings at 3
↔ 39.08%
 Energy savings at 4
↔ 39.58%
 Energy savings at 5
↔ 34.45%
 Energy savings at 6
↔ 45.21%
 Energy savings at 7
↔ 28.57%
Overall savings → (1+2+3+4+5+6+7) / 7 → 41.67%
Advantages of Thermography
 Quick problem detection without interrupting service.
 Prevention of premature failure and extension of
equipment life.
 Identification of potentially dangerous or hazardous
equipment.
 Can monitor target in motion and also low visibility
target.
 Temperature profile can be recorded and displayed
easily.
 Can monitor targets electricity charged. (high voltage
equipments)
 Can also monitor small and remote items.
Disadvantages of Thermography
Formula Used
Energy savings ↔ 100-{(Min Temp/ Max. Temp.) * 100}
Overall savings ↔ ∑ savings at different units /7
 Cost of instrument is relatively high.
 Unable to detect the inside temperature if the medium
is separated by glass/polythene material etc.
PIE CHART FOR ENERGY SAVINGS PERCENTAGE AT DIFFERENT UNITS
.
28.57
REFERENCES
44.45
[1]
1
45.21
2
[2]
3
60.34
34.45
4
5
[3]
6
7
[4]
39.58
39.08
[5]
[6]
IV. CONCLUSION
Through proper condition monitoring with the help of
Thermography the improvement achieved in different units of
rail & structural mill shop at BSP can be easily observed from
above Thermo graphic images. The excessive temperature is
minimized up to its normal range within 1 month. These are the
[7]
[8]
[9]
Mr.K.U.Rao, a paper presentation on “Thermography” in Bhilai steel
Plant, July 2007.
R. E. Martin, A. L. Gyekenyesi, S. M. Shepard, “Interpreting the Results
of Pulsed Thermography Data,” Materials Evaluation, Vol. 61, no. 5, pp.
611-616, 2003.
N. Rajic, “Principal component Thermography for flaw contrast
enhancement and flaw depth Characterization in composite structures,”
Composite Structures Vol. 58, pp. 521-528, 2002.
X. P. V. Maldague, Theory and Practice of Infrared Technology for
Nondestructive Testing, John Wiley-Inter science, 684 p., 2001.
Mr. S.P.Garnik, a paper presentation on “Thermography - A Condition
monitoring tool for process1063-1069, 2006.
M. Pilla, M. Klein, X. Maldague and A.Salerno, “New Absolute
Contrast for Pulsed Infrared Physics & Technology”, 53(2), 112-119,
2010.
Mr. S.P.Garnik, a paper presentation on “Thermography - A Condition
monitoring tool for process Industries, FICCI (Federation of Indian
chambers of commerce & industry), 15th Feb 2007.
Higgins Lindley R. et.all,‛Maintenance Engineering Hand Book”,
McGraw-Hill Inc New York.
Andreas Gleiter, Guenther Mayr “Infrared Physics & Technology”,
53(4), 288-291, 2010.
Copyright © 2012 SciResPub.
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ISSN 2278-7763
[10]
M. Ochs, A. Schulz, H.-J. Bauer “Infrared Physics & Technology”,
5
53(2), 112-119, 2010.
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1
Design and realization of a quantum Controlled NOT
gate using optical implementation
K. K. Biswas, Shihan Sajeed
1(
Department of Applied Physics, Electronics and Communication Engineering (APECE), University of Dhaka, Bangladesh.(Phone: =
+8801724119834; e-mail: shorbiswas.377@gmail.com).
2
(Department of Applied Physics, Electronics and Communication Engineering (APECE), University of Dhaka, Bangladesh. (Phone: =
+8801817094868; e-mail: Shihan.sajeed@gmail.com)
ABSTRACT
In this work an optical implementation technique of a Controlled-NOT (CNOT) gate has been designed, realized and
simulated. The polarization state of a photon is used as qubit. The interaction required between two qubits for realizing the
CNOT operation was achieved by converting the qubits from polarization encoding to spatial encoding with the help of a
0
Polarizing Beam Splitter (PBS) and half wave plate (HWP) oriented at 45 . After the nonlinear interference was achieved the
spatially encoded qubits were converted back into polarization encoding and thus the CNOT operation was realized. The
whole design methodology was simulated using the simulation software OptiSystem and the results were verified using the
built-in instruments polarization analyzer, polarization meter, optical spectrum analyzer, power meters etc.
Keywords - Qubit, Quantum gate, Polarizing Beam Splitter, Half Wave Plate, Beam Splitter, Dual rail technique.
1 INTRODUCTION
2 Theory
Q
2.1 Representation of Quantum CNOT gate
Let us consider the computational basis states defined as
uantum computation (QC) was first proposed by Benioff
[1] and Feynman [2] and further developed by a number
of scientists, e.g. Deutsch [3,4], Grover [5,6], Lloyd [7,8] and
others [9-11]. QC is the study of information processing tasks
that can be accomplished using quantum mechanical systems
[12]. It is based on sequences of unitary operations on the input
qubits using quantum gates [13, 14].The quantum gates have
been successfully demonstrated in the past using photonic
interference process [15,16].In photon-based optical QC
processes has been instructed to photonic interference
phenomena [17,18].This photonic interference or interaction
phenomena has been executed using different types of optical
device. There has been also works interesting the use of Beam
Splitter to perform the photonic interference or interaction [1922]. In optical approach the principle of photonic interference
or interaction operation is obtained by changing reflectivity of
Beam Splitter.
In this work, a set of beam splitter (BS) structures are
proposed and used to demonstrate the operation of a quantum
CNOT gate. The difficulty in optical quantum computing has
been in achieving the two photon interactions required for a
two qubit gate. This two photon interaction provide non-linear
operation which occurred in non-linear phase shift. To require
this non-linearity through two photon interaction is
accomplished using extra ―ancilla‖ photons. Vacuum state
input modes provide extra ―ancilla‖ photons. In quantum field
theory, the vacuum state is the quantum state with the lowest
possible energy. Generally, it contains no physical particles.
The design of CNOT gate has been simulated by OptiSystem
software where the directional coupler has been used as BS and
obtained that the BS based structure can be worked as a
quantum CNOT gate.
1 
0  
0 
0 
1  
1 
(0.1)
(0.2)
The CNOT gate acts on 2 qubits, one control qubit and another
target qubit. It performs the NOT operation on the target qubit
only when the control qubit is
1 , and leaves the target qubit
unchanged otherwise. Operation of CNOT gate is as follows:
00  00
01  01
10  11
11  10
The action of the CNOT gate expression will be written as [23,
24]
CNOT  00 00  01 01  10 11  11 10
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ISSN 2278-7763
1
0

0

0
1
0

0

0
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0

0 0 0  0
 
0 0 0  0
0 0 0 0
1 0 0 0

0 0 0  0
 
0 0 0  0
0 0 0  0
1 0 0  0

0 0 0  0
 
0 0 0  0
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0

0 0 1  0
 
0 0 0  0
2
0 0 0
0 0 0
0 0 0

0 1 0
0 0 0
0 0 0 
0 0 1

0 1 0
(0.3)
1 0  1 0   0 0   0 1 





 0 0   0 1   0 1  1 0 
Fig. 1: A schematic of the Polarization of single photon mode. (A)
Horizontally Polarization, (B) Vertically Polarization, (c) Left Circular
Polarization, (d) Right Circular Polarization.
1 
0
   1 0  I    0 1  X
0
1 
 0 0 I  1 1 X
From equation (1.3) we can write the CNOT operator in matrix
form as:
U
CNOT
1
0

0

0
When input is
U CNOT
1
0
10  
0

0
0 0 0
1 0 0 
0 0 1

0 1 0
(0.4)
10 . So
0 0 0  0  0  0  0 
1 0 0 0 0  0  1 0 0
 
   1  1  11
0 0 1 1 0 1 0  1  1
     
0 1 0   0  1   1  1 
Other operation is also performed this same way. So
U
CNOT
matrix acts as a CNOT operator.
2.2 Polarization state of Single photon as qubit
Let, Horizontal Polarization state of single photon be
defined as qubit
0 and Vertical Polarization state of single
photon is defined as qubit
1 . Superposition of these two
states can also form new polarization states such as Left
Circular Polarization (LCP), Right Circular Polarization
(RCP), etc.
Some polarization states are shown in fig. 1.
2.3 Splitter
A beam splitter is an optical device which can split an
incident light beam into two beams, which may or may not
have the same optical power. Half-silvered mirror, Nicol
prism, Wollaston prisms etc are also used to make beam
splitter. Waveguide beam splitters are used in photonic
integrated circuits. Any beam splitter may in principle also be
used for combining beams to a single beam. The output power
is then not necessarily the sum of input powers, and may
strongly depend on details like tiny path length differences,
since interference occurs. Such effects can of course not occur
e.g. when the different beams have different wavelengths or
polarization. The beam reflected from above does not require a
phase change while a beam reflected from below acquires a
phase change of  and 50% beam splitter performs Hadamard
operation [25].
2.4 Half Wave Plate
A retardation plate that introduces a relative phase difference
of  radians or 180 between the o- and e-waves is known as
a half-wave plate or half-wave retarded. It will invert the
handedness of circular or elliptical light, changing right to left
and vice versa. If relative phase difference between e- and owaves has changed then the state of polarization of the wave
must be changed [26]. When angle between optical axis and
0
incident light axis or light propagation axis is
450 then HWP is
acted as NOT operator [27].
2.5 Polarizing Beam Splitter
Polarizing Beam Splitter (PBS) divides the incident beam
0
into two orthogonally polarized beams at 90 to each other.
Output of the PBS, one is parallel to the incident beam and
other one is perpendicular to the incident beam. This two
divided beams obtain at two different faces of PBS. Actually
PBS is made by adding one transmittance and one reflectance
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type polarizer. Sometime is called addition of a horizontal and
a vertical polarizer we got PBS means that PBS is a
combination of special type of a horizontal and a vertical
polarizer [28].
2.6 Dual rail technique
With dual rail the photon number is the same for all logical
states. The logical 0 is represented by a single photon
occupation of one mode with the other in the vacuum state
[29]. The logical 1 is the opposite of the logical 0 state with a
single photon in the other mode. This means that the logical
0 L equals the state 10 , while the logical one, 1
zero,
equals the state
Fig. 3: Conversion from polarization to spatial encoding.
L
The reverse process converts the spatial encoding back to
polarization encoding. To convert from polarization, to spatial
encoding and back, while preserving the quantum information,
it is required that the phase relationship between the two basis
components be preserved throughout: the path lengths must be
sub-wavelength stable (interferometric stability)[19].
01 .
Fig. 2: A simple principle sketch of a polarization beam splitter.
Dual rail logic is often implemented using the horizontal and
vertical polarization modes of a single spatial mode. In dual
rail logic encoding strategy the qubit is encoded in a pair of
complementary optical modes. If we want to represent n
qubits with this representation we will need N  2n ports and
n photons where in case of single rail logic N  n ports and
n photons are needed [29]. Means that the logical
state
3.2 DESIGN METHODOLOGY of CNOT operation
The two paths used to encode the target qubit are mixed at a
50% reflecting beam splitter (BS) in fig.4 that performs the
Hadamard operation [21]. If the phase shift is not applied, the
second beam splitter (Hadamard) undoes the first, returning the
target qubit exactly the same state it started in (example of
classical interference).
00 L equals the number state 1010 and the logical state
11 L equals the number state 0101 [29].
Fig. 4: A possible realization of an optical quantum CNOT gate.
3 Design methodology
3.1Conversion from polarization to spatial encoding
It is most practical to prepare single photon qubits where the
quantum information is encoded in the polarization state.
 H   V    0   1  —polarization encoding,
where
H and V are the horizontal and vertical
i.e.
0  1 and 1  0 . When control qubit is 0 , then
phase shift is not applied and when control qubit is
1 , then
phase (π) shift is applied. So this phase shifting operation is
non-linear phase shift. A CNOT gate must implement this
phase shift when the control photon is in the ―
1 ‖ path,
otherwise not [21].
polarization states [19].
To convert from polarization to spatial encoding a
polarizing beam splitter (PBS) and half wave plate (HWP) is
used. In fig. 3, the HWP rotates the polarization of the lower
0
If π phase shift is applied i.e. non-classical interference is
occurred and target qubit is flipped, the NOT operation occurs,
0
beam to 90 when its optical axis is apt 45 to the beam.
After this rotation all components of the spatial qubits have the
same polarization state and they can interfere both classically
and non-classically.
3.3 Implementation of CNOT gate
In fig. 5 is shown a conceptual realization of CNOT gate
where the beam splitter reflectivity and asymmetric phase
shifts is indicated. Actually this gate is accurately given the
Non-linear operation by using two photon interactions and
performs CNOT gate operation [19]. From fig. 5 B1, B2, B3,
B4 and B5 are beam splitters (BS) and
vC and vT are vacuum
inputs. B1, B2, B3, B4 and B5 are assumed asymmetric in
phase. B1, B2 and B5 beam splitters have equal reflectivity of
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one third ( 1 3 ). B3 and B4 beam splitters have equal
reflectivity of 50:50 ( 1 2 ) [20].
Fig.6: Simulation model for polarization to spatial encoding.
Fig. 5: A conceptual realization of the CNOT gate.
A sign change ( phase shift) is occurred upon reflection off
the green side of the BSs. A spatially encoded single photon
qubit is prepared by separating the polarization components of
a polarization qubit on a polarizing beam splitter (not shown).
In this dual rail logic notation
C0,in  0 and C1,in  1 are
4.2 Result for simulation of polarization to spatial
encoding
From fig. 10(a) which is shown the result of upper arm
polarization state after the 1st PBS and it is seen from position
1(fig. 6) and it is horizontally polarized. Fig. 10(b) is also
shown the result of lower arm polarization state after the 1 st
PBS and it is also seen from position 2(fig. 6) and it is
vertically polarized. Finally fig. 10(c) is shown the result of
output polarization state and it is seen from position 3(fig. 6)
and arbitrary polarized state is the final output.
the two bosonic mode operators for the control qubit, and
T0,in  0
and
T1,in  1
those
for
the
target.
Transformation between this dual rail logic and polarization
encoding are achieved with a half wave plate and a polarizing
beam splitter [20].The two target modes are mixed and
recombined on two 50% ( 1 2 ) reflective beam splitters to form
4.3 Simulation of the CNOT gate
In fig. 7 is shown the simulation model of CNOT gate where
B1, B2, B3, B4 and B5 beam splitters are replaced by
directional coupler and their reflectivity value is also set up
according to their given values. CW laser is used to give the
CNOT gate input.
an interferometer which also included a 33% ( 1 3 ) reflective
beam splitter in each arm. One can understand the operation of
this gate in the computational basis by considering the case
where the
C0,in mode is occupied. The target interferometer is
balanced and the target qubit exit in the same mode as it enters
(if it is not lost through a beam splitter). Conversely, if the
C1,in mode is occupied, then a non-classical interference is
occurred of the two qubit at the central beam splitter and when
a coincidence event is observed, the target mode is flipped. So
when control qubit is
0 , there is no interaction between
control and target qubit and the target qubit exists in the same
state that it entered, when control qubit is
1 , the control and
target qubit interact non-classically and interaction causes the
target mode flipped[19].
Fig.7: Simulation model for the CNOT gate.
4.4 Result for input
In fig. 8 is shown the simulation circuit arrangement when
input
4 SIMULATION AND RESULT
C0,in  0 and T1,in  1
C0,in  0 and T1,in  1 .When those input are applied,
the resultant output is shown in fig. 11.
4.1Simulation of polarization to spatial encoding
In fig. 6 is shown a simulation model of fig. 3 or simulation
of polarization to spatial encoding which is prepared by
OptiSystem built in instrument and result also verified in is
built in optical visualizer.
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( 00  00 , 11  10 ) was also demonstrated.
REFERENCES
[1]
[2]
[3]
C0,in  0
Fig.8: Simulation circuit arrangement when input
T1,in  1
and
.
[4]
[5]
Fig. 11(a) and fig. 11(c) is shown the control input
C0,in  0 and target input T1,in  1 . It is mentioned that
[6]
horizontally polarized single photon state is known as
[7]
0 ( 0  H ) and vertically polarized single photon is
[8]
1 ( 1  V ) .After that fig. 11(b) and fig.
[9]
qubit
known as qubit
11(d) is shown the control output
C0,out  0 and target
 1 . In this way one of the CNOT gate
output T1,out
01  01 .
[11]
C1,in  1 and T0,in  0
[12]
operations is demonstrated
4.5 Result for input
In fig. 8 is shown the simulation circuit arrangement when
input
[10]
C1,in  1 and T0,in  0 .When those input are applied,
[13]
[14]
the resultant output is shown in fig. 12.
[15]
[16]
[17]
[18]
[19]
Fig.9: Simulation circuit arrangement
T0,in  0
when input
C1,in  1
and
.
Fig. 12(a) and fig. 12(c) is shown the control input
[20]
C1,in  1 and target input T0,in  0 . After that fig. 12(b)
and fig. 12(d) is shown the control output
target output T1,out
other
[21]
 1 . In this way another CNOT gate
operations is demonstrated
way
C1,out  1 and
two
10  11 . According to same
CNOT
gate
operation
[22]
P. Benioff ―The computer as a physical system: A microscopic quantum
mechanical Hamiltonian model of computers as represented by Turing
machines‖, J. Stat. Phys., 22:563.(1980).
R. P. Feynman ―Simulating physics with computers‖, International
Journal of Theoretical Physics, 21:467. (1982).
D. Deutsch ―Quantum theory, the Church-Turing principle and the
universal quantum computer‖ Appeared in Proceedings of the Royal
Society of London A 400, pp. 97-117. (1985).
D. Deutsch ―Quantum Computational Networks‖ Proc. R. Soc. Lond. A
425, 73-90, doi: 10.1098/rspa.1989.0099. (1989).
L. K. Grover ―A fast quantum mechanical algorithm for database search‖
3C-404A, Bell Labs,600 Mountain Avenue, Murray Hill NJ
07974,lkgrover@bell-labs.com.
L. K. Grover ― From Schrödinger’s equation to the quantum search
algorithm‖ Physics Research Laboratory, 1D435 Bell Labs, Lucent
Technologies, 700 Mountain Avenue, Murray Hill, NJ07974, USA.
S. Lloyd ―A potentially realizable quantum computer‖, Science, New
Series, Vol. 261, 1569.(1993).
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No. 5278, 1073-1078, (1996).
P. W. Shor ―Algorithms for quantum computation: Discrete logarithms
and factoring‖ AT & T Bell Labs, Room 2D-149, 600 Mountain Ave.
Murray Hill, NJ 07974 USA. shor@research.att.com.
P.W. Shor ―Polynomial-Time Algorithms for Prime Factorization and
Discrete Logarithms on a Quantum Computer‖, SIAM Review, Vol. 41,
No. 2, pp. 303-332, 1999. http://www.jstor.org/stable/2653075.
D. A. Meyer ―Physical Quantum Algorithms‖, Project in Geometry and
Physics Department of Mathematics, University of California/San Diego,
La Jolla, CA 92093-0112, dmeyer@chonji.ucsd.edu.
M. A. Nielsen and I. L. Chuang, ―Quantum Computation and Quantum
Information‖, Cambridge University Press. (2000).
Kazuyuki FUJII ―A Lecture on Quantum Logic Gates‖ Department of
Mathematical Sciences,Yokohama City University,Yokohama, 236-0027,
Japan. fujii@math.yokohama-cu.ac.jp.
P.Walther, K.J.Resch, T.Rudolph, E.Schenck, H.Weinfurter, V.Vedral,
M.Aspelmeyer & A.Zeilinger ―Experimental One-Way Quantum
Computing‖.
T.B. Pittman, M.J. Fitch, B.C Jacobs, and J.D. Franson ―Experimental
Controlled-NOT Logic Gate for Single Photons in the Coincidence
Basis‖ Johns Hopkins University, Applied Physics Laboratory, Laurel,
MD 20723. (2003).
Marco Fiorentino and Franco N. C. Wong ―Deterministic ControlledNOT gate for single-photon two-qubit quantum logic‖ Research
Laboratory of Electronics, Massachusetts Institute of Technology,
Cambridge, MA 02139. (2004).
J. Bylander, I. Robert-Philip, and I. Abram ―Interference and correlation
of two independent photons‖, CNRS - Laboratoire de Photonique et
Nanostructures, Route de Nozay, 91460 Marcoussis, France.Eur. Phys. J.
D 22, 295–301 (2003). DOI: 10.1140/epjd/e2002-00236-6.
T.B. Pittman and J.D. Franson ―Investigation of a single-photon source
based on quantum interference‖ University of Maryland, Baltimore
County, Baltimore, MD 21250. (2007).
J.L. O’Brien, G.J.Pryde, A.G. White, T.C. Ralph, and D. Branning
―Demonstration of all-optical quantum controlled-NOT gate‖ Center for
Quantum Computer Technology,Department of Physics,University of
Queensland 4072,Australia.Department of Physics,University of Illinois
at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana Illinos 61801-3080,USA. (2008).
T. C. Ralph, N. K. Langford, T. B. Bell, & A. G. White, ―Linear optical
controlled-NOT gate in the coincidence basis‖, Centre for Quantum
Computer Technology, Department of Physics, University of
Queensland, QLD 4072, Australia. Phys. Rev. A 65, 062324. (2001).
J.L. O’Brien ―Optical Quantum Computing‖ Center for Quantum
Phonotics,H.H. Wills Physics Laboratory & Department of Electrical and
Electronic Engineering,University of Bristol,Merchant Venturers
Buiding, Woodland Road, Bristol,BS8 1UB,UK.(2008).
J. L. O'Brien, G. J. Pryde, A. G. White, T. C. Ralph,D. Branning
―Experimental demonstration of an all-optical CNOT gate‖ Centre for
Quantum Computer Technology, Department of Physics, University of
Queensland 4072, Australia.
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[23] Mikio Nakahara ,Tetsuo Ohmi ―QUANTUM COMPUTING From Linear
Algebra to Physical Realizations‖, Kinki University, Higashi-Osaka,
Japan, ISBN-13: 978‑0‑7503‑0983‑7.
[24] McMahon,David, ―Quantum Computing Explained‖, ISBN 978-0-47009699-4.
[25] Anton Zeilinger, ―Information transfer with two-state two-particle
quantum
sysyems‖,Institut
fur
Experimentalphysik,Universitat
Innsbruck,Technikertraβe 25,A-6020 Innsbruck, Austria. (1994).
[26] Eugene Hecht ―Optics‖ 4th edition , Adelphi University. ISBN 0-32118878-0.
[27] Vegard L. Tuft (vegard.tuft@iet.ntnu.no) ―Polarization and Polarization
Controllers‖ Version: September 14. (2007).
[28] Taeho Keem, Satoshi Gonda, Ichiko Misumi, Qiangxian Huang, and
Tomizo Kurosawa ―Removing nonlinearity of a homodyne
interferometer by adjusting the gains of its quadrature detector systems‖.
(2004).
[29] Pål Sundsøy and Egil Fjeldberg , ―Quantum Computing Linear optics
implementations‖, NTNU, Trondheim . (2003).
Fig.10 (a): Upper (position 1) arm polarization state after the 1 st
PBS (
0 ).
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Fig.10 (b): Lower (position 2) arm polarization state after the 1 st
PBS ( 
Fig.10(c):
PBS (
Final
(position
3)
polarization
state
after
the
1 ).
2 nd
0  1 ).
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Fig.11 (a): Control input C0,in
Fig.11(c): Target input T1,in
 0  H
1 V
.
.
8
Fig.11 (b): Control output C0,out
Fig.11 (d): Target output T1,out
 0  H
1 V
.
.
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Fig.12 (a): Control input C1,in
Fig.12(c): Target input T0,in
1 V
 0  H
.
.
9
Fig.12 (b): Control output C1,out
Fig.12 (d): Target output T1,out
1 V
1 V
.
.
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1
Dwarj Rail*
Ashish Shrivastva, Electronics & Communication Dept., Ajmer Insititute of Technology, Ajmer, INDIA
(Author)
E-mail: mr.ashishshrivastva@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
The paper entitled “Dwarj Rail” is about a new generation high-speed rail engine. Transportation plays a key role in todays‟s
„fast moving‟ life so that we, the humans, can reach our destination instantly. According to my research (to the best of my knowledge), such project is not available globally. Its most fascinating fact is the speed because it may attain a speed of about (700950) km/h. Also there will be an advanced braking installed in it which may bring the train from the state of motion to the state
of rest within few minutes with very less effect of glide. More details about the project has been discussed in further sections.
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 OVERVIEW
A
s mentioned above, the paper entitled “Dwarj Rail” is
about a new generation of rail engine. The word
“Dwarj” has been derived from two Sanskrit words:
“dve-“ meaning “two” and “-urja” meaning “energy”. Thus,
Dwarj Rail is a type of rail engine that will operate on two
energy sources and these energy sources are renewable making it eco-friendly.
In today‟s scientific era, life has become so fast that all of
us want to get our work done quickly. To fulfill such requirements in this „fast-moving‟ life, there are many discoveries
being made. For example: E-mail (to transfer information instantly), cell phones (communication with anyone located anywhere in the world within few seconds), etc. Among these
“transportation”plays an important role to fulfill such requirements.
1.2 HISTORY
Transportation can be of several types, e.g. roadways, railways, airways, seaways, etc. Railways are considered as the
fastest, cheapest and safest mode either to travel or transfer
luggage from one place to another.
source: Wikipedia].
1.3 PROLOGUE
Keeping this vision, I, Ashish Shrivastva from INDIA, designed a new version of a high-speed rail engine that will run
on tracks. This engine is globally unavailable according to the
best of my knowledge. The engine has been desgined according to all the aspects favoring to the environment. It has been
designed to make it faster, eco-friendly economical and most
importantly safest way of transportation. The engine will utilize power from two renewable energy sources simultaneously.
2 STRUCTURE
Now coming to its structure, the engine has very compatible design. It has been been kept very simple. The rail engine
has sleek design. Most importantly the structure has an aerodynamic design so as to reduce the resistances opposing its
motion, thus increasing its speed and wil have very low airresistance.
Fig 1: Side view of locomotive
In this regard, many countries (like China, Japan, Taiwan,
Germany, UK, France, and Italy) discovered new technologies
and still working on such technologies to fulfill the above
mentioned requirement, i.e high speed rail engines. As you are
aware that now a days, railways are not limited ot tracks only.
The technology is so developed that it operates on magnetic
tracks (known as Maglev), etc.
On 3 April 2007, the world speed record for conventional
high-speed rail is held by the V150, a specially configured and
heavily-modified version of Alstom‟s TGV which clocked
574.8 km/h (357.2 mph) on a test run on tracks. On 3 December 2003, the world speed record for Maglev is held by Japanese experimental MLX01 is 581 km/h (361 mph) [information
As stated earlier, the locomotive will have an incredible
speed range of about (700-950) km/h, thus, challenging the
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aircrafts with respect to speed. This assumption has been
made at the begineer‟s stage, and therefore, require practical
performance for its valid certification.
2
steerable bogies have been proposed to install in it.
4 BRAKING SYSTEM & COUPLERS
Since the speed range of the rail engine is extremely high,
therefore, there must be strong braking system that can be
used in emergency situation as well. To overcome, a new type
of braking system will be installed in it. This braking system
will stop the train from itstop speed to the state of rest within
few minutes. This braking system has been named as ALT
braking system.
Fig 2: Top (from back) view of locomotive
3 BOGIES
Bogies are also known as car or coach (in some countries).
They are of two types: steerable bogies and non-steerable bogies.
In non-steerable bogies, a pair of train wheels is rigidly
fixed to an axle to form a wheel set. Normally, two wheel sets
are mounted in a bogie, or truck as it is called in US English.
Most bogies have rigid frames.
Couplers are the parts of the part of the train that connects
two adjacent bogies together. In Dwarj, a new type of coupler
will be installed. This coupler will work on the push-pull princliple.
The key feature of this coupler will be that it will automatically eject whenever an accident occurred tries to derail the
locomotive. This means that whenever accident takes place
and tries to derail another then the coupler will automatically
be ejected so as to prevent other bogie from derailing with
respect to it.
5 CONCLUSION
From all the above discussion following points about
DWARJ RAIL can be concluded:
 Rail engine based on dual renewable energy
sources.
 Globally not present or available till date, according to the best of the author‟s knowledge.
 Speed range about (700-950) km/h [according to
theoretical assumption].
 Independently motored axle wheels.
 Will have steerable bogies to make journey comfortable and jerk-free.
 Installed with couplers based on “push-pull” principle.
 Advanced braking system technology, specially for
emergency situation.
DISCLAIMER
Fig 3: Comparative view of steerable bogies & nonsteerable bogies. [Image credit: www.railway-technical.com]
While steerable bogies incorporate a form of radial movement in the wheel set to overcome some of the mechanical
problems of the rigid wheel set mounted in a rigid bogie
frame.
Besides speed, passengers seek comfort as well (thus,
needed fast and comfortable transportation mode). So to meet
this requirement, the structure has been designed in such a
way so as to reduce jerk while traveling. In this regard, the
The author would like to specially mention that he is the
sole author of the work “Dwarj Rail” and is not copied. However, proper reference has been mentioned wherever required
from where the information has been taken. The author is not
responsible for any similarity resembling to a work being performed by someone else. If it somehow happens, it will be
only a co-incidence. Author will not be responsible for any
such incidence under any circumstances.
-Author
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
There are some of the people who have directly or indirectly contributed to this research work, whether they knew it or
not:
Mr. Madhupendra Shrivastva, Er. Sagar Saxena, Dr. Alok
Pandey, Er. Sachin Chauhan, Mrs. Anita Puri, Mr. Naresh Sethi, Mr. Atul Hakim, Mrs. Neelam Mehta, Er. Vivek Saxena,
Mr. Ganga Shankar, Mr. Abhishek Kakkar, Mr. Sanjay Gurjar,
Dr. Vijya Singh Shekhawat, Mr. Amit Mathur, Mr. Jim Christensen,
and I would like to specially mention
Mr. Manish Jaiswal
whose encouragement and enthusiasm drove me to proceed with this research work.
-Author
REFERENCES
 Mr. Manish Jaiswal, Advisor, New Delhi, INDIA.
 Mr. Jim Christensen, NASA Contractor, USA
 Er. Sagar Saxena, Chemical Engineering Dept. MANIT, Bhopa, M.P., INDIA.
 Mr. Amit Mathur, Professor, Gujarat University, Gujarat, INDIA
 Er. Vivek Saxena, Assistant Professor, AIT Ajmer, Rajasthan, INDIA
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TO ASSESS THE EFFECT OF MATERNAL BMI ON OBSTETRICAL
OUTCOME
Dr.Shuchi LAKHANPAL, M.B.B.S, Dr Asha AGGARWAL, M.D., Dr. Gurcharan
KAUR , M.D.
Place of Study – Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Kasturba Hospital,
Delhi, India
ABSTRACT:
AIMS: To assess the effect of maternal BMI on complications in pregnancy, mode of delivery,
complications of labour and delivery.
METHODS:
A crossectional study was carried out in the Obst and Gynae department, Kasturba Hospital,
Delhi. The study enrolled 100 pregnant women. They were divided into 2 groups based on their
BMI, more than or equal to 30.0 kg/m2 were categorized as obese and less than 30 kg/m2 as non
obese respectively. Maternal complications in both types of patients were studied.
RESULTS:
CONCLUSION: As the obstetrical outcome is significantly altered due to obesity, we can
improve maternal outcome by overcoming obesity. As obesity is a modifiable risk factor,
preconception counseling creating awareness regarding health risk associated with obesity
should be encouraged and obstetrical complications reduced.
KEY WORDS: BMI, obesity, obstetrical outcome, preeclampsia, casaerean section
INTRODUCTION
WHO describes obesity as ―One of the most blatantly visible, yet most neglected, public health
problems that threaten to overwhelm both more and less developed countries‖. Obesity is a
major public health issue and as per WHO, it is a ―killer disease‖ at par with HIV and
malnutrition. Even in countries like India, significant proportion of overweight and obese coexist
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with the undernourished. Lifestyle modifications over the years have led to a more sedentary
lifestyle. This is of global concern,1 as excess bodyweight is now the sixth important risk factor
contributing to disease worldwide and increased level of obesity may result in a decline in life
expectancy in the future.2
The body mass index (BMI), or Quetelet index, is a heuristic proxy for human body fat based on
an individual's weight and height. It was devised between 1830 and 1850 by
the Belgian polymath Adolphe Quetelet during the course of developing "social physics".3
Obesity in pregnant women is associated with increased risk of Gestational diabetes,
thromboembolism and is associated with hyperlipidemia and preeclampsia.
Obese women are more likely to undergo induction of labour, failed induction, operative vaginal
delivery, shoulder dystocia and third and fourth degree perineal lacerations. Frequency of both
‗Elective‘ and ‗Emergency‘ caesarean section is increased in obese women. Anaesthetic
complications like failed regional blocks and difficult intubation are more common in obese
women. Also, there is an increased number of large for gestational age infants, lower apgar score
and gross congenital malformations.
RESEARCH ELABORATIONS
MATERIALS N METHODS
Place of study - Deptt. Of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, Kasturba hospital, Delhi
Sample size - 100. 50 in each of the 2 groups (divided on the basis of BMI)
Study period - 1 April 2011- 20 April 2012
Type of study - Comparative Prospective study.
Statistical method used The data collected during the study is presented in the tabular form along with appropriate
graphs and charts to draw meaningful observations and interpretations. Wherever deemed
necessary, suitable statistical techniques are applied to establish the cause and effect
relationships between selected variables. The differences in statistical parameters for different
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outcomes of pregnant women with BMI>30 were tested statistically using appropriate tests viz. ttest, Fisher exact test, Chi square tests etc and the results are presented with p values < 5%
considered statistically significant.
BMI formula
The BMI is equal to a person‘s weight divided by their height .It is calculated either as;
BMI = (weight in pounds/ height in inches) x 703
Or
BMI = (weight in kilograms /height in meters2 )
Based on this, patients to be studied will be divided into 2 groups of 50 patients each –
1. BMI less than 30
2. BMI more than 30
Inclusion criterion –
1. Primigravida with singleton pregnancy
2. Patients with gestational age more than 28 weeks
Exclusive criterion
1. Multifetal gestation
2. Multigravida
MATERIALS
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The weighing machine used was from Equinox, an electronic personal scale CE.
Model : EB 1003
Strain gauge sensor
Capacity : 150kg(33016/24 stone)
Division : 0.1kg(0.216)
1.0‖(25 mm) LCD digits
Low battery/ overload indication
Power : 1pc*3 V lithium cells (CR 2032)
Stadiometer used was from Bio Plus. A height measuring tape
Model no : 26M/1013522
Model approval mark : IND/09/2005/815
Size : 200cm / 78 inch
METHODOLOGY
Pregnant women coming for admission to labour room at the time of delivery were enrolled in
the study after informed consent. A complete history work up and examination was done for the
patient.
HISTORY
In all cases detailed history of the patient was taken including
.Name, age, education, religion, socio economic status
.Presenting complaints – Labour pains. Leaking per vaginum. hypertension, DM,
.History of present illness – if any
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.Menstrual History – Last menstrual period, age of menarche, duration of Cycle, Length of cycle,
Blood loss
.Obstetric History – Gravida, Parity, Number of live issues
.Past History, medical and surgical History – Any associated medical condition like diabetes
mellitus, hypertension, tuberculosis, thyroid disease, asthma, any previous surgery.
.Family history- especially for obesity, diabetes and hypertension.
EXAMINATION
General examination- including general condition, hydration, PR, BP, temperature, pallor,
icterus, cyanosis, edema, JVP, LN.
Weight(in kgs) was measured in kilograms. Patients were weighed without shoes, wearing light
indoor clothes.
Height(in metres) was measured using a stadiometer. The patients were made to stand erect on
the floor barefoot with both ankles together and parallel to each other. The head of the patient
was held in such a position that the line joining the tragus and outer canthus of eye were in a
horizontal plane (Frankfurts Plane), with the individual standing straight next to the wall with the
heels, buttocks, shoulders and occiput touching the wall. The data were used to calculate
Quetelet index or the BMI using the formula BMI= weight (kg)/height 2(in m).
Systemic examination including cardiovascular, respiratory, central nervous system to rule out
any systemic pathology
Per abdomen examination including contour, distension, venous prominence, stria, fundal height,
presentation, fetal heart rate, regularity, estimated liquor, fetal weight, head floating/engaged.
Also, local examination including vulva, vagina, urethra and Per speculum examination for
cervix and vagina. Detailed Per vaginal examination was done for dilatation, effacement,
position of cervix, station of presenting part, BISHOPS Scoring of the patient was then done. We
also saw for adequacy of pelvis, leaking per vaginum/bleeding per vaginum.
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INVESTIGATIONS
1. Blood group
2. CBC, ESR
3. FBS, PPBS
4. VDRL, HIV
5. Urine routine and microscopy
6. Obstetrical ultrasonography
7. Any other investigation needed as per patients requirement
After detailed history and examination, and after fulfilling the criterion for inclusion in the study,
patients were divided into 2 groups1. BMI less than 30
2. BMI more than 30
In both the groups, fetomaternal outcome was studied along the following lines1. PREGNANCY ASSOCIATED CONDITIONS like hypertension, diabetes mellitus, abnormal
presentations, IUGR, prematurity, postmaturity, any other illness
2. MODE OF DELIVERY – Normal vaginal delivery elective or emergency casaerean section,
instrumental delivery.
3. LABOUR AND DELIVERY OUTCOME- Spontaneous or induced labour. First stage was
studied to see progress of labour, and any complication like fetal distress, incoordinate uterine
contractions, non progress of labour. Second stage to be studied for mode of delivery and any
other complication, third stage for tear/PPH or any other complication.
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4. CASAEREAN OUTCOME- difficulty in opening abdomen, uterine atony and any other
complication.
ETHICAL ISSUES
As this was an observational study with no unethical interventions, or danger to the patient due
to the study itself, it is an ethically sound study. Ethical clearance was taken by the hospital
committee for the same.
RESULTS
A total of 100 cases, 50 with BMI>30 and 50 with BMI<30 were included in this study
undertaken at Kasturba Hospital, Delhi. The primigravidas who presented in the labour room
after 28 weeks of gestation were included. The antenatal, intrapartum, postpartum and neonatal
assessment was done and outcome of each pregnancy in terms of maternal and perinatal
morbidity and mortality were studied.
1.AGE DISTRIBUTION AND ITS RELATION WITH BMI
6% patients in the BMI >30 category were less than 20 years of age, 46% were in the 21-25
years age category, 34% in 26-30 and 14% in the 31-35 years of age. Also, in the BMI <30
category, 16% women were less than 20 yrs of age, 56% in 21-25 years, 24% in 26-30 years of
age and only 4% in the 31-35 years. Mean age was 25.92 in the BMI>30 group compared with
24.2 in the BMI<30 group. We conclude that 48% of the BMI >30 category women were >26
years of age, whereas only 28% of the BMI < 30 group were in the >26 years category. If we
consider patients above and below 25 years of age in different BMI categories, the p value comes
out to be 0.039 making the difference statistically significant.
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TABLE NO. 1 AGE DISTRIBUTION AND ITS RELATION WITH BMI
AGE
BMI < 30 no.
BMI < 30 %
BMI > 30 no. BMI > 30 %
K2 AND P
VALUE
<20
8
16
3
6
P=0.039
21-25
28
56
23
46
K2=4.24
26-30
12
24
17
34
31-35
2
4
7
14
2.ANTEPARTUM COMPLICATIONS AND ITS RELATION WITH BMI
Out of a total of 50 pregnancies in each category, only 32% patients in the BMI>30 category
were free of complications and the number increased to 78% when the BMI was less than 30.
Preeclampsia complicated 8% of the pregnancies with BMI <30 and 38% of the patients with
BMI>30 obese. The difference was statistically significant with a p value of 0.0003.
Eclampsia was found in 2% patients in the BMI >30 category, and was not found in BMI <30
category. P value of 1 was statistically insignificant.
Retinopathy was 6% in the BMI >30 category and 2% in BMI <30. The difference was
statistically insignificant with a p value of 0.617.
Also, GDM complicated 2% of the pregnancies with BMI < 30 and 6% in the BMI >30 category.
The difference was statistically insignificant with a p value of 0.617.
IUGR was present in 4% of the pregnancies with BMI < 30 and 6% in the BMI >30 category.
The difference was statistically insignificant with a p value of 0.646.
Preterm labour pains occurred in 6% of the pregnancies with BMI < 30 and 10% in the BMI >30
category. The difference was statistically insignificant with a p value of 0.54.
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TABLE NO. 2 ANTEPARTUM COMPLICATIONS AND ITS RELATION WITH BMI
COMPLICATION
BMI < 30
BMI < 30 % BMI > 30
no.
no.
BMI > 30
K2 AND P
%
VALUE
D.F=1
PRECLAMPSIA
4
8
19
38
P=0.0003
K2=12.7
ECLAMPSIA
0
0
1
2
F.P=1
K2=1.01
RETINOPATHY
1
2
3
6
F.P=0.617
K2=1.04
GDM
1
2
3
6
F.P=0.617
K2=1.04
IUGR
2
4
3
6
P=0.646
K2=0.21,
PRETERM
3
6
5
10
K2=0.54
F.P=0.7149
NO
39
78
16
32
50
100
50
100
COMPLICATION
TOTAL
3. MALPRESENTATIONS AND ITS RELATION WITH BMI
Malpresentations were present in 2% patients with BMI <30 category and 4% in the BMI>30.
The difference was statistically insignificant with a p value of 1.
TABLE NO. 3 MALPRESENTATIONS AND ITS RELATION WITH BMI
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MALPRESENTATION BMI < 30 no.
10
BMI < 30
BMI > 30
BMI > 30
K2 AND P
%
no.
%
VALUE
D.F=1
NORMAL
49
98
48
96
F.P=1
K2=0.34
ABNORMAL
1
2
2
4
4. PERIOD OF GESTATION (POG) AT DELIVERY AND ITS RELATION WITH BMI
Preterm labour pains were present in 6% of the BMI < 30 group and 10% in BMI > 30 category.
The difference was statistically insignificant with a p value of 0.7149.
Mothers reaching beyond term (post term) were 4% in the BMI < 30 group and no posterm
patients were seen in the BMI > 30 group. The difference was statistically insignificant with a p
value of 0.4949.
TABLE NO. 4 PERIOD OF GESTATION (POG) AT DELIVERY AND ITS RELATION
WITH BMI
POG
BMI < 30 no.
BMI < 30 %
BMI > 30
BMI > 30 % K2 AND P
no.
VALUE
D.F=1
PRETERM
3
6
5
10
F.P=0.7149
K2=0.54
(<37 weeks)
TERM
45
90
45
90
POST-TERM
2
4
0
0
F.P=0.4949
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K2=2.04
(>40 weeks)
5. INTRAPARTUM COMPLICATIONS AND ITS RELATION WITH BMI
Fetal distress was present in 6% patients with BMI <30 category and was absent in the BMI>30
group. The difference was statistically insignificant with a p value of 0.24.
Also, NPOL was present in 2% patients with BMI <30 category and was absent in the BMI >30.
The difference was statistically insignificant with a p value of 1.
Also, failure of induction occurred in 2% patients with BMI <30 and in 2% with BMI>30. No
statistical analysis could be done due to similar values and it was found at equal frequency in
both the groups.
Shoulder dystocia was present in only 2% of the patients in the BMI>30 category, whereas it was
absent in patients with BMI<30. The difference was statistically insignificant with a p value of 1.
TABLE NO. 5 INTRAPARTUM COMPLICATIONS AND ITS RELATION WITH BMI
COMPLICATION BMI < 30 no. BMI < 30 %
BMI > 30
BMI > 30 %
no.
K2 AND P
VALUE
D.F=1
FETAL
3
6
0
0
DISTRESS
NPOL
K2 =3.09,
F.P=0.24
1
2
0
0
K2=1.01,
F.P=1
FAILED
1
2
1
2
INDUCTION
No
statistical
analysis
SHOULDER
DYSTOCIA
0
0
1
2
K2=1.01,
F.P=1
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NONE
44
90
48
12
96
6. MODE OF DELIVERY AND ITS RELATION WITH BMI
Mode of delivery was normal vaginal delivery in 76% of the BMI <30 category patients and 44%
in BMI >30 category. One patient (2% patients) in the BMI<30 group required forceps for
delivery of baby. Casaerean sections were required in 22% patients in BMI<30 category and in
56% patients in BMI>30 category. The difference was statistically significant with a p value of
<0.001.
TABLE NO. 6 MODE OF DELIVERY AND ITS RELATION WITH BMI
MODE OF
BMI<30
BMI>30
DELIVERY
K2 AND P
VALUE
NORMAL
38(76%)
22(44%)
K2 = 12.15,
INSTRUMENTAL
1(2%)
0(0%)
D.F=1,
LSCS
11(22%)
28(56%)
p-value < 0.001
7. ANAESTHETIC COMPLICATIONS AND ITS RELATION WITH BMI
Anaesthetic complications including failed attempt at spinal anaesthesia and resort to general
anaesthesia and intraoperative ECG changes of T wave inversion an ST segment depression were
seen in the patients. These occurred in none of the patients in BMI <30 category and in 10.17%
patients undergoing LSCS in BMI>30 category. Statistical analysis revealed that p value was
0.545 making the difference insignificant.
TABLE NO. 7 ANAESTHETIC COMPLICATIONS AND ITS RELATION WITH BMI
ANAESTHETIC
BMI<30(%)
BMI>30(%)
K2 AND P
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COMPLICATIONS
FAILED SPINAL
13
VALUE
0(0%)
K2 = 1.28,
2(6.78%)
D.F=1,
ECG CHANGES
0(0%)
1(3.39%)
NONE
11(100%)
25(89.83%)
TOTAL
11(100%)
28(100%)
F.P= 0.545
8. NEED FOR LSCS AND ITS RELATION WITH BMI
In the BMI<30 group, 27.27% patients had an elective LSCS whereas 72.72% had an emergency
LSCS. In BMI>30 group, 35.714% patients had an elective LSCS whereas 64.285% had an
emergency LSCS. The results were statistically insignificant with a p value of 0.719.
TABLE NO. 8 NEED FOR LSCS AND ITS RELATION WITH BMI
LSCS
BMI < 30 no. BMI < 30 %
BMI > 30
BMI > 30 %
no.
ELECTIVE
3
27.27
10
K2 AND P
VALUE
35.714
K2=0.25
F.P=0.719
EMERGENCY
8
72.72
18
64.285
D.F.=1
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TOTAL
11
100
28
14
100
9. LSCS SURGICAL COMPLICATIONS AND ITS RELATION WITH BMI
Intraoperatively, we found that lower segment casaerean sections in BMI>30 group had higher
incidence of bladder injury/ difficulty in opening/ trauma to neighbouring structures. In 2%
patients with BMI <30 category and 10% in BMI>30 category, intraoperative LSCS
complications were seen. Statistical analysis showed that K2= 2.84 and p value = 0.204 making
the difference statistically insignificant.
The complications included bladder injury in the BMI<30 patient (2%). Broad ligament rent was
seen in 1 patient in BMI>30. We experienced difficulty in opening the abdomen for LSCS in 4
patients in the BMI>30 group, making a total 10% complication rate in the BMI>30 group.
TABLE NO. 9 LSCS SURGICAL COMPLICATIONS AND ITS RELATION WITH BMI
SURGICAL
BMI < 30
BMI < 30 % BMI > 30
COMPLICATIONS no.
BMI > 30 % K2 AND P
no.
VALUE
OF LSCS
D.F=1
INTRAOP LSCS
1
2
5
10
K2=2.84,
NO
49
98
45
90
P=0.204
50
100
50
100
COMPLICATION
TOTAL
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10. MODE OF TERMINATION OF PREGNANCY AND ITS RELATION WITH BMI
Inductions were done in 12% of the BMI <30 category and 14% of the the BMI >30 category.
The difference was statistically insignificant with a p value of 0.766.
TABLE NO. 10 MODE OF TERMINATION OF PREGNANCY AND ITS RELATION WITH
BMI
LABOUR
BMI < 30
BMI > 30
K2 AND P VALUE
NO. OF PATIENTS
6(12%)
7(14%)
K2=0.09
INDUCED
SPONTANEOUS
P=0.766
41(82%)
33(66%)
3(6%)
10(20%)
LABOUR
ELECTIVE LSCS
11. POSTPARTUM COMPLICATIONS (VAGINAL DELIVERY) AND ITS RELATION
WITH BMI
PPH occurred in 2% of the patients with BMI <30 category and in 4% of the patients in the
BMI>30 group. The difference was statistically insignificant with a p value of 0.604.
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Cervical/ Paravaginal tears were present in 2% of the BMI <30 category and 4% in BMI>30
category. The difference was statistically insignificant with a p value of O.604.
TABLE NO. 11 POSTPARTUM COMPLICATIONS (VAGINAL DELIVERY) AND ITS
RELATION WITH BMI
COMPLICATION
BMI < 30 no.
BMI < 30
BMI > 30
BMI > 30
K2 AND P
%
no.
%
VALUE
D.F=1
PPH
1
2
2
4
K2=0.44
F.P=0.604
CERVICAL/VAGINAL 1
2
2
4
TEAR
NONE
K2=0.44
F.P=0.604
48
96
46
92
12. POSTPARTUM COMPLICATIONS (CASAERAN DELIVERY) AND ITS RELATION
WITH BMI
Wound infection was absent in the BMI <30 category and 6% in BMI >30 category. The
difference was statistically insignificant with a p value of 0.24.
Hospital stay was prolonged in these 6% patients in BMI >30 category with Post LSCS wound
infection. P value was calculated at 0.24 making it statistically insignificant.
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TABLE NO. 12 POSTPARTUM COMPLICATIONS (CASAERAN DELIVERY) AND ITS
RELATION WITH BMI
COMPLICATION
BMI < 30 no.
BMI < 30
BMI > 30 no.
%
BMI > 30
K2 AND P
%
VALUE
D.F=1
POST LSCS
0
0
3
6
F.P=0.24
K2=3.09
WOUND
INFECTION
NONE
50
100
47
94
TABLE NO. 13 PREVALANCE OF ANEMIA AND ITS RELATION WITH BMI
Prevalence of anemia in BMI < 30 group was 22%, and in the BMI > 30 group was 16%. The
difference was statistically insignificant with a p value of 0.444.
TABLE NO. 13 PREVALANCE OF ANEMIA AND ITS RELATION WITH BMI
HB
BMI < 30 no.
BMI < 30 %
BMI > 30 no.
BMI > 30 %
K2 AND P
VALUE
D.F=1
<10
11
22
8
16
K2=0.58,
P=0.444
>10
39
78
42
84
13.USG ABNORMALITIES AND ITS RELATION WITH BMI
Oligohydramnios in the BMI <30 category was 6%, and in the BMI >30 category was 4%.
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Doppler abnormalities in the BMI >30 category was 8%, and these were conspicuously absent in
the BMI <30 category. Low lying placenta was found equally in both the groups.
Both oligohydramnios and Doppler changes were seen in 4% patients in BMI<30 group and in
2% women in BMI>30 group.
The difference was statistically insignificant with a p value of 0.56.
TABLE NO. 13 USG ABNORMALITIES AND ITS RELATION WITH BMI
USG FINDINGS
NORMAL
BMI < 30
BMI < 30
BMI > 30
BMI > 30
K2 AND P
no.
%
no.
%
VALUE
44
88
42
84
K2=0.33,
P=0.56
OLIGOHYDRAMNIOS 3
6
2
4
DOPPLER
0
0
4
8
1
2
1
2
OLIGOHYDRAMNIOS 2
4
1
2
ABNORMALITY
LOW LYING
PLACENTA
AND DOPPLER
DISCUSSION
The body mass index (BMI), or Quetelet index, is used to assess the degree of obesity in a
patient, based on an individual's weight and height. It was devised between 1830 and 1850, and
is defined as the individual's body weight (in kilograms) divided by the square of his or her
height (in meters). The formulae universally used in medicine produces a unit of measure of
49
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kg/m2. Because BMI is derived from simple measurements of height and weight, it is clearly
inexpensive.
In the recent times, obesity has emerged as a health hazard as excess bodyweight is a major
cause of diseases worldwide and increased level of obesity may result in a decline in life
expectancy in the future. Some investigators have suggested that certain ethnic groups like
Asians may be at risk for comorbidities due to obesity at lower BMI thresholds than for other
ethnic groups.
A total of 100 cases, 50 with BMI>30 and 50 with BMI<30 were included in this study
undertaken at Kasturba Hospital, Delhi, from April 2011 to April 2012. The primigravidas who
presented in the labour room after 28 weeks of gestation were included. The antenatal,
intrapartum, postpartum and neonatal assessment was done and outcome of each pregnancy in
terms of maternal and perinatal morbidity and mortality were studied.
AGE
In our study, 48% of the BMI > 30 category women were >26 years of age, whereas only 28% of
the BMI < 30 group were in the >26 years category. The p value comes out to be 0.039 making
the difference statistically significant. Mean age was 25.92 in the BMI>30 group compared with
24.2 in the BMI<30 group. This could be due to the age related weight gain in these patients.
Our results were comparable with Meher-Un-Nisa etal (2009) who reported that average age of
obese patients was 25.2 and that of non obese was 24.1, showing that obesity was more often
found in women of higher age.29
ANTEPARTUM COMPLICATIONS
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Preeclampsia
In our study, the frequency of preeclampsia remained significantly high in BMI > 30 category as
compared to BMI < 30 group. The frequency of preeclampsia was 38% in the BMI > 30 category
and 8% in the BMI < 30 category. The difference was statistically significant with a p value of
0.0003. Eclampsia was found in 2% patients in the BMI >30 category, and was not found in
BMI<30 category. P value of 1 was statistically insignificant.
Our results were comparable with Voigt et al (2008) who found that 37.9% patients in the
BMI>30 category had preeclampsia and 1.2% in the BMI < 25 category had preeclampsia. 26
Ehrenthal DB (2011) also concluded that preeclampsia was more common in the obese with a p
value of less than 0.0001. 38
Also, Baeten JM etal (2001) found that incidence of eclampsia increased with increasing BMI.21
Retinopathy
Retinopathy was 6% in the BMI >30 category, and 2% in BMI <30. The difference was
statistically insignificant with a p value of 0.617.
This could be because of the higher prevalence of preeclampsia and GDM in the BMI>30 group
as these are associated with retinal changes.
GDM
Results of our study show that rate of gestational diabetes mellitus in women with BMI>30 was
6% whereas it was only 2% in the BMI<30 category. The difference however was insignificant
with a with a p value of 0.617.
Our results were similar to the study by Bianco AT etal (1998) reported in their study of 613
obese patients, a higher prevalence of gestational diabetes mellitus in the obese group (14.2%) as
compared to their non obese group (1.2%). 92
Kongubol A and Phupong V (2011) said that prepregnancy obesity without metabolic problems
did not increase the risk for GDM. 41
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The risk of Diabetes Mellitus increases as the age increases, especially after 45 years of age. As
our study group was of a younger age group, rates of diabetes were much lower.
IUGR
In our study, the frequency of IUGR remained insignificantly high in BMI > 30 category at 6%,
compared to 4% in BMI < 30 group. The difference was statistically insignificant with a p value
of 0.646.
This could be due to a possible confounding effect of preeclampsia, as obese patients have higher
prevalance of preeclampsia, which has been associated with IUGR for long.
Our results corroborated with the findings of Perlow JH (1992) who reported intrauterine growth
retardation at 8.1% in the obese compared to 0.9% in the non obese. However, when those
massively obese pregnant women with diabetes and/or hypertension antedating pregnancy are
excluded from analysis, no statistically significant differences in perinatal outcome persisted. 72
Also, Baeten JM etal (2001) who found that IUGR in the overweight and obese group was 5.1%
and 5.6% respectively, compared with 6.1% in the non obese group. 21
Preterm labour pains
Preterm labour pains occurred in 6% of the pregnancies with BMI < 30 and 10% in the BMI >30
category. The difference was statistically insignificant with a p value of 0.7149.
Our study was similar to a study by Aly H etal (2010) who reported that mothers with obesity
and morbid obesity were more likely to deliver prematurely (16.7 and 20.3%, respectively) when
compared
with
non
obese
women
(14.5%).
However,
when
controlling
for
confounders, obesity and morbid obesity were not associated with prematurity. 81
Similar results were reported by Mandal D etal (2011) who said that preterm labor in less than 34
week gestation was more common in the obese patients. 93
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MALPRESENTATIONS
Our study reported 4% patients with malpresentation in the BMI>30 group and 2% in the the
BMI<30 group. The difference was statistically insignificant with a p value of 1. There was a
single patient with breech presentation in the BMI<30 group and 2 patients with
malpresentations in the BMI>30 group (1 breech and 1 transverse lie).
Our results were similar to those of Sheiner E etal (2004) reported malpresentations at a
significantly higher rate in the obese gravida (P < 0.001). 94
PERIOD OF GESTATION
Preterm labour pains occurred in 6% of the pregnancies with BMI < 30 and 10% in the BMI >30
category. The difference was statistically insignificant with a p value of 0.7149.
Mothers reaching beyond term (post term) were 4% in the BMI<30 group and no posterm
patients were seen in the BMI>30 group. The difference was statistically insignificant with a p
value of 0.4949.
Our results were inconsistent with those of Caughey AB etal (2009) who reported gestation
beyond 41 weeks to include obesity as a cause(adjusted odds ratio [aOR], 1.26; 95% confidence
interval [CI], 1.16-1.37). This could be due to the possible confounding effect of preeclampsia
which led to earlier inductions/LSCS in the BMI>30 women. 95
INTRAPARTUM COMPLICATIONS
Fetal distress
Fetal distress was present in 6% patients with BMI <30 category and was absent in the BMI>30
group. The difference was statistically insignificant with a p value of 0.24.
In contrast, Bianco AT etal (1998) found increased incidence of fetal distress(12.4%) in the
obese as compared to non obese (8.7%). 92
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This difference could be due to earlier detection of compromised fetus in the BMI>30 category,
due to higher degree of clinical suspicion in view of associated complications like preeclampsia,
IUGR. Earlier inductions/ elective LSCS in the same could deter any fetal distress from arising
in a stressed fetus also. Also, out of the 3 detected fetal disress patients in BMI<30 group, 2 were
unbooked patients, not receiving any previous medical care.
NPOL
NPOL was present in 2% patients with BMI <30 category and was absent in the BMI >30. The
difference was statistically insignificant with a p value of 1.
Our results were in contrast with those of Bianco AT etal (1998) reported a higher incidence of
NPOL (12.9%) in obese as compared to 7.3% in the non obese. 92
We actively manage labour patients in our hospital, and any abnormality in progress of labour is
quickly detected. The difference in values could be due to the smaller sample size in our study.
Failure of induction
Failure of induction occurred in 2% patients with BMI <30 category and 2% in BMI>30. No
statistical analysis could be done due to similar values and it was found at equal frequency in
both the groups.
Shoulder dystocia
Shoulder dystocia was present in only 2% of the patients in the BMI>30 category, whereas it was
absent in patients with BMI<30. The difference was statistically insignificant with a p value of 1.
Our results were similar to Meher-Un-Nisa etal (2009), who, in their study reported the
frequency of shoulder dystocia to be high in overweight, obese and morbidly obese females (1–
7%) as compared to normal weight group (0%). 29
MODE OF DELIVERY
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Results of our study show significantly higher rates of cesarean section in BMI>30 group as
compared to those with BMI<30 group (56% versus 22%).
Our results could be compared with those of Pevzner L etal (2009) said that the incidence of
cesarean delivery increased from 21.3% in the BMI less than 30 group to 29.8% in the BMI 3039.9 group and 36.5% in the BMI 40 or higher group. 51
Also, Kominiarek MA etal (2010) said that the risk for cesarean increased as BMI increased for
all subgroups, P< .001. The risk for cesarean increased by 5%, 2%, and 5% for nulliparas and
multiparas with and without a prior cesarean, respectively, for each 1-kg/m2increase in BMI. 54
ANAESTHETIC COMPLICATIONS
Anaesthetic complications occurred in none of the patients in BMI <30 category and in 10.17%
of patients with BMI>30. These complications included failure of spinal anaesthesia in 2 patients
and need for general anaesthesia in them. Also, 1 patient in BMI>30 category had intraoperative
changes in the ECG suggestive of myocardial infarction and was treated for the same. Statistical
analysis revealed that p value was 0.545 making the difference insignificant.
Our results matched with Mace HS etal (2011) who found obese pregnant women appear to have
increased morbidity and mortality associated with caesarean delivery and general anaesthesia for
caesarean delivery in particular, and more anaesthesia-related complications.57
ELECTIVE AND EMERGENCY LSCS
In the BMI<30 group, 27.27% patients had an elective LSCS whereas 72.72% had an emergency
LSCS. In BMI>30 group, 35.714% patients had an elective LSCS whereas 64.285% had an
emergency LSCS. The results were statistically insignificant with a p value of 0.719.
Our results were inconsistent with that of Bhattacharya etal (2007), who reported 41.5%
emergency LSCS in the normal and 58.8% in the obese group. 96
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Our results were comparable with Elíasdóttir ÓJ etal (2010) who said that obese women have a
significantly increased risk of induction of labour and being delivered by cesarean section, both
emergent and elective compared to mothers of normal weight and overweight. 36
This was because many of the high risk patients with preeclampsia/ IUGR were taken up for
elective LSCS directly in our hospital.
Most common reason for casaerean sections in BMI>30 group was preeclampsia with/without
IUGR/Doppler abnormalities. Most common reason for casaerean sections in BMI<30 group was
Meconium stained liquor intrapartum.
INTRAOPERATIVE LSCS COMPLICATIONS
Intraoperative lower segment caesarean sections were complicated in 2% patients with BMI <30
category and 10% in BMI>30 category. Statistical analysis showed p value of 0.204 making it
statistically insignificant. These included difficulty in opening up the patient for LSCS in 4
patients with BMI> 30 and rent in broad ligament in 1 of them. In 1 unbooked patient with
BMI<30, we did an emergency LSCS in view of obstructed labour and she had bladder injury
intraoperatively.
Our results were similar to those of Perlow JH etal (1994) who reported that massively obese
pregnant women undergoing cesarean section were at significantly increased risk for
peroperative morbidity. 72
Norman JE and Reynolds RM (2011) also found that obesity complicates operative delivery; it
makes operative delivery more difficult, increases complications and paradoxically increases the
need for operative delivery. 69
NEED FOR INDUCTION
Inductions were done in 12% of the BMI <30 category and 14% of the the BMI >30 category.
The difference was statistically insignificant with a p value of 0.766.
The most common indication for induction in the BMI>30 group was preeclampsia whereas in
BMI<30 group was postdatism.
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Our results were comparable with Jensen DM etal (2003) reported that the risk of induction of
labor was significantly increased in both overweight women (body mass index [BMI] 25.0-29.9
kg/m2) and obese women (BMI ≥ 30.0 kg/m2) compared with women who were of normal
weight (BMI 18.5-24.9 kg/m2). 22
Also, Elíasdóttir ÓJ etal (2010) who reported that obese women have a significantly increased
risk of requiring induction of labour compared with normal weight women. 36
POSTPARTUM COMPLICATIONS
PPH
PPH occurred in 2% of the patients with BMI <30 category and in 4% of the patients in the BMI
>30 category. The difference was statistically insignificant with a p value of 0.604.
Our results were consistent with those of T.S. Usha Kiran, S. Hemmadi , J. Bethel, J.
Evans (2005) who reported an increased risk [quoted as odds ratio (OR) and confidence intervals
CI)] of maternal complications such as blood loss of more than 500 ml, amounting to postpartum
haemorrhge. 48
Cervical/ Paravaginal tears
Cervical/ Paravaginal tears were present in 2% of the BMI <30 category and 4% in BMI>30
category. The difference was statistically insignificant with a p value of 0.604.
Our results were comparable with Liu X etal (2011) who found a significant increase in
postpartum hemorrhage and perineal rupture in obese patients. 66
WOUND INFECTION
Wound infection was absent in the BMI <30 category and 6% in BMI >30 category. The
difference was statistically insignificant with a p value of 0.24.
The local changes, such as an increase in adipose tissue, an increase in local tissue trauma related
to retraction, the immune dysfunction, increased association of diabetes with obesity and a
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lengthened operative time, may contribute to the increased incidence of surgical site infections
caused by obesity.
Our results can be compared with those of Satpathy HK etal (2008) who reported that following
Cesarean section delivery, obese women have a higher incidence of wound infection and
disruption. 63
Alanis MC etal (2010) reported that women with a body mass index > or = 50 kg/m2 have a
much greater risk for cesarean wound complications than previously reported. Avoidance of
subcutaneous drains and increased use of transverse abdominal wall incisions should be
considered in massively obese parturients to reduce operative morbidity. 53
Mandal D etal (2011) said that obese pregnant women were at increased risk of postpartum
infection morbidities. 93
ANEMIA
Prevalence of anemia in BMI>30 was 16% and 22% in the BMI<30 category. The difference
was statistically insignificant with a p value of 0.444.
These results could be due to possible nutritional etiology of anemia in the population with
BMI<30.
Our results could be compared with Galtier-Dereure F etal (2000) who reported that anemia
appears to occur less often in severely obese pregnant women than in normal-weight pregnant
women. 73
Aly H etal (2010) found that mothers with obesity and morbid obesity were more likely to have
anemia than normal weight women. 81
USG
Oligohydramnios in the BMI <30 category was 6%, and in the BMI >30 category was 4%.
Doppler abnormalities in the BMI >30 category was 8%, and these were conspicuously absent in
the BMI <30 category.
The difference in ultrasound findings remained statistically insignificant with a p value of 0.56.
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CONCLUSION
From our study we may conclude that there is a higher prevalence of complications to both the
fetus and the mother when BMI is more than 30 in the mother. Women with BMI>30 had
significantly higher age than women with BMI less than 30, and were associated with
significantly increased incidence of preeclampsia, casaerean sections, and lower APGAR. There
was an insignificant increase in eclampsia, retinopathy, gestational diabetes mellitus, intra
uterine growth restriction, preterm labour pains, malpresentations, shoulder dystocia. Also,
anaesthetic complications, elective casaerean sections and intraoperative complications,
inductions, postpartum hemorrhage, cervical/paravaginal tears, post-operative wound infection,
Doppler abnormalities and macrosomia were insignificantly higher in the BMI more than 30
group. The incidence of failed induction and intra uterine deaths was similar in both the groups
The following were insignificantly higher in the BMI less than 30 group: postdatism, fetal
distress, non progress of labour, anemia, oligohydramnios, low birth weight, meconium
aspiration syndrome, NICU admissions.
Therefore, it is a must for all pregnant and non pregnant women to be aware of the fetomaternal
complications arising due to higher Body Mass Index. With proper management of pregnant
women with a higher BMI, improvement in awareness amongst the women and increasing their
accessibility to medical facilities, maternal and perinatal morbidity and mortality can be
minimized. Preconceptional weight loss and limited pregnancy weight gain can be helpful in
achieving the goal we all strive for, a healthy mother and a healthy baby.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
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I had the proud privilege and honor of having worked under the excellent guidance and
supervision of my esteemed teacher and mentor Dr Asha Aggarwal, Head of Department,
Department of Obstetrics and Gynaeocology, Kasturba Hospital for her valuable advice,
inspiring guidance, stimulating suggestions and positive criticisms, motivational approach and
meticulous supervision at each step of this work.
I would also like to extend my sincere thanks to Dr Gurcaharan Kaur, Senior Specialist and Head
of Unit, for her guidance, painstaking supervision and kind help. I am really thankful for
providing comprehensive knowledge and stimulating new thoughts on the subject, which was
helpful in completing this work.
I would like to thank Dr. Khan Amir Maroof, who was a constant source of inspiration and
encouragement. Also, I would like to thank all my colleagues and friends for their valuable
support and cooperation. I am also grateful for the technical, administrative and other nonteaching staff for their cooperation and support in my endeavors.
Last but not the least; I shall ever remain indebted to my mother Mrs. Anjla Lakhanpal and my
father Mr. Raman Lakhanpal, and my little sister Miss. Nupur Lakhanpal for their untiring and
valuable support, inspirations and encouragement in completing this work.
Above all, I record my utmost gratitude to all the patients for their voluntary cooperation and
active participation in the study.
Dr Shuchi Lakhanpal
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ORGANIZATIONAL THEORIES AND ANALYSIS:
A FEMINIST PERSPECTIVE
BY
MRS. PEACE IREFIN.
DEPARTMENT OF SOCIOLOGY AND ANTHROPOLOGY
UNIVERSITY OF MAIDUGURI
AND
Professor s.s. ifah
DEPARTMENT OF SOCIOLOGY AND ANTHROPOLOGY
UNIVERSITY OF MAIDUGURI
DR. M.H. BWALA
DEPARTMENT OF SOCIOLOGY AND ANTHROPOLOGY
UNIVERSITY OF MAIDUGURI
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ABSTRACT
This paper is a critique of organization theories and their failure to come to terms with the fact
of the reproduction of labour power within a particular form of the division of labour. It
examines feminist theory and its aims to understand the nature of inequality and focuses on
gender, power relations and sexuality part of the task of feminists which organizational theories
have neglected is to offer an account of how the different treatments of the sexes operate in our
culture. The paper concludes that gender has been completely neglected within the
organizational theory which result in a rhetorical reproduction of males as norms and women
as others. It is recommended that only radical form of organization theory can account for the
situation of women in organisational setting.
ORGANIZATIONAL THEORIES AND ANALYSIS:
A FEMINIST PERSPECTIVE





Introduction
Organizational Theories
Feminist Theories
Criticism of Organizational Theories
Conclusion and Recommendation
INTRODUCTION
Organizational theories have been pre-0ccupied with the creation of general concepts and
methods that are applicable to any organization regardless of its cultural, personality and
geographical environment (Perrow and Etzioni 1969). Early/most organizational theories treat
organization as if only men are involved. Issues concerning gender are treated as mere statistics.
Employees are without gender identity devoid of sexuality, and are a bundle of specific
functions and skills. It is the purpose of the paper to argue that organization theory is
inadequate, primarily because it fails to give due attention to the problem of women in
organizations.
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Organizational phenomena bordering on gender issues are almost regarded as taboo areas
in the study of organization by conventional organizational theorists. This problem was first
noticed by the European Groups for Organizational Studies. The Groups declared the issues of
gender as critical in organization because it is absence in organizational literature.
Certain areas have been relatively unexplored mainly because they were not considered
important in terms of prevailing critical opinion. One such neglected area has been the role of
gender in organizations. There is need to recognize the legitimate connection between gender
and organization.
This paper will start by pointing out the problematic nature of “taken for granted”
assumptions about the relations of men and women in organization and the blindness to
behaviour pattern and informal social structures that follow them by taking the view point of
males. It will also point to the failure of organizational theories to come to terms with the fact of
the reproduction of labour power within a particular form of the division of labour and to
integrate these into a theory of organization.
Arguments have been made asserting that organizations theories are not gender neutral
(Aaltio and Mills 2002). Organization gender scholars pointed out that organization theory
which ignores and negates gender result in „gender absent‟ assumptions about organizational
phenomena, thus producing mainstream organizational theory (Hearn and Parking 1993).
However, before going further, it is necessary to first examine a general view of organization.
Organization
An organization is a continuing system, able to distinguish and integrate human activities.
An organization utilizes, transforms and joins together a set of human, material and other
resources for problem solving (Bakke 1959). It is a setting in which one level of social relations
occurs (conflicting classes and fractions of classes negotiating and compromising, thereby
forming the “rules of games).
3
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Organization today are seen as systems, that is a collection of interdependent parts. Move
one part and you somehow influence all the other parts. Look at one or two parts and you ignore
the fact that they have being influenced in simple and complex way by a host of other parts.
This leads to a distorted understanding of organization.
Organization Theory
A theory is a statement in general terms about the likely relationship between two or
more phenomena (Silverman 1970). It suggests hypotheses that are possible to test and where
necessary, refute. A theory of organization would explain why organizations are as they are and
examine the factors that make them change. It would set out to offer an explanation on both
structure and dynamics. In the same way as there is not a theory of society so there is not of
course a theory of organization. If there is not a theory, then there are many theories of
organizations which deal with the macro issues.
Organization theory is the systematic study and careful application of knowledge about
how people-as individuals and as group-act within organization. According to Tsoukas and
Knudsen (2003), the term “organizational theory” refers to the academic discipline specializing
in the study of organizational phenomena (at both micro and macro levels). Organization theory
“which is composed of a multiplicity of largely incommensurable theoretical framework and
schools of thought also describes a systematic set of Organizational theories focus mainly on
how organizations are structured and designed. Most of the perspectives offer suggestions about
how organizations can be constructed to improve their effectives.
To have an overall perspectives on this paper, it is useful to make a distinction between
prescriptive and descriptive theory. Prescriptive theory is concerned with how things should be,
whereas descriptive theory focuses on how things are; classical theory is for the most part,
prescriptive; structuralism is descriptive; and human relations has elements of both prescriptive
and descriptive. Both types of theory can be empirically based, but for this paper, prescriptive
theory is adopted.
This is because this paper is concerned with how things are; prescriptive theory is a kind
of advice to the practitioner, such as manager, whereas descriptive? Explain to the interested
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observer what the situation looks like. Most organizational theories based their assumption on
what is happening in organization but in actual fact the situation in organization is not how
things should be in the organization. That is why one of the first claims of feminist scholars
that most organization theories are male theories and that male theories about women were
biased. This is one of the hazards of generalizing a “ruling” of organization to all organization.
Organizational theories can be broadly classified as classical, neo-classical and modern
theories. Classical organizational theories deal with the formal organization and concepts to
increase management efficiency (Taylor 1970; Weber 1947; Fayol 1947). They were of the
view of that there is only one best way for organization to be structured.
Modern theories on the other hand comprise of systems approach, socio-technical
approach, (the contingency or situational approach). What is important is that there be a fit
between the organization‟s structure. Its size, its technology, and the requirement of the
environment. This perspective is known as “contingency theory” and contrast with the
perspectives of classical theory like Weber 1947; Taylor 1970; Fayol 1947, etc who thought
that there probably was one way to run organizations that was the best. System theories is based
on the concept that the organization is a system which has to adapt to changes in its
environment. The systems approach views organizations as a system composed of
interconnected and thus mutually subsystem (Albrecht, 1983). The contingency approach is
based on the belief that there cannot be universal guidelines which are suitable for all situations
(Lawrence and Lorsch 1967).
Contingency theory appears to be the dominant perspective and that is why this paper
will review the contingency perspective. This theory has been the most widely used approach in
organization. It argues that there cannot be universal guidelines which are suitable for all
situations. Structure depends on certain characteristics of the organizations called “Contingency
Factors” like size, task, strategy, technology which are influenced by elements that are located
outside the organization. These elements are government, competitors and society. According to
this theory, organizations can only be effective if they can fit their structure to the contingency
factors and then to the environment (Donaldson 1996).
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According to the structural contingency theory, if the tasks are certain and repetitive with
high degree of centralization and formalization, decision making and planning by the top
management would be suitable. These features are supposed to make the task to be
accomplished in most efficient way. However, if tasks are uncertain then, there will be a need
for „rich‟ information. In this case it will not be easy to make strict plans or job descriptions.
Contingency theory also argues that the level of production and operation technology
influence the choice of structure. When primitive production technology is used three is no need
for detailed information and tasks are not affected very much by environmental changes. This
type of organization is characterized by organizational structure.
Organizational studies were formerly dominated by classical management school. This
school has searched for an organizational structure that could be suitable and effective for all
kinds of organization. This structure involves a high degree of centralization, formalization and
strict authority of the top manager. The idea was that this type of structure which includes
formal rationality, technical capability and legitimate authority would result in organizational
success. Bureaucracy was considered the best alternative in reaching the highest effectiveness.
Human relations school started to challenge the classical understanding and
organizational studies began to shift towards understanding the human aspects of organization.
Human relation as a school of thought has its roots in research initiated in the late 1920‟s by
Elton Mayo and was followed in 1940 by a research of Kurt Lewin. The human relations model
sees man as only superficially controllable and that there is only one best way to organize
relationship. Organizations should permit individual autonomy, in order to maximize task
involvement and motivation within.
Taylor developed scientific management concepts; Weber gave the bureaucratic approach
while Fayol developed the administrative theory of organizations. The scientific management
approach developed by Taylor is based on the concept of planning of work to achieve
efficiency, standardization, specialization and simplification. Taylor was the first person who
attempted to study human behaviour at work using systematic approach. Max Weber considered
the organization as a segment of broader society. He looked at the structure of organization and
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the control of member behaviour. Weber‟s bureaucracy is probably the most cited statements of
what an organization is. For many it has an intuitive feeling of correctness and his explanation
makes what we have all experienced clearer. Yet it is clear that his model is shaggily limited.
The elements of administrative structure by Fayol (1949) relate to accomplishment of tasks, and
include principles of management, the concept of line and staff, committees and function of
management.
In a situation whereby specialized machineries are used. Concepts of classical theory
apply in the choice of the structure. Classical theory can therefore be said to concern itself with
“organizations without people”, whereas Human relations theory has revolve around people
without organization. The solution may be a union between the two.
FEMINISM
“Feminism” is an umbrella term for a range of views about injustices against women.
There are disagreements among feminist scholars about the nature of injustice in general and
the nature of sexism, in particular, as well as the specific kinds of injustice women suffer.
Feminists are committed to bringing about social change to end injustice against women.
The claim here is not to survey the history of feminism as a set of ideas, but rather it is to
sketch some of the central uses of the term that are most relevant to this paper.
In the mid 1800‟s the term feminism was used to refer to “the qualities of females” and it
was not until after the first international women‟s conference in Paris in 1892 that the term was
used regularly in English for a belief in and advocacy of equal rights for women. Some writers
have found it useful to think of the women‟s movement in U.S as occurring in “waves”. The
“first wave” occurred in mid 19th century and it was a struggle for basic political rights. The
second wave feminism occurred in the late 1960‟s and early 1970. In the second wave, was the
feminist quest for greater equality across the board e.g. in education, the work place, and at
home. The “third wave” feminism was a critique of the second wave feminism for its lack of
attention to the differences among women due to race, ethnicity, class, nationality.
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Feminism involves at least two groups of claims, one normative and the other descriptive.
The normative concerns how women ought or ought not to be viewed and treated, the
descriptive on the other hand concerns how women are, as a matter of fact, viewed and treated.
This alleges that they are not being treated in accordance with the standards of justice or
morality invoked in the normative claim that women and men ought to have equal rights.
Disagreement with the feminist movement can occur with respect to either the descriptive
or normative claims. For instance, feminists differ on what would count as justice or injustice
do women suffer from? What aspects of women in current situation are harmful or unjust?
Disagreement may also lie in the explanation of injustices; two feminists may agree that
women are being denied proper rights and respect and yet differ in their account of how and
why and what is required to end the injustice.
FEMINIST APPROACHES TO ORGANIZATIONS
Feminism is a sociological approach that views inequality in gender as central to all
behaviour in organization. Sociologists began embracing the feminist perspectives in the 1970s,
although it has along tradition in many other disciplines. Because it clearly focuses on one
aspect of inequality it is often allied with conflict perspectives. Proponent of feminist
perspectives focus on the macro level of society just as conflict theories do. Drawing on the
work of Marx and Engels, contemporary feminist theories often viewed women subordination
as inherent in capitalist societies. Some radical feminist theories however, view the oppression
of women as inevitable in all male dominated societies whether in capitalist, socialist or
communist system. Feminist scholars have not only challenged stereotyping of women, they
have argued for a gender-balanced study of society in which women‟s experiences and
contributions are as visible as those of men (England 1999; Tuchman 1992). Feminist
perspective has given sociologists new view of familiar social behaviour. For example past
researches on crime rarely considered women and when it did the studies tended to focus on
“Traditional” crimes by women. Such a view tended to ignore the role that women play in all
types of crime.
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Up until 1980‟s Organizational Studies and feminist theories were detached due to their
distinctive areas. Organizational literature has been dominated by male academics to solve
problems of male managers while feminist studies dealt mostly with women and the nature of
patriarchal relations. The theories and researches on sex segregation or other gender inequalities
in organizations are very recent. Rapid development of women liberative movement has
increased the awareness of women to their subordination both in private and public spheres.
This has increased the consciousness to the “gender blind” nature of organizational studies
which eventually led to the gendered analysis of organizational structure. Since traditional
approaches to the organizations do not take into account gender differences, considerable errors
have been made in interpreting how organizations operate (Mills, Peta Tancred, 1992).
The division of feminist theories in social theory appears in the field of organization
studies. Liberal, Radical, Psychoanalytical. Socialist, Marxist, Post-Modern, and Post-Colonial
feminist have different claims about the structure of organization. However, they all agree on
the male dominance and existing inequality in the work place. Their differences derived from
the ways through which this situation may be changed.
Feminist writers have had a significant impact on social theory, promoting critique of liberal
and socialist theory, developing a conception of patriarchy, challenging the heritage of Freud
and raising question about the connection between masculinity, hierarchy. Some feminists
believe that women can only be free under socialism; others see the sexual struggle as more
basic than the class struggle and look for a new vision of society.
FEMINIST THEORY
The alliance between the feminist and other theories have been uneasy. There is not a
feminist theory but feminist theories, and if one inspects this closely one finds not so much
feminist theories as various theories which feminism makes use of or “borrowed”, for example,
Liberalism, Marxism, and psychoanalysis etc. These experts in other areas apply feminist
techniques and principles to their own fields.
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The feminist theories may be viewed as a kind of patch work quilt, taking bits and pieces
from here and there in an attempt to offer an account of women social and political being that
would be adequate to basic feminist principle.
It encompasses work done in a broad variety of disciplines, prominently including the
approaches to women‟s roles and lives and feminist politics in Anthropology and Sociology,
Economics, women and gender studies. It aims to understand the nature of inequality and
focuses on gender, politics, power relations and sexuality. Much of feminist theory also focuses
on analyzing gender inequality and the promotion of women‟s rights, interests and issues.
Themes explored in feminism include discrimination, stereotyping, sexual objectification
oppression and patriarchy (Rosser, 2005).
A fundamental premise of feminist theory is that socio-political life and traditional
accounts of social political life are prejudicial to women. Part of the task of feminists which
organizational theories have neglected is to offer and account of how the different treatments of
the sexes operate in our culture and how the prejudices against women are maintained by
economic, social, and political arrangements.
To this end feminists have attempted to apply Marxism and other theories of oppression
or exploitation to the situation of women. That task has not been easy because of the fact that
these theories were not specifically developed for the situation of women and are often marked
by what has been termed se blindness. Feminist theories rework these social and political
theories in order to remove the sexual biases introduced by male theories. The feminist
approach assumes that these theories are essentially sex-neutral tools that become sexiest in
their application in the hand of a Marxist or Freud.
STRANDS OF FEMINIST THEORY
A thorough examination of all recent feminist theories beyond the scope of this paper, but
it is relevant to sketch in few of these theories.
Radical feminism maintains that women‟s oppression is the most widespread and deepest
oppression. They reject most scientific theories, data and experiment, not because they exclude
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women but also because they are not women centered. They suggest that because men,
masculinity and patriarchy have become completely interviewed with technology and computer
systems in our society, no truly feminist alternative to technology exists.
Radical feminist may or may not be anti-capitalism. They see the basic division in all
societies as between men and women and clearly state that men are the oppressors of women.
They often use the term patriarchy to describe this systematic and universal oppression. While
some radical feminists see women‟s role in production as both motivating and enabling men to
take power over them, others emphasize the wish of men to control women‟s sexual availability
or to use their unpaid domestic labour in marriage.
They disagree with the liberal feminists, because they believe that sex is one of the
instruments for stratification of society and gender. Nature of them is not the single cause of
men‟s domination rather, the exclusion of women from public realm for long years. This caused
differences in the socialization of women. When women entered into male dominated
organizations, they found themselves marginalized. For this reason radical feminists argue that
women‟s socialization makes them better equipped than men to perform the skills necessary for
the creation of democratic, participatory, non-hierarchical organization. (Savage, Ann Witz
1992).
They came out with more radical suggestions such as women centered, leaderless,
structure-less organizations that may eliminate masculine values advocating competition,
leadership hierarchy etc.
LIBERAL FEMINISM
Liberalism is the body of ideas that feminists all over the world might most naturally turn
to when developing a theory to justify women‟s right, since it is the dominant ideology of most
society. Moreover, liberal values are inherently compatible with feminist claims to equal rights
with men; since liberalism stresses the rights of all individuals to freedom.
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Indeed, historically, liberalism is the first social theory that offered the possibility of
equality to women. Since it developed in opposition to theories stressing a political, social
hierarchical based on „nature‟ and the order ordained by God in the scripture and the Quaran.
Liberal feminism seeks no special privileges for women and simply demands that every
one receives equal consideration without discriminating on the basis of sex. The emphasis of
liberal feminism is inequality between men and women in the public sphere of life-employment,
education and politics. Here sex is thought of as a biological issue and socialization of sexes for
appropriate behaviour is considered to be constitutive of gender. Many liberal feminists explain
women exclusion or inequality with reference to ideas of female inferiority or incapacity that
inform the upbringing and education of both men and women. They seek to challenge ideas and
practices that treat women as second class citizen while leaving relatively unchallenged other
areas such as sexuality, reproduction and domestic labour. They perceive organizations as
composed of rational individuals seeking for autonomy and efficiency in line with liberal
political theory.
Liberalism is seen as the dominant ethos of contemporary society and so it indicates that
liberal feminists are not challenging capitalism or patriarchy but rather looking for the removal
of barriers that prevent women operating effectively in the public sphere on equal terms with
men.
Their desire is to free women from the oppressive, patriarchal gender roles. Liberal
feminism encompasses two genres of political thought; classical liberalism and welfareliberalism. Classical liberals believe that, ideally, the state should protect civil liberties, but also
give individuals the opportunities to determine their own wealth within the market and gender
discriminatory laws and policies should be erased from the book enabling women to compete
equally with men.
Welfare liberals, on the other hand believe the state should focus on economic justice
rather than simply on civil liberties, women should also be compensated for past injustices, as
well as eliminating socio-economic and legal barriers.
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Liberals in general are critical of the existing sex segregation in both vertical and horizontal
dimensions leading to wage inequalities and barriers to higher status jobs for upward mobility at
the expense of women. They believe that some minor changes within the existing system like
equal pay for equal work, sex-blind performance appraisals, equal opportunity for training and
gaining higher status work, increase in the number of working women are enough to eliminate
inequality in the work-places.
Liberal feminist has been criticized by other feminist because they did not question the
power relations. They are also not critical of hierarchical division of labour and the separation
of private and public. They have individualistic orientations towards personal accomplishment
and lastly, their demands only reflect middle-class, white, western women‟s interest excluding
race and economic class differences.
PSYCHOANALYTICAL FEMINISM
Psychoanalytical feminism attempts to explain patriarchy by reformatting the theories of
Freud and his intellectual heirs. According to these theories of personality, emotions are often
deeply buried in the subconscious or conscious areas of the psyche and they also highlight the
importance of infancy and early childhood in the patterning of these emotions. Their view is
different from that of liberals and radical. It examines the psycho-sexual development of both
sexes in patriarchal structure. They rejected the traditional view of psychoanalytic theory which
justifies women oppression but instead try to find out the effects of separate social arrangement
on different psycho-sexual development of women. As a result of patriarchal structure of the
society, women are socialized in more passive ways, achievement and leadership seem
irrelevant concepts for women. This has led to the inferiority of women in organization.
MARXIST FEMINISM
Marxist feminists perceive gender as similar to class relations that constitute and maintain
the system of oppression. The double burden of women due to their sex and class are the central
themes of Marxist feminism. They criticize liberals for accepting given hierarchical and
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devaluation of patriarchy and for
ignoring women unpaid labour as an important factor in social reproduction (Marshall, 1994).
According to them, the capitalist economy should be analyzed in terms of power relation. It is
then that gender inequality can be well understood, and without gender structural changes in
political realm, we cannot talk about equality both in public and private spheres.
They tend themselves most directly to examine why women tend to be at the bottom in
the job market. Feminists have explored the concept of a „reserve army of labour‟ to explain
women‟s economic roles under capitalism. Marx agued that that the capitalist system needed a
potential work-force of workers who could be drawn into new branches of production, easily
switched between different jobs and easily laid off when no longer wanted. In some ways
women seem to be an ideal reserve army.
Although Marxism has suggested ways of analyzing women‟s position under capitalism
it has not met feminist requirements. True in principle Marxism espouses the equality of women
and Marx himself once wrote that the level of civilization could be measured by the position of
women within it; but the emancipation of women is subsumed to be simply a by-product of
creating socialism.
Post Modern Feminism
Post modern feminists question concepts of „positive knowledge‟ and identity. They
criticize ontological and epistemological claims of modernist theories, foundationalism,
essentialism and universalism including the claims of many feminist theories (Calas, 1996).
They blame feminist theory for focusing only on gender in their analysis. Post-modern feminists
engage in intersections of complex social relations. Their argument is that knowledge forms the
power relations in organizations and this naturalizes the exclusion of certain groups from
organizations such as women, the minorities and the elderly. .
POST-COLONIAL OR THIRD WORLD THEORY
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This is the most recent approach to feminist theory. It emerged from the criticisms of the
third world feminists to western feminists. Western feminist theory is blamed for reflecting the
interests of white, middle class, heterosexual women only. They used post modern
consequences in their analysis of feminist theory and challenge popular theory of gender and
gender relations for being based on images and social experiences of mostly privileged women
in the first world (Calias, 1996). Post-colonial feminists also draw some of their critiques from
socialist feminism such as capitalism, colonialism, stratification of gender; and try to explain
these complex relations between the first and the third world.
SOCIALIST FEMINIST THEORY
Socialist feminists are those feminists who are concerned with challenging capitalism as
well as male supremacy or “patriarchy”. They make analytical connections between class
relations and gender relations in society and relate changes in the role of women to changes in
the economic system and patterns of ownership of the means of production. This approach
recognizes that while women are divided by class, colour and political beliefs, they do
experience a common oppression as women. This oppression needs to be understood, in terms
of the requirement of capitalism and the role of state institutions in a capitalist society. They
tended to concentrate on issues such as employment, domestic labour and state policy.
They criticize Marxism for being gender blind, by primarily focusing on economic class,
employer-labour relations as a consequences, including gender and race differences into the
analysis, socialist feminism re-conceptualize Marxist and socialist theories as well as feminist
theory. They draw some of their concepts from the radicals, while being critical of them for
having separatist solutions under capitalism and patriarchy. Despite their agreement on
exploitation and domination by men, socialist feminists criticize other approaches for omitting
historical and cultural condition. Socialist feminist relies on the idea that male dominance is a
consequence of social practices rather than biological differences. Unequal relationships
between the sexes are systematically reproduced to meet material need.
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Different researches and studies have been done by social feminists about organizations
that are different from other feminists, public realm in which organization are located is not
separated from the private where domestic relations takes place. This is because relations within
organizations and within families are assumed to be mutually interdependent. That means, if the
husband dominates the wife in the private as a result of “patriarchy”, the capitalist man
dominates working-class women as a result of “capitalism”.
Individual revolution is the starting point for the analysis of the unequal relationship.
Feudal relations characterized the women‟s place in the industrial societies, father had strict
authority over his wife and children, and women were both doing domestic and non-domestic
work. Even though they were working much harder than men, their contributions to the
economy were not counted.
By the industrial revolution capitalist work place and wage employment appeared
causing separation of home from work. This lead to separation of public and private as well as
sexual division of labour. These developments caused replacement of women by men and
marginalization of women in the public sphere. After that point in history, social feminists
examine occupational sex-segregation, sexual division of labour, wage inequality and power
relation, symbols, images within the organization.
GENDER
Fundamental to feminist theory is the idea of gender. Before going further in this paper, it
may be useful to discuss briefly what is meant by gender. Gender is understood as the socially
constructed patterning of masculinity and feminity and of the relationship between men and
women. This is to say that it is the product of collective acts of definition by human beings not
the natural out growth of biological imperatives. It is the expectation held about the
characteristics and likely behaviours of both men and women. These roles and expectations are
learned, changeable over time, and variable within and between cultures. Gender analysis has
increasingly revealed how women subordination is socially constructed, and therefore able to
change. It identifies the various roles played by women and men, girls and boys in the
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household, workplace. It is a routine part of our everyday activities that we typically take notice
only when somebody deviates from conventional behaviour and expectations.
Gender and gendered power relations are major defining features of most organization.
Organizations are not just structured by gender but pervaded and constituted by and through
gender; at the same time, organizational realities construct and sometimes subvert dominant
gender relations. When gender is referred to it is usual to think of men and women and relations
between them; these are certainly part of gender but only a part.
The first form of greater subtext deals with the exclusion or neglect of women and creates
the absence of women within organization theory. The exclusion of women is not a deliberate
act. This neglect takes place unconsciously and therefore important original organizational text
do not actively take women or gender aspect into consideration. (e.g. Blauner 1967, Crozier
1964).
An excellent example of how women have been neglected from organizational research is
shown in Oakley‟s (1974), consideration of Robert Blauner‟s (1964) book (Alienation and
freedom). In his analysis of working conditions in four factories, Blauner (1964) dismisses the
women, who made up almost half of the work force in the textile business, as a major safety
value against the consequences of alienating work conditions, Oakley (1974) emphasizes two
points which explain the invisibility of women in organizational research design. First the
choice of predominately masculine jobs (e.g. the automobile industries) guarantees the
concealment of women; second, whatever the specific features of the studied occupations are
the selected samples tend to be all male or mostly male. However, these facts are hidden
through the use of titles that purport to be describing work and worker in general irrespective of
gender. This apparent gender-neutrality meets the so called gender neutral construction of the
“ideal worker” which is not gender neutral at all, but represent a male work; a male manual
worker who conveys typically male stereotypes irrespective of time, location and work place.
Gender equity – Is the process of being fair to women and men. To ensure fairness,
measures must often be available to compensate for historical and social disadvantage that
prevent women and men from otherwise operating on the same level . Equity leads to equality.
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Gender equality means that women and men enjoy the same status. It also means that
women and men have equal condition for realizing their full human rights and potential and to
benefit from it.
Gender role and gender division of labour. In studying gender sociologists are interested
in the gender-role socialization that leads females and males to behave differently. A gender
role has been defined as expectations regarding the proper behaviour, attitudes and activities of
male and females. The application of traditional gender roles leads to many forms of
differentiation between women and men.
Gender roles are evident not only in our work and behaviour but in how we react to
others; we are constantly “doing gender” without realizing it. For example men and women
come in a variety of heights, sizes and ages, yet traditional norms tell us that in heterosexual
couples, the man should be older, taller and wiser than the women. We socially construct our
behaviour so as to create or exaggerate male-female differences. Such social norms help to
reinforce and legitimize patterns of male
dominance. In recent decades, woman have
increasingly entered occupations and professions previously dominated by men. Yet our society
still focuses on “masculine and feminine” qualities as if men and women must be evaluated in
those terms. We continue to do “gender” and our construction of gender continues to define
significantly differently expectations for female and males (Rosenbaum, 1996).
Female Gender Roles
Society defines men‟s identifies by their economic success. And even though many
women today fully expect to have careers and achieve recognition in the labour force, success at
work is not as important to their identity as it is for men. Traditional gender roles have restricted
females more severely than males.
Male Gender Role
Men‟s roles are socially constructed in much the same way as women roles are. Robert
(Branno, 1976) identifies five aspects of the male gender role.
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1. Anti Feminine Element – Show no “sissy” stuff including nay expression of openness or
vulnerability.
2. Success Element – Proves ones masculinity at work and sports.
3. Aggressive Element – Use force in dealing with others.
4. Sexual Element – Initiate and control sexual relationship.
5. Self Reliant Element – Keep cool and unflappable.
Gender Division of Labour
This refers to the different work that women and men generally do within the community
or inside the home. By examining the gender division of labour if becomes evident that women
and men tasks are independent and that women generally carry the greater burden of unpaid
work.
Gender role differentiation on its own is not bad, the problem arises when differentiation
turns into stereotype. That is when for no good cause women are barred from playing certain
roles for reasons of their sex and not for lack of skill to execute the task. Stereotyping may run
counter to our development efforts especially when women after acquiring a rare skill are
nevertheless barred from performing tasks which require the acquisition of that skills. In order
to understand the complex nature of this inquiry, it will be necessary to look at the subject of
women‟s status. The subject in the past was complex, but today there is greater need to
dispassionately understand the problem.
Even when both men and women have access to similar jobs, they are confronted by
different set of obstacles. This is for no other reason than for sex. A women frequently faces
competing demands from her boss at the work place and at home from her husband. The
husband expects her to carry out all the household chores including taking the young ones to the
school and hospital, the boss expects her to be punctual at work, otherwise, she is penalized.
This conflicting demand may be worse for women whose husbands never help at home.
Culture is another issue that can not be pushed aside because it is responsible for the
widespread belief that makes it possible for women and their roles to be glossed over, under19
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analyzed. The result is that what women do is perceived as house hold work and what they talk
about is called gossip, while men‟s work is viewed as the economic base of society and their
information is seen as important social communication.
The reason for this is not only cultural but economic. Cultural because it is what is
handed down through the agencies of socialization. It is also economic because men have
benefited more materially from their domination over women. Through the school system,
women are taught to accept that this is the nature of things. A girl is not expected to be dynamic
or have competitive nature. Boys on the other hand are encouraged to be more dynamic and to
take to the difficult science and engineering disciplines while women are tailored after teaching
and domestic oriented courses.
At the work place, women and men are drawn into competition. In order to maintain
certain privileges, men may be stressing certain stereotyped notions of the female gender.
CRITIQUE OF ORGANIZATION THEORIES
Organizational theories are often criticized for focusing on male as top level managers,
because of the fact that men occupy the leadership position and posses power. Even when
women are included in the research, their behavioural differences are explained by gendered
stereotypes or distinctive socialization processes. Other processes like pattern of selective
recruitment that have been used to suppress women in the organization are usually overlooked.
Thus important studies that are called “classics” of the organization theory show their ignorance
on gender differences. For example, the Hawthorne studies claim that positive treatment of
employees increase motivation and productivity (Daft 1996), but when re-examined show
different conclusions for males and females. Females are subjected to closer and more
personalized control mechanisms, while males are subjected to impersonal rules and given
some degree of autonomy. Also the rewards given men are not sex linked unlike women that
receive more stereotyped benefits, such as maternity leave etc.
Another criticism is sex segregation that is women work in the public is the same in
home. Even when women are employed in the same industry as men, they still get less pay,
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prestige, fringe benefits because of the horizontal sex segregation. Although it is obvious that in
most of the occupations, sex segregation is decreasing by the employment of women into
traditional male jobs.
Another issue is the distribution of power among sub groups within organization.
Socialist feminists perceive the direct relation between the subordination of women and unequal
distribution of power. On this point they rejected the main claim of structural contingency
theory that size and technology are the determining factors of organizational complexity.
Instead the degree of complexity depends on actions and decisions taken by power groups. .
Materialistic – Feminist determination used four points to explain the existing structure of
organizations. First, there is a dialectical relationship between organizational life and “broader
societal system”. These simultaneously reshape each other, secondly, the owners of means of
production have crucial role for the perception of organizational and society reality. Thirdly,
although sexual division of labour is determined by class structure, it has a degree of autonomy
and determines the class as well and finally, material conditions are reflected by perception of
reality. Through these four assumptions, socialist feminists try to answer some questions like
how “social perception of gender affect the structure of the organization and how this structure
affects gender identifies”? or “since organizational leaders are males, to what extent do their
masculine values affects the understanding of organizational structure”?. As a consequence of
their analysis socialist feminist suggested re-evaluation of feminine values and skills to
construct classless and genderless organization structure. This it is hoped will eliminate
gendered division of labour. Female dominated jobs would also receive comparable worth as
male dominated professional works. Also wages for male and female labour would be
readjusted accordingly. Also included in their demand are child care places for every work
place, flexible time jobs, equal and extended time for maternity leaves. According to them,
elimination of gender dualism does not mean the elimination of gender, rather it means
eliminations of institutional constraints that attribute certain stereotype to each sex. By this
model, it would be impossible for one individual to exclude other gender, or perceive himself or
her as primary gender.
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Socialist feminists do not reject emotional roles by individual in sexual love, parenting or
house hold relationships. This is because such roles will no longer be tied to gender or even to
all aspects of individuals interaction, they will not support such hierarchal relationships between
individual as male dominance or compulsory heterosexual (Ferguson 1991). In short, this model
tries to satisfy goals of both individual, autonomy and community as well democracy and social
material equality of people.
CONCLUSION
This paper outlines the deficiencies of organization theories and the implications for
organizational practice. It also displays that gender has been completely neglected within the
organizational text that is there is displacement of sexuality from organizational theory which
result in a rhetorical reproduction of males as norms and women as others. Organization theory
can not account for the differential treatment and experience of the sexes unless its traditional
assumptions about the existence, rationale and functioning of organization are critically
reassess. Feminist theories have examined why women and women‟s needs are persistently
marginalized. They have concluded that it is hierarchical organizing strategies which are a key
barrier to women‟s full participation. This paper has been able to show that excluding women
from the theory of organization therefore excludes a host of variables that may be the key to
understanding organizations. I do not believe that it is possible to make adhoc explanations
without including the nature of human beings in one‟s theory. If one excludes individuals and
group one may develop generalization that is invalid. If one excludes women their credible
performance and support in organization will be underestimated.
Finally, this paper is of the “expose” variety. In keeping with a general sociological
tradition, it shows that things are not as they seem in organization.
RECOMMENDATIONS
Based on the issues raised in this paper the following recommendations may be
considered; it is very clear that organization theories accounting for the phenomena of
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discrimination against women is inadequate, and this has contributed to the persistent
discrimination. Therefore, only, radically revised form of organization theory can account for
the situation of women in organizational setting. In other words, the understanding of the place
of women is beyond the contemporary organization theory.
Also there is need for ideological revolution, a revolution in the ideology of gender roles
in our culture, a revolution in concept of gender identity. In other words men and women must
be seen as people not as gender.
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