The State of Urban High-Rise Research:
An Annotated Bibliography
Edited by Belinda Yuen
Contents
List of Contributors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
v
Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vii
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Belinda Yuen
1
Literature Review
The Humanities Perspective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7
The Science Perspective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
The Annotated Bibliography
In the Humanities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
In the Sciences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
iii
List of Contributors
All are students at National University of Singapore (NUS)
University Scholars Programme (USP)
Ananda Purna Pryana
Year 3, Electrical Engineering, USP 2008
Chen Shuhui
Year 2, Chemistry, USP 2008
Chris Henry
Year 3, Computing, USP 2008
Lim Aik
Year 2, Political Science, USP 2008
Lim Yan Jun Vivien
Year 3, Life Sciences (with concentration in Biomedical Sciences), USP 2008
Muhd Ibnur Rashad B Zainal A
Year 2, Engineering Science, USP 2008
Ng Hwee Teng Rachel
Year 2, English Language, USP 2008
Tan Kuan Khoon Royston
Year 3, Materials Science and Engineering, USP 2008
Tan Wei Lin
Year 2, Physics, USP 2008
Tan Wei-En
Year 3, Physics, USP 2008
Ye Yaojing
Year 4, Chemical Engineering, USP 2008
v
Preface
This student publication is the outcome of a course offered as a University Scholars
Programme (USP) Advanced Multidisciplinary Seminar to students in the USP at
the National University of Singapore (NUS).
The USP is a premier undergraduate program of NUS. It admits about 180 students each year, and offers them a myriad of interdisciplinary learning and global
education opportunities. USP emphasizes critical thinking and independent inquiry
through small class teaching and intensive faculty mentorship.
The USP Advanced Multidisciplinary Seminar (UMS) series was created to facilitate interdisciplinary group learning that leverages on the synergistic mix of students from diverse disciplines. In the course of the semester-long seminar, students
are encouraged and guided to formulate their own group projects, which they could
pursue in subsequent semesters.
This particular UMS course is entitled “Vertical Cities and Skyscrapers” and was
taught in 2008. It examines issues concerning planning, development and liveability
of vertical cities from multidisciplinary perspectives. The class had 11 students,
comprising 4 students from Engineering (Materials, Electrical, Chemical, and Engineering Science), 4 students from Science (Physics (2), Chemistry and Life Sciences), 1 student from Computing, and 2 students from Arts (English Language and
Political Science), of which 5 were sophomores, 5 were juniors and 1 was a senior.
The students’ introductory essays and annotated bibliography mainly reflect their
individual interests, but also the influence of their peers in the class.
I wish to thank Professor Belinda Yuen, the instructor and facilitator of the
course, for her dedication to the educational philosophy of the UMS series. Valuable input was provided by the USP Curriculum Review Committee, chaired by
Professor Kang Hway Chuan, in fleshing out this philosophy. And I congratulate
the 11 students – Ananda, Shuhui, Chris, Aik, Vivien, Ibnur, Rachel, Royston, Wei
Lin, Wei-En and Yaojing – for doing a fine job. I am sure they have had a fruitful
learning experience, and am thrilled that they are able to share it with the wider
community.
Singapore
Peter Pang
Director, University Scholars Programme
National University of Singapore
vii
Introduction
Belinda Yuen
This annotated bibliography is the result of my teaching a multi-disciplinary module
on “Vertical Cities and Skyscrapers” in Semester 2 of 2007/2008 at the University
Scholars Programme, National University of Singapore. Students from different disciplines – engineering, science and humanities – audit the module. The bibliography
presented here is drawn from the students’ survey of the literature, the state of urban
high-rise research in their discipline, covering published and unpublished works. It
is the first multi-disciplinary annotated bibliography on urban high-rise, and is an
evolving documentation that seeks expansion with subsequent cycles of review.
The bibliography reflects best effort rather than comprehensiveness. It contains discussion of some of the key lines of research, the changing continuum of
research issues debated over the years, and potential research areas in the disciplines reviewed. The bibliography also has a strong urban and Singapore focus. This
reflects the fact that high-rise are largely located in cities. The high-rise building is
a manifestation of real estate economics working in an urban economy to create
more real estate out of a small piece of land. High-rise offers a solution to the city
that is spatially challenged. The current common alternative to building outwards
is upwards. The search for accommodation is imminent as cities are anticipated to
continue to grow. More than half of the world’s population is living in cities. In the
developing countries, urban population is growing at 3 million per week. Housing
is a major challenge.
The majority of Singapore’s buildings are high-rise. Since the 1960s, it has developed large-scale, high-rise, high-density public housing to solve its housing shortage. The average height of its housing is above 12-storey. Redevelopment of the city
area has resulted in a new cityscape, including over 50 hotel and office buildings of
122 m or taller. At the time of its completion in 1986, OUB Centre (280 m) was the
tallest building outside the United States of America. Both the public and private
sectors have continued to build tall buildings. The tallest commercial building is
66-storey (280 m) while 50- to 70-storey housing is being built. Many commentators
have pointed to Singapore’s compact urban form and high-rise public housing as a
model of sustainable urban development.
1
2
Introduction
The Modern High-Rise: An Enduring Urbanity
Since the first modern skyscraper was constructed in 1884 in the United States of
America, urban high-rise has gone through a wide range of transformation and
changes in reception, both in development and research. The availability of new
construction material – cheap cast iron and later, structural steel – and advances in
technology such as improved fireproofing and the electric elevator have supported
the construction of taller and taller buildings. Generally, in terms of height, buildings
between 23 m (about 6 storeys) and 150 m are considered high-rise. Buildings taller
than 150 m are classified as skyscrapers while those above 300 m are considered
supertall buildings (Ali and Armstrong, 1995).
Destructive action and its fear notwithstanding, high-rise and its taller variant has
become a pervasive feature of many cities, in developed and developing countries.
The 541 m Freedom Tower is being built on the former World Trade Centre site.
There is almost a race to construct the tallest building. Australia, Middle East and
Asia are amongst the world’s tallest and most active high-rise construction countries.
Many of these buildings are constructed in recent decades, including for residential
living. Against urban population growth, the modern high-rise has not been limited
to commercial use. With architectural modernism and the search for mass housing,
mass-building developers and policymakers have embraced, and then rejected highrise apartments as a mass housing typology.
In the post-war years between 1950 and 1971, many cities around the world
saw high-rise as symbolizing “a new world”, providing the ultimate way of living,
equitable and healthy housing at high densities. Many local authorities in United
Kingdom, including Birmingham, Sheffield and Glasgow promoted high-rise in
their housing policy (Birmingham Gazette, 1949; Horsey, 1990; Glendinning and
Muthesius, 1994). The Birmingham City Council, for example, built 464 housing
blocks of 5 or more storeys in the central areas on slum-cleared land and in its
suburbs on greenfield sites. Often, the mass housing programme had involved gigantic scale and a high degree of uniform production, leading to standardization and
monoculture. While the high-rise modern conditions were appreciated by some as
cost and land efficient there were mounting criticisms of alienation, health and other
social problems on the part of the inhabitants, which were as much the problems
with construction as with the people that were accommodated in the flats (Conway
and Adams, 1977; Sutcliffe, 1974; UASC, 2002).
Whatever the reason, the perspective of problematic housing is a powerful argument to stop construction, and in some cases, to demolish the high-rise. Birmingham, Glasgow and many other local authorities in United Kingdom and Australia
have started to demolish much of the post-war high-rise stock. Yet, high-rise has not
totally disappeared. It is an accepted part of densely populated Asian city’s housing
solution. The prime examples are Hong Kong and Singapore. The dictates of limited
land space, growing population and yearn for improved housing conditions have
launched these cities to celebrate skywards verticality. In Hong Kong, supported by
technological advancement the height of public housing has increased from 6- to
7-storey in the 1950s to 50- to 60-storey by the 1990s. Even though tall building is
Introduction
3
not the only building option, high-rise constitutes a vitally important component of
the future city. As enunciated in Singapore’s long-term development plan,
More homes will be built in the city . . . The average plot ratio for housing in the New Downtown can be increased to between 6.0 and 7.0.
(Urban Redevelopment Authority, 2001, p 18)
There are many motivations to build upwards, including economics, image, regulation and sustainability. From an early time, Gottmann (1966) has contended that
tall building is a modernist cultural expression, a substitute for the medieval cathedrals in the modern city. Others have suggested that high-rise expresses economic
dominance, power and urban boosterism, inspiring architecture and urban design
(Binder, 2001; Abel, 2003). Under the narrative of current housing shortfall, urban
regeneration and sustainability, there have been strong moves over recent decades
to reintroduce tall buildings in the city. As the BBC announced, “high-rise living is
back” (1 March 2004). Even as the post-war high-rise is being demolished, United
Kingdom is again building tall residential buildings, in and outside of London.
The former mayor of London, Ken Livingstone, for example, has enthusiastically
endorsed tall buildings, giving fillip to its construction in the city (Greater London
Authority, 2001, p 5).
I support high buildings, both as clusters (such as in the City, Canary Wharf and Croydon),
and as stand-alone buildings (such as the Post Office Tower and Millbank Tower), where
they are in close proximity to a major public transport interchanges and contribute to the
quality of London’s environment. I have no objection in principle to London having the
tallest of buildings.
Contrary to earlier development, the new high-rise is often designed by established architects (for example, Cesar Pilli’s Canary Wharf Tower), and marketed as
a symbol of affluent inner city living; “the chic choice for London living” (International Herald Tribune, 13 Jul 2006). Many of these high-rises are purpose-built
luxury apartments. Q1 Tower (78 floors), Eureka Tower (91 floors), Emirates Crown
(63 floors) and Millennium Tower (60 storey) are some examples. Eureka Tower is
designed by Melbourne architectural firm, Fender Katsalidis Australia, and has 24carat gold plated glass windows on the top 10 floors of the building. Floors 82–87
contain only one apartment per floor, with an original selling price of A$7 million
each. In Manchester, the selling price of a 2-bedroom flat in its tallest housing, the
171 m 47 storeys Beetham Tower is £700,000 or 7 times the price of an average
home in the city.
As the world’s urban growth continues, indications seem to converge towards a
continued revival of high-rise, and its celebration as a symbol of affluent modern
lifestyle (Lacayo, 2004). Against the changing images of high-rise, how much do
we really understand about this urban phenomenon? Unfortunately, the answer is
not much. Research is necessary to illuminate its multiple aspects and inform future
policy. As Lefebvre (1991, p 92) reminds, to know more about what is will help us
to understand more about what is likely to be. We hope the annotated bibliography
presented here could go some way to inform the state of research, and point to
potential areas for further research, especially in trans-disciplinary studies.
4
Introduction
References
Abel C (2003) Sky high: vertical architecture. Royal Academy of Arts, London
Ali MM, Armstrong PJ (1995) Architecture of tall buildings. McGraw-Hill, New York, NY
Binder G (2001) Tall buildings of Asia and Australia. Images Publishing Group Pty Ltd, Mulgrave
Birmingham must build up or out, Birmingham gazette. (15 June 1949)
Conway J, Adams B (1977) The social effects of living off the ground. Habitat Int 2(5/6):595–614
Gottmann J (1966) Why the skyscraper? Geogr Rev 56:190–212
Greater London Authority (2001) Interim strategic planning guidance on tall buildings, strategic views and the skyline of London. Greater London Authority, Mayor of London’s Office,
London
Lefebvre H (1991) The production of space. (trans Nicholson-Smith D). Basil Blackwell, Oxford
Horsey M (1990) Tenements and towers: glasgow working-class housing 1890–1990. HMSO,
Edinburgh
Glendinning M, Muthesius S (1994) Tower block: modern public housing in England, Scotland,
Wales and Northern Ireland. Yale University Press, New Haven, CT
Lacayo R (2004) Kissing the sky. Time Magazine 164(26/27):100–106
Sutcliffe A (1974) Multi-storey living: the British working-class experience. Taylor and Francis,
London
UASC (6th September 2002) UK government: urban affairs select committee of members of Parliament report on tall buildings. Building Design, Issue 1546
Urban Redevelopment Authority (2001) Concept plan 2001. Urban Redevelopment Authority,
Singapore
Yeung YM, Wong TKY (2003) Fifty years of public housing in Hong Kong. Chinese University
Press, Hong Kong
Literature Review
The Humanities Perspective
Politics and High-Rise
Lim Aik
Political Science, Year 2
High-rise buildings and skyscrapers have decisively shaped Man’s existence in
recent decades. Specifically, a high-rise and high-density urban environment has
engendered new behavioural norms, changing perceptions of human relations, and
instilled in modern capitalist societies a spirit of competition steeply couched in
material terms. Skyscrapers, as an architectural form, embody the collective drive
and ambition of mankind by reaching higher and higher into the skies. Presently,
high-rises feature prominently as part of our built environment, and will likely
remain so in the years to come.
It is no coincidence that mankind’s propensity to build higher coincides with the
nature of our political existence. Politics refers to the process through which the
different interests of collective groups of humans play out, and much of modern
politics concerns itself with Man’s desire to build a society capable of providing for
our increasing material needs in an age where capitalist ideals dominate the world
economy. In the annotated summary that follows this brief introductory summary,
there are three broad areas of primary interest in the overlapping region between
high-rise and the political field. Firstly, high-rise as a policy solution to public housing is explored extensively, particularly in the local context. Next, the ongoing political dialogue between proponents and opponents of high-rise urban living features
frequently in published literature. Lastly, the symbolic nature of vertical cities and
skyscrapers has resurfaced as a topic of immense interest since the fateful events of
11th September 2001.
Much of the literature on high-rise in recent times has focused on the economic
rationality of building higher, especially in city centers, and high-rise living as the
dominant lifestyle in contemporary urban society. The latter point is especially true
within the Singaporean polity, as the state’s public high-rise housing programme
not only defines the lifestyle experience of a huge majority of our citizenry, it plays
a critical role in our overall national development strategy as well as in the ruling
party’s political legitimacy. Many unpublished works in the earlier eras (1970s and
7
8
The Humanities Perspective
1980s) touch on various aspects of this public housing programme, while several
published works in the 1980s expand on the body of knowledge by bringing in the
experiences of other countries in similar projects initiated by the state.
In the architectural and urban planning circles, there exists a dialectic exchange
between the voices, advocating high-rise as a way of life and those opposing its
increasing prevalence. The debate grew in intensity following the tragedy of 11th
September 2001, and there is a wide range of literature questioning Man’s relationship with his environment and the presence of urban pathological influences,
including Kunstler and Salingaros’s “The End of Tall Building”. A dichotomy
exists between those who expound the ills of high-rise living and its dehumanizing influence, many who belong to the post-World War II generation in the West,
and parties who conceive of modern high-rises as a symbol of arrival and a necessary stage in the development of human society (such as those in Asian countries which have been constructing tall buildings at a feverish pace in the last few
decades).
The iconic nature of skyscrapers and high-rises is another topic of great academic interest. As tall buildings, especially financial skyscrapers in the business
district, come to symbolize systems of beliefs associated with capitalism and material affluence, they also take on the appearance of arrogance, extravagance and a
sense of condescending superiority. High-rises thus attract attention by its sheer
prominence, engendering intense emotions towards the ideals that they stand for. To
those who are part of this capitalist world, skyscrapers are beacons of hope, industry
and achievement. To others in communities, which are systematically disadvantaged
and materially deprive, they are the epitome of arrogance and inequality, tempting
targets for the disenfranchised to unleash their hatred in a destructive fashion. The
9/11 incident, a tragedy borne of such conflicting viewpoints, is well documented in
works such as Terry Smith’s The Architecture of Aftermath. The body of literature,
which emphasizes the symbolism of high-rises argue that Man’s built form is an
expression of his values system, beliefs, and his relationship with the physical environment. As such, there is a need to approach the spread of modern high-rise living
with a degree of sensitivity to the inherent differences and plurality of the world,
because not all societies take to it as a natural cultural expression of their political
existence.
Following the tragic events of 9/11, the confluence between the forces of modernization and that of politics have become of greater interest to academic scholarship.
Any future research into this field will be centred upon the effects of high-rise on
human society, and how vertical cities shape us as much as they are shaped by
architects and urban planners. First of all, it has been said that urban high-density
environments overload their constituents, as the drastic increase in social interactions incline individuals toward touch-and-go relationships and vast but looselyknit social networks. This in turn engenders communities defined not by depth and
understanding, but by shallower interests and increased anomie. More research can
perhaps be done on the adverse effects of high-rises in a globalized world where
cultural boundaries are porous and the criteria for socio-political inclusion and
exclusion become more ambiguous as a result of economic integration.
The Humanities Perspective
9
Another possible field of research interest could be the post-modernist take on
the iconic and symbolic role of high-rises. So far, the connection between skyscrapers and urban society have been couched in lofty and ambiguous terms, drawing
mainly upon Man’s aspirations and ambitions in explaining our inclination to build
higher. Scholars may want to articulate, in comprehensive terms, the link between
tall buildings and the affluence that they have come to symbolize, and the rapidly
widening divide between the rich and the poor in global society. This will help
explain how high-rises and skyscrapers have become synonymous with a system
of greed and extravagance, and what we can do to close the divide between cultures with fundamental differences in worldview and disparate standards of material
wealth. High-rise structures and vertical cities, as dominant expressions of our urban
built environment, may thus symptomize a deeper political problem endemic to the
modern era. Further diagnosis of issues pertaining to the politics of high-rise may
yield solutions that may very well arrest the forces pulling human society apart.
10
The Humanities Perspective
When High-Rise Shape-Shifts: The Symbolism of High-Rise
in English Literature
Ng Hwee Teng Rachel
English Language, Year 2
Literature is a vast discipline, encompassing everything from novels to poems to
film. Literature is also unique from the other disciplines in that it allows for fiction.
That is to say, it accepts works borne from imagination, and does not necessarily
insist on the need for fact. One could say that Literature is far more about creativity
than stringent reality, and thus embraces the experimentation of various styles as a
means to the end of heightened expression. A significant form that is often appropriated by writers is the use of symbolism. This is the use of known characteristics
particular to an object extrapolated onto another object, so as to indirectly gift the
latter object with the characteristics of the first. Symbolism is also the most prevalent
form chosen by writers when employing high-rise in their works. That is to say, in
Literature, writers use high-rise mostly because of, and in relation to, the power and
wealth it symbolizes.
Keeping the above in mind, the strikingly different approach literary writers take
towards high-rise as opposed to their colleagues in the science, engineering and
computing disciplines then becomes clear. In Literature, it often is not about highrise per se, but what it represents. For instance, high-rise may be used to open a story,
and thereafter be deliberately in the background. However, that does not mean that
high-rise in that work is insignificant; on the contrary, to the writer high-rise is the
catalyst for his or her work. There is nothing in a literary piece that is accidental.
Writers are very self-conscious over every dimension, sub-plot and even sentence
in their works. Thus, there is no argument that the final work is a decisive choice,
and precisely because of that, we can be confident that there is reason behind the
content of the writer’s work. In fact, the point of engaging in Literature is to work at
the meaning that is found within the writer’s words. Through an examination of 50
book reports, four to five broad categories of high-rise in Literature can be identified.
These include the feminist reading, the capitalist reading, high-rise in a post-modern
sense, on a national level, and in terms of literary devices such as metonymy.
To elaborate on each category, the feminist reading occurs largely in children’s
literature. In traditional children’s literature, high-rise is invariably castles or towers, wherein the morally upright damsel is trapped and requires rescue from a male
member of the aristrocracy. In such a reading, high-rise becomes a phallic symbol
or a sign of male supremacy over the female gender. Thus, what is important is
not how the tower was built; the significance rises from the implicit meaning that
the tower is a symbol of the male power over the female, who is entrapped in that
tower and because she can only be freed when her valiant hero comes. Secondly,
the capitalist reading is found mostly in current novels, and high-rise in such works
usually mean skyscrapers. Skyscrapers here are manifestations of capital accumulation. Being of such height, they require considerable cost to build. Commissioners
have the necessary resources, and thus the skyscraper proves their wealth.
The Humanities Perspective
11
Also, their great heights evoke a sense of awe, further enforcing the idea of
skyscrapers as grand, and stately. Thus, writers use skyscrapers to symbolize wealth
and power in a capitalist reading. Thirdly, in a post-modern sense high-rise are sites
of power struggle. This is most evident in the post-9/11 novels, where there is very
much a sense of America vs. the Terrorists. The fall of the Twin Towers is seen by
most authors as a massive blow to the previously immensely formidable power of
the United States of America, and thus a great point of interest to these authors is the
exploration of America’s efforts to pick herself back up. The fourth reading takes
place at the national level, where much symbolism occurs. Most of these writers
attempt a critique of their nation or of high-rise per se when they use high-rise with a
nationalistic reading in mind. Thus, high-rise takes on the picture of a nation, and by
reading the writer’s work on that particular high-rise one can garner an impression
of the writer’s hidden message with regards to the nation. Admittedly, this is not a
rigid definition and can be quite loosely used.
As for the final category, this is a somewhat technical one. High-rise is quite
often used as metonymy, particularly in the fantasy genre. This basically means that
the physical structure of the building represents something important in that work.
For example, in The Lord of the Rings, the tower changes from a translucent glow
to a menacing façade when evil forces take over, symbolizing the moral change in
that territory. As a literary device then, metonymy frequently combines with another
category to gain more meaning, and indeed the majority of the works are an assortment of various categories. Again, the point is to work towards understanding why
the writer chose such a perspective and what he or she means by them.
The readings reveal the state of literature to be fairly stable, but unfortunately,
quite infrequent. With regards to stability, the four ideological categories are sufficient to host the books and films, excluding metonymy because it is a literary
device. Possibly the only exception is the Tower of Babel in the book of Genesis
where the physical tower served a didactic function to the rebellious people. Thus,
these categories also act as the themes for high-rise. However, high-rise does not
seem to be a popular focus in Literature. One possible reason is that high-rise does
not figure prominently in many Western and European countries, because land is
abundant.
In contrast, Asia, where high-rise is more common, might not yet have the luxury
of musing about their environment, as many Asian cities and citizens are still very
much a work in progress. Perhaps in time this will change. One possible route highrise in Literature will take, is a multi-disciplinary form. Indeed, examining the slew
of post-9/11 novels revealed that politics was quite inseparable from the symbolism of the Twin Towers, and also in the course of research many novelists became
quite fluent with technical terms and literature. This is undoubtedly an interesting
development, and as Literature is a reflection of one’s times, one can only anticipate
greater integration and blurring of boundaries between disciplines in time to come.
The Science Perspective
Applied Computer Science and Engineering
in High-Rise Buildings
Chris Henry
Computing, Year 3
Since the 1970s, computers are fast becoming useful research materials and research
tools. In the 1990s, computational cost has become substantially cheaper and more
ubiquitous. Such development in the 1990s has caused widespread usage of Information Technology (IT) and computer technologies in a diverse array of fields outside that of computer science and computer engineering. The construction industries
and building fields are not exempt from this development. Computers and IT have
become far more ubiquitous, with usage ranging from simulations to optimization
to building management being popularized in the field. For example, in the early
1990s, there is much research on simulation and prediction and little of other things.
Computer simulation became a favourite research tool in the construction industries. Foley and Vinnakota (1994) describe a breakthrough in computer simulation
technology, depending greatly on parallel computation, that is, utilizing several processing units (CPUs) to perform a particular simulation task. While the computer
used was not as powerful as recently produced computers, such usage of “supercomputers” in the early 1990s meant reduced waiting time for simulation process (a process that would take almost forever with the processing power available to normal
workstation in that period of time). The usage of computer simulation became more
and more important in building research, especially in high-rise buildings. Simulation techniques were used in construction scheduling (Leung and Tam, 2003),
emergency egress (Lo et al., 2002), fire preventions, and wind and seismic response
(Liang et al., 1997).
The usage of computer-aided optimization and automation also became widespread in the industry since the 1990s. One of the earliest systems to utilize
computer-aided automation and optimization would be high-end, high-range elevator system (Ovaska, 1992), utilizing embedded systems and chips to control passengers comfort level and minimizing traveling time. New algorithms were used to
solve the optimization problems. The earliest usage would be AI techniques such as
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The Science Perspective
simulated annealing, where solution is obtained by modifying previous estimation
bit by bit and evaluate the new solution. Neural networks optimizations were used
to solve optimization problem such as cost estimation (Fang and Froese, 1999).
In the field of computer-aided optimization, genetic algorithms deserve special
mention. Genetic algorithms may be easily implemented and takes little time to
reach optimal solution. Such algorithms utilize the power of natural selection to
optimize solution through multi-generational “breeding” and “mutation” of solutions. In computer science field itself, genetic algorithms are praised as important
artificial intelligence tools to search for optimum solutions and opened up a wide
array of possibilities. In construction and building industries, genetic algorithms
researchers work to obtain genetic algorithms formulation of common optimization
problems that could not be solved with very high accuracy (a difficult problem as
the links between the original formulation and genetic algorithm formulation is not
easy to obtain). Genetic algorithms were used as optimization techniques in optimum positioning of building subsystems (such as actuators, Liu et al., 2003), active
seismic response control of high-rise buildings, and data mining.
One of the most important areas where information technology is being applied
is in the area of intelligent buildings. Intelligent buildings are becoming more and
more widespread in all parts of the world, from USA to Europe to Asia. The concepts of intelligent buildings are not uniform but seem to always include some
form of building automations, communication networks, and information technology. While commercial buildings have long embraced the concept of intelligent
buildings, the concept is fairly recent in residential buildings (Yiu and Yau, 2006).
High-rise residential has always had some forms of intelligence, such as elevator
embedded system. However, recently, more pervasive IT technologies have entered
residential housing.
Intelligent systems in commercial and office buildings include state-of-the-art
technologies such as data centre and wireless technologies. It involves massive
planning from the design stage of the building and visions to accommodate cabling
infrastructures (Keogh, 1996). Building automations include complex interrelationships between subsystems and small embedded systems, such as sensors and actuators. Such complex interactions demand standardization of communication technology, one such option would be to use Internet Protocol (IP) (Finch, 2001). Such
building automations involve the simplest of things such as weather sensors to LAN
networks to massive active tuned mass dampers.
Promising Future Direction for Research
Modelling and simulation will always be part and parcel of future research in construction industries. With increasing computational power of modern computers
(and no sign of stopping at that), more complex modeling and simulation will be
possible. This will open a research avenue for data-intensive modeling and simulation that were not possible before due to time constraints (some modeling and
simulation may take hours to complete one pass of the process). Modelling and
The Science Perspective
15
simulation will become very pervasive, improving efficiency of the design processes
and allowing practitioners to try unconventional designs in the simulation.
One really huge area of research would be that of intelligent buildings. Currently, multiple systems from different manufacturers still use differing protocols to
communicate with each other. Standardization in this aspect will open up possibilities of integration of systems. For example, the School of Computing in National
University of Singapore uses a technology called SMTP to standardize data collections from the different AHU systems and networking facilities in the two computer
rooms (a smaller equivalent of data centres). The data collected is then made available through the Internet. Furthermore, controls such as power-cycling and network
controls are available through the Internet. There are also many niche areas that
combine information technology and high-rise. This includes areas such as IT-based
social policy in high-rise community (Ewing et al., 2003). Another niche would be
the usage of IT in construction sites (Choo, 2007).
References
Choo CF (2007) Use of wireless technology (WiFi) in building and construction processes. Unpublished Honours Dissertation, National University of Singapore
Ewing S, Hayward D, Hopkins L, Thomas J (2003) The new social policy and the digital age: a
case study of a wired high rise public housing estate. Just Policy 29:36–45
Fang CF, Froese T (1999) Cost estimation of high performance concrete (HPC) high-rise commercial buildings by neural networks. Durability of Building Materials and Components
8:2476–2486
Finch E (2001) Is IP everywhere the way ahead for building automation? Facilities
19(11/12):396–403
Foley CM, Vinnakota S (1994) Parallel processing in the elastic nonlinear analysis of high-rise
frameworks. Computer and Structures 52(6):1169–1179
Keogh PM (1996) Understanding the options for cabling and networking. Facilities 14(3/4):33–37
Leung AWT, Tam CM (2003) Scheduling for high-rise building construction using simulation
techniques. In: Amor R (ed) Proceedings of the CIB W78’s 20th international conference on
construction IT, construction IT bridging the distance, Waiheke Island, New Zealand, 186–193
Liang B, Tamura Y, Suganuma S (1997) Simulation of wind-induced lateral-torsional motion of
tall buildings. Computer and Structures 63(3):601–606
Liu DK, Yang YL, Li QS (2003) Optimum positioning of actuators in tall buildings using genetic
algorithm. Computer and Structures 81:2823–2827
Lo SM, Fang Z, Zhi GS, Yuen KK (2002) A computer simulation model of emergency egress for
space planners. Facilities 20(7/8):262–270
Ovaska SJ (1992) Electronics and information technology in high-range elevator systems. Mechatronics 2(1):89–99
Yiu CY, Yau Y (2006) A learning model of intelligent home. Facilities 24(9/10):365–375
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The Science Perspective
Applied Physics and Civil Engineering
Tan Wei-En
Science (Physics Major), Year 3
In my review of the many noted works of researchers, I have explored how advancements in the fields of applied physics and civil engineering over the last 2 decades
combine to enable the construction of buildings that seem to increasingly defy past
limits. In many of these works, it is difficult to distinguish clearly between the two
fields since much of the research not only draws from both disciplines but also is
done by both physicists and engineers alike. The literature is largely related to issues
of safety and feasibility when the question of tall buildings is addressed.
I have chosen to focus first on the topic of stability and structural integrity and
then the effects of the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks on the United States
on the development of tall buildings. Following that, the issue of electromagneticrelated phenomena such as lightning is explored. Thereafter, the effects of tall buildings on the flow of air, including internal aerodynamics, are dealt with. The subsequent section deals with an interesting and slightly fresh field, namely, the study on
the acoustics of tall buildings. Finally, I have chosen varied works that either address
potential fields of future study, works that are possibly of significance, or basically
works that are not enormously essential to high-rise development but nonetheless
fill the gaps that the larger research fields do not discuss. All literature reviewed has
been published in the past 2 decades, namely, the 1990s and 2000s.
For the first category – the topic of stability and structural integrity, two key ideas
can sum up the concerns involved: vibrations and structural reliability. Vibrational
damage to the buildings can occur in various forms such as earthquakes, wind loads,
or even tsunamis. As such, various methods have been employed over the years,
ranging from simple mass dampers to complex algorithm control systems. In the
papers and articles reviewed, a general trend is observed with researchers building
on ideas and principles previously confirmed and verified in preceding studies. In the
1990s, more emphasis was placed on perfecting the use of mass dampers than in the
2000s, where studies more or less focused on more complex control systems, with
more emphasis on damage assessment and rectification. Without doubt, research in
these areas is yet to be complete. Indeed, such research may progress swiftly, but
is unlikely to ever become redundant as long as the demand for tall buildings and
other large structures is present.
The events in September 2001 have had an impact on the future of tall buildings.
People have questioned the feasibility and safety of supertall buildings, and whether
any of such buildings would ever be built again. The few articles on these give an
insight into the discourses following disasters, and some of the lessons learnt for
future construction projects.
The literature on lightning and other related electric and magnetic issues are also
reviewed. The main focus appears to be the protection of buildings, especially tall
buildings, from lightning related dangers. Various approaches are taken to calculate
and predict both the lightning strikes themselves and the effects, which they bring
The Science Perspective
17
about. Also, present are the studies investigating the effects of tall buildings on
electromagnetic fields and the related implications.
Another field that is gaining in importance is the prediction and measurement
of aerodynamics and air flows around buildings. This field has varied applications
ranging from air pollution control to the prevention of street level winds that are too
strong for safe walking. It is noted that the general trend is again observed, with
research of increasing complexity built on the results of previous works. Another
detail worth noting is the increasing importance of this field being proportional to
the height of the buildings in question. With buildings going taller, it can only be
concluded that this field will gain more momentum as the industry’s needs grow in
this aspect.
The reviewed literature on acoustics reveals a field in which much research is
still in infancy stage compared to fields such as those relating to structural stability.
Instead of simply being concerned with issues of safety and feasibility, this field
is also concerned with more aesthetic aspects, including the comfort of building
inhabitants. However, the question of comfort and liveability are set to become
increasingly central to the design of future buildings, since technological advancements has made the other fields rather reliable, and people will inevitably turn their
attention to aesthetic features.
Finally, various areas likely to become more and more important are explored.
Environmentally friendly solutions such as natural lighting and energy efficiency
are seen to begin to take root in the industry, even as the world focuses attention
on environmental issues in recent years. Also, interesting is the possibility of future
structures to possess nerve-like capabilities of identifying faults and damages, which
will be a breakthrough in the field of structural integrity.
Overall, it is seen that tall buildings continue to push the limits, and challenge
researchers to continually progress in knowledge and expertise relating to various
aspects of tall buildings. Of the few categories discussed, none will cease to be of
interest to researchers. Instead, the trend observed may be a shifting of focus away
from the needs of stability and strength, being well established, to new concerns
such as comfort and environmental issues. Consequently, these fields will become
increasingly important for future research. This is not to say that the more mature
areas of research will become redundant. Indeed, breakthroughs in those fields may
also lead to significant benefits in other fields.
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The Science Perspective
Biologically-Inspired Organic Technologies Impacting Cities
and Societies (BIOTICS)
Muhd Ibnur Rashad
Engineering Science, Year 2
Why is there a need to bridge engineering and science for vertical cities? What
benefits can we yield by bridging the methodologies and knowledge specific to each
subject domain: engineering and science, especially in analysing high-rise buildings? What are the challenges that could be faced by bridging the two? Will depth
of study be compromised by using such a multi-disciplinary approach to analyse
a multi-disciplinary problem? Will society benefit more from bridging engineering
and science? These questions and many related ones concern subject matters that
are very close to my heart: engineering science and urban studies. I regard both
fields highly as both aim to improve society through physical and tangible means.
Hence, this literature overview will deal with technologies that impact cities, and in
so doing, impact the societies living in them too.
Apart from my academic interests, I have always been amazed by nature, and
the creatures that live amidst the vegetation, deserts and oceans. After billions of
years of engineering and evolution, these creatures have become highly sophisticated, equipped with meticulous adaptations and several species have been able
to construct magnificent homes and habitats to ensure their survival but yet minimise their impacts on the surroundings. On the subject of vertical cities, social
insects such as termites, ants, bees and wasps make splendid analogues that can
guide us towards developing and reconfiguring efficient, sustainable and resilient
vertical cities in both directions: towards the sky and underground, as well as in
four dimensions: through space and time. Such approach of seeking inspiration
and guidance from nature is known as biomimicry. When applied in the context of
creating a liveable environment, I call such transfer from biology to urban technology “BIOTICS”, or Biologically-Inspired Organic Technologies Impacting Cities
and Societies. According to the American Heritage Science Dictionary, “biotic”
means consisting of, associated with or derived from living organisms. Moreover,
the BIOTICS approach aims to regenerate life and sustainability within a physical
environment through innovative designs and technologies.
Having explained the background from which I am approaching this subject matter on vertical cities, I can now proceed with the initial process of looking up existing
literature that relates my discipline of Engineering Science to vertical cities, highrise or underground. My discipline involves the deep understanding of concepts
and key fundamentals of a wide range of engineering and scientific subjects. I have
decided to focus on the framework that the Engineering Science Programme has
been centred around, as a literature search on both engineering and science can
yield volumes of literature covering an extremely broad scope. The Engineering
Science Programme (ESP) has four main specialisations: Computational Engineering Science; Energy Systems; Bioimaging and optics; and Nanotechnology and
Nanoscience. Hence, the broad literature I aim to accumulate covers these four
The Science Perspective
19
specialisation areas. To not compromise depth, I have decided to collect most of
the literature on biomimetics, a subject matter that requires immense knowledge of
each specialisation and encapsulates well the essence of ESP.
Throughout the years, the state of literature regarding high-rise buildings and the
respective specialisations of the ESP has provided us with innovative solutions as
well as assessments on the efficiency and effectiveness of current existing systems.
Several general trends can be observed in the type of discussion over time. Before
the turn of the millennium, papers tend to deal with problems related to the health,
comfort and safety of the occupant. After 2000, the discourse seems to change from
making high-rise living pink but also green: tall buildings that are environmentally
sustainable, that consume less energy and that depend on daylighting and natural
ventilation technologies. This shift is attributed to increased awareness of global
warming and its devastating effect it has on climate change and energy insecurity.
Hence, this overview aims to also capture this transition from an anthropocentric
perspective to an eco-centric one. This shift has implications on the amount of
papers being generated by the biomimetics academia.
More and more researchers, designers and engineers are learning from nature,
the best role model of sustainable living leading to innovations such as paints that
are environmentally friendly and iconic buildings that resemble habitats of social
insects and underwater organisms such as Eastgate (termite) and Pearl River Tower
(sponge). Even though the concept of biomimetics has been developed by the 1970s,
literature on the application of biomimetics and biomimicry to the practical fields
of science and engineering only picked up pace recently when technologies such as
computational simulation, microscopic imaging and nanofabrication become more
developed. The biomimetics approach gets gradually refined as researchers from
various disciplines begin to understand the dynamics and the intricacies involved
when we study Nature for technological applications.
Another interesting paradigm shift is the transition from discourses on earth shelters and underground living to that of tall skyscrapers as a sustainable development.
After 2000, the literature on high-rise dominates and that on vertical developments
downwards seem to be drastically reduced. This literature overview would like to
challenge the definition of vertical cities and provide a forgotten alternative such as
deep ground living.
Literature Composition
Subtopics
Case studies: trends in high-rise
developments
Biomimetics: ideas and
principles
After
Total Published Unpublished 2000
Before
2000
6
5
1
5
1
11
6
5
11
0
20
Subtopics
Biology: insect colonies
Computational engineering
science
Energy systems
Bioimaging and optics
Nanotechnology and
nanoscience
Alternative trends: wood and
earth shelters
Total
The Science Perspective
After
Total Published Unpublished 2000
Before
2000
4
7
4
6
0
1
3
5
1
2
7
2
3
4
2
2
3
0
1
5
1
1
2
1
2
10
1
9
2
8
50
30
20
33
17
Potential Areas of Research
I have identified several potential approaches to future research:
• To increase available literature and amount of research work in areas, which seem
to have little or no overlap with vertical cities, especially on possible applications
of bioimaging and optics, or nanotechnology and nanoscience in the construction
industry, particularly in high-rise mega-projects.
• To do more research that integrates separate disciplines in the context of vertical
cities, creating its own niche that could be a discipline by itself in the future. For
example, a possible strategy is to filter and build upon large amounts of information on biology, engineering and energy systems and integrate them into a more
focused, project-oriented subject in urban studies such as BIOTICS.
• To revisit past research that has been given little consideration at present like
earth shelters, and provide how such technologies can enhance sustainability in
vertical cities.
• To develop computational simulations that facilitates the transfer of technology
and concepts from biological systems to biologically-inspired designs through
mathematical calculation, computer-aided visualisations or animations.
There are four main themes or areas that appear to form a preliminary framework
on the challenges and opportunities present in high-rise living: energy optimisation;
improved ventilation; efficient vertical transportation and evacuation and construction process. These four themes interact differently in the different specialisations.
In conclusion, the spirit of this literature overview is to capture the trends in highrise development from an engineer scientist’s point of view.
The Science Perspective
21
Chemistry
Chen Shuhui
Chemistry, Year 2
In the face of globalization and urbanization, the rising demand for land space has
led to the development of skyscrapers. As high-rise becomes an increasingly common phenomenon, people have begun to pay greater attention to these tall buildings.
Numerous studies of different disciplines have also been conducted with regards to
skyscrapers. In this paper, literature review of published and unpublished works
related to high-rise in the field of chemistry is given in the form of annotated bibliography. The readings chosen here date from the late 1970s to 2000s.
It is observed that earlier books and papers tended to be rather specialized and
hardly involved other discipline. In addition, studies were first based on tall buildings situated in countries with temperate climate, such as European countries. This
is understandable since most western countries were already developed in the 1970s
and had a greater need for vertical cities, as compared to tropical countries, such
as those in Asia, which were still developing at that time. It is also noted that preliminary studies on high-rise centered on commercial buildings but had little focus
on residential ones. The relative abundance of commercial skyscrapers as compared
to tall residential dwellings in the 1970s and 1990s explains the stronger interest in
the former. People had also started to take notice of the indoor air quality of these
air-tight structures. However, little was known about the sick building syndrome
then and researchers could only relate the symptoms to tall buildings. Hence, initial
findings on the indoor air quality of buildings lacked depth and discussions were
limited to construction materials or the emission rates of primary sources of indoor
air pollutants.
More books and papers regarding skyscrapers surfaced in the 1990s as more
countries became developed and the number of tall buildings rose. The rapid emergence of tall buildings around the world drew more attention to this area and aroused
the interest of researchers of different disciplines. In the 1990s, it is observed that
scholars began to adopt a multi-disciplinary approach when discussing issues pertaining to high-rise in their dissertations, as compared to adhering to only one single
field in the 1970s and 1980s. This allowed a wider scope of discussion as observations could be rationalized based on the knowledge of different fields. There was
a shift in focus as studies localized on residential high-rise rather than commercial
buildings, and analyses on residential dwellings were noted to be different from
commercial buildings since offices tend to be distinct from that of houses in terms
of furnishings.
In addition, there were more written works focusing on indoor air quality when
the idea of indoor air became increasingly prominent and popularized in the 1990s.
Findings related to indoor air pollution were more conclusive as improvements in
analytical methods allowed researchers to investigate the indoor environment in
a more exhaustive manner. New perspectives were also gained when areas previously overlooked in earlier studies were examined. Furthermore, as more informa-
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The Science Perspective
tion regarding the indoor environment was made available, the authorities began to
formulate rules to regulate the indoor air quality of buildings. Thus, studies were
conducted on the indoor air protocols developed by government bodies as well.
In earlier stages, people had little notion on nature-friendly features within buildings and there was little information on ecological-friendly buildings. Such concepts did not appear till the late 1990s to 2000s. More literature related to green
buildings emerged then as the increase in the awareness of the environment led to
the push for green buildings. Although there was a period of stagnancy following
the September 11, 2001 incident, skyscrapers were thrown into the spotlight once
again as the race for the tallest building intensified. In particular, the stern warning
brought about by the September 11, 2001 attack prompted the increase in awareness
of security issues and the fire safety features of tall building. In the 2000s, many
books elaborating on fire safety issues were published. The chemical properties of
fire-resistant materials used in both construction and furnishings of buildings were
also studied in great detail. More attention was also given to skyscrapers in tropical
countries as these countries become more developed and demand for skyscrapers
skyrocketed. Hence, research on vertical cities in the tropics was carried out on a
much larger scale as compared to the 1970s and 1980s.
To minimize the negative impacts skyscrapers have on the environment, one
possible area of research would be to analyze possible ways to implement naturefriendly features on tall buildings. Since the construction of green buildings requires
architectural designs to be ecologically conscious, future studies should center on
complementing nature with high-rise. Further research can also be conducted on
the indoor air environment of skyscrapers as the information currently available
is not conclusive enough. It is possible that the study of environmentally friendly
practices in skyscrapers can converge with the research on indoor air. For example,
researchers can investigate the feasibility of employing natural means to enhance
indoor air quality rather than mechanical ventilation, which can be rather inefficient
and result in wastage of energy resources. In addition, there is potential for more
dissertations and academic papers to be based on high-rise in tropical countries as
the number of tall buildings in non-western countries increase. Since skyscrapers in
temperate countries are highly distinct from those in tropical countries, there is a
wide scope for research in this field as findings on temperate high-rise may not be
applicable to tropical countries.
It is important to note that this paper does not provide an exhaustive list of published and unpublished works relating to high-rise. When using this paper to search
for information on the chemical aspects of high-rise, there is a need to pay close
attention to the limitations of the papers stated in the literature review in order to
obtain relevant information, which is reliable.
The Science Perspective
23
Electrical Engineering, Smart Materials and Structures
Anada Purna Pryana
Electrical Engineering, Year 3
My area of study is electrical engineering, with close connections to computer engineering. I consider the field of smart materials (such as piezoelectric materials,
CFRC, and fiber optics) and smart structures (which typically involve the use of
control theory) as well as any related algorithm development as applied to high-rises
to be the link between my field of study and tall buildings. The smart materials,
in this case usually exploit their unique electrical properties to act as either as an
actuator which causes changes to the building (e.g. piezoelectric) or as a sensor
which measures the variation of a property of the building such as the strain (e.g.
CFRC).
A smart structure would integrate both the actuator and the sensor to enable the
building to automatically react to changes in a desirable manner, for example to
detect vibrations and actively damp it. This requires the use of a controller to tell the
building how to respond to a certain stimulus. The controller may be distributed (i.e.
each actuator-sensor package will be equipped with a microcontroller) or centralized
(a central computer will handle all the data processing of all the sensors). This field
is actually not only applicable to tall buildings; it is often applied in other civil
engineering fields such as bridges and in mechanical engineering (particularly for
cutting edge vehicles, aircrafts and spacecrafts). It is the fusion of many disciplines,
including material science, physics, chemistry, electrical, mechanical and computer
engineering.
The field of smart material and structures is a relatively new one, and only really
become mainstream in the 1990s. This is necessarily so; while the idea itself is
not new, the computers needed to realize it has only become powerful and cheap
enough at that point in time to merit serious consideration from cost-benefit analysis.
This field becomes a very hot research subject during this decade, and the trend has
largely continued to the present decade. The primary publication journal in this field
is the Smart Materials and Structures, which appeared for the first time in 1992.
In the early part of this decade, the primary research effort is the establishment of
the body of literature. There are several global conferences which were held, such as
the first European Conference on Smart Structures and Materials in Glasgow from
12 to 14 May 1992. These conferences brought together people from many different
disciplines to advance the science of smart materials together. Being a cutting edge
research then, with top scientists working on it, relatively few unpublished works
could be found from the early 1990s. Some of the research happening at that time
concerns the development of the sensor technology as well as the preliminary use
of closed loop (i.e. active control), mostly to mitigate vibrations.
In the new millennium, attention on this field remained strong, if not getting
stronger. Some smart materials are well documented and understood by now, such
as piezoelectric materials, while others are just coming into the picture, such as the
carbon monotube. Some technologies matured and began to get incorporated into
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The Science Perspective
the smart structures. A prime example would be the wireless technology: eliminating the need of wire and cables. The lower price of the microcontrollers made
distributed systems a reality: it is now cheaper to equip every sensor with a low
end processor and have them perform simple tasks than to have a supercomputer as
a central processing unit capable of handling all the computations required. Interest in earthquake and wind resistant buildings remains high; there is always a new
type of dampener being developed and old theories are refined to be more accurate.
However, there seems to be a large interest in another field, since the late 1990s:
structural health monitoring (SHM). There are enormous amount of papers being
published about this subject. This is probably driven by the concern in the USA
about aging public infrastructure, particularly bridges and highways. Nevertheless,
the monitoring techniques developed are for monitoring the status of concrete and
steel; thus it is largely relevant to the tall buildings. There are understandably much
more unpublished works by this time, there has been enough time for new graduates
to choose to specialize in this field and the use of smart materials is much more
widespread now.
In the future, I think the field will continue to go in the same direction, at least
for a while. The cost of computing power and actuators are always going down,
meaning it will only get easier to build a smart building. I believe the super high
rises of the future will lead this trend; their construction process is already high-tech
in nature and they are targeted at the rich, so there is nothing to stop the inclusion
of all the latest smart gadgets.
The Science Perspective
25
General Engineering
Ye Yaojing
Chemical Engineering, Year 4
My major of chemical engineering has few intersections with skyscrapers. The only
place where it comes to terms with tall structures in general is probably columns and
towers in a refinery, which, however, do not seem to belong to a module more akin
to urban planning and habitable buildings. Hence, I have decided to select articles
on engineering in a wider sense. The papers I am looking are from the 1990s and
2000s, partly because they turn out to be the easiest to find (older ones are often
not available electronically), though personally I feel it would be more interesting
to span a greater time period and perhaps look back as far as possible. Looking
for unpublished papers has also presented a challenge, as the National University
of Singapore (NUS) alone does not hold a significant number of relevant theses.
The several I have managed to get are from the Electronic prints (EPrints) Digital
Depository of other universities, and it still seems uncommon for authors to put up
potentially publishable technical papers online.
Apart from postgraduate theses and conference papers, there are several notable
journals for papers on engineering and tall building-related topics: The Structural Design of Tall and Special Buildings, Building and Environment, Energy and
Buildings, as well as Engineering, Construction and Architectural Management.
Together, they give a reliable supply of articles relevant to this field of interest. The
Structural Design of Tall and Special Buildings (inaugurated in 1992) in particular
provides a wealth of information with its collection of research articles and special
features, so much so that a significant number of the articles I found are from its less
than two decades in circulation.
Glancing across the list of papers irrespective of time, they fall into two main
categories: investigative and research-based. Investigative papers are often triggered
by disastrous events, such as the 1994 Northridge earthquake in Southern California
and the 2001 September 11 attack on World Trade Centre, both of which caused
wide-ranged repercussions in the building industry and beyond. The Northridge
earthquake killed 57 and resulted in $42.5 billion in damage, leading many to
question the construction standard of buildings in the seismically active area. The
collapse of World Trade Centre, on the other hand, severely affected the psyche
of Americans and their view of the safety of skyscrapers in particular. Investigative
articles covering these topics often question what went wrong, what could have been
done but was not, and what should be done in the future.
Research-based papers, in comparison, focus on improvement of existing methods and prevention of accidents. For instance, much effort has been put into simulating and measuring the seismic response of high-rises and minimizing oscillations
during high-force wind, while other researchers have focused on improving the
design of elevators and claddings. Often, computer programme simulations are run
and comparisons made to real life data. These papers are often cross-referenced and
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The Science Perspective
sometimes researchers would publish a series of articles, each of which are similar
but build upon the prior one.
Looking at the papers chronologically, again it may be easier to look at them
along the two categories mentioned earlier. Investigative articles follow the event
they cover, so immediately after an earthquake people will report on its aftermath,
a few years later write-ups on policy change in response to it comes up, and after a
decade there can be a retrospective on the long-term impact of the entire event. A
similar pattern is observed for articles on the effect of September 11 on skyscraper
construction. Each event thus stands on its own, but a sense of time and development
can be distilled from looking at the relevant articles on it through the years.
Research-based papers naturally follow a more synchronized pattern, for the
many technological methods involved in high-rise projects are intricately intertwined. Every new development is built upon older ones, sometimes utilizing existing ideas in novel ways, sometimes thanks to a breakthrough in a related field. And
a good idea is immediately made available to others to be built upon in turn. By
comparing papers on a similar subject from the two recent decades, the differences
in approach and methods can be striking, and little wonder that given how rapidly
the skyscraper scene has evolved during the time in between. It is certain to remain
an active field, too, with many technical barriers yet to break through.
The Science Perspective
27
High-Rise Buildings and the Life Sciences
Lim Yan Jun Vivien
Life Sciences (with concentration in Biomedical Sciences), Year 3
The topic of this paper seems rather simple at first glance, especially for those who
do not have sufficient background knowledge or grasp in the field of Life Sciences.
However, it is anything but simple. The issue on high-rise buildings and its relation
to the Life Sciences needs to be put into perspective and that is not so straightforward. So, let us start with a simpler question: Does the field of Life Sciences have
any relation to high-rise buildings, and, if so, what are some of these relations?
Over the years, the state of literature regarding high-rise buildings and the Life
Sciences has given several answers to this question – health factors, insecticide
spraying, distribution of mosquitoes, air quality and fungi growth – just to name a
few, each having a literature, its supporters, and its detractors. From these research
and studies, one can learn about the various ways in which high-rise buildings can
contribute to the study of Life Sciences.
Throughout the years, researchers have found that there is an interaction between
health and high-rise living. In Singapore, dengue cases had been on the rise and the
number of homes found breeding the deadly Aedes mosquito continues to increase.
With more than 80% of Singapore’s population living in high-rise public housing,
there is an urgent need to understand the effects of insecticide spraying and the
distribution of mosquitoes among high-rise buildings to prevent this problem from
turning into an endemic. In addition, the air quality found in high-rise buildings or
the outdoor air quality surrounding this housing type and fungi growth may contribute to other health problems in occupants or residents living or working in these
high-rise buildings, leading to conditions like asthma or even lung infections.
While studies on the effects of high-rise living on the mental health of the residents have gone all the way back to the 1970s where high-rise living was not that
prevalent yet in many parts of the world, many studies have been conducted on
the air quality in both the indoor and surrounding outdoor environment of high-rise
buildings from the 1980s till today. It is only in recent years from the late 1990s
onwards where researches have started to look at the possibility and effects of
integrating high-rise buildings with the natural environment to reduce the health
implications that come along with high-rise living. Even though all these can be
debated, it seems to be a reasonable summary of some of the research, studies and
the findings that have been found over the past 3 decades.
Let us now shift the question about the relation of high-rise buildings to a more
focused and specialized concentration within the large discipline of the Life Sciences. The first question that comes to mind is, what do we mean by “Life Sciences”? Do we mean the biomedical sciences aspect, molecular and cell biology
aspect or just the biology aspect? If we mean the biomedical sciences aspect, we
will be looking at the health and physiology of those living in high-rise buildings.
If by “Life Sciences” we mean the molecular and cell biology aspect, then it would
be the study and analysis of air quality and fungi growth in high-rise buildings and
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The Science Perspective
the effects it has on the occupants or residents. If we mean the biology aspect, it
would be like the distribution of the dengue vector and the integration between the
environment and these buildings. Therefore, are we interested in just the occupants
of the building, or are we asking about the role high-rise buildings can play in all the
various concentrations of the Life Sciences? If we are interested in just one aspect
of the Life Sciences, then we have limited literature upon which to draw.
The focus is thus on the relation of high-rise buildings to the discipline of Life
Sciences as a whole. High-rise buildings are defined as tall, continuously habitable
buildings of five stories and above that are used for various uses such as for residential and commercial purposes. This definition is adopted considering the complex
and limited relationship between high-rise buildings and the Life Sciences. The
literature from the past decade suggests the criticism and evaluation of high-rise
residence and the ecological relationship between nature and these high-rise buildings. Of course, there are many other relationships between high-rise buildings and
the Life Sciences, and we will review some of these. This helps us understand the
role Life Sciences can play in the study of high-rise buildings in our community,
especially where high-rise has become part and parcel of our lives.
Future Areas of Research
Various studies and research have approached the topic from different aspects of
the Life Sciences, all of which come together in determining and shaping the future
of high-rise buildings and the improvements that can be taken to provide a better
quality of life for the occupants. Being a small country where land is scared and
the need for high-rise housing to provide a shelter for the people of Singapore,
high-rise public housing remains a viable option for most Singaporeans and will
be here to stay. Together with the fact that the Aedes aegypti is the primary vector
of dengue viruses in both Southeast Asia and Singapore with the Aedes albopictus
serving as a secondary vector, both of which are capable of transmitting the virus
that cause the fatal dengue haemorrhagic fever. There is thus an urgent need to study
the distribution of these vectors among high-rise buildings in Singapore. Hence, this
can be a possible future area of research to target what might be a potential endemic
if the situation gets out of control.
In addition, another future area of research can be to study the vertical flight
ability of mosquitoes in relation to high-rise buildings. Will a building be too high
for a mosquito? Could a mosquito fly all the way to the top floor? If the results
obtained are found to be negative (in other words, a building may be too high for a
mosquito and mosquitoes cannot fly too high), this may chart the future development
of high-rise buildings where only the upper floors (way above the vertical flight
ability of mosquitoes) are reserved for residential uses and the lower floors (within
the vertical flight ability of mosquitoes) reserved for commercial or other uses that
require an enclosed air-conditioned space. This, thus, reduces the transmission of
diseases that are borne and transmitted by mosquitoes and maybe other insects as
well.
The Science Perspective
29
Another factor that is of main concern to high-rise living is the quality of air
that is found both in the indoor and outdoor environment of high-rise buildings.
It is a cause for worry as poor air quality can lead to several illnesses where young
children and the elderly are more susceptible to these illnesses, as reviewed by some
of the research and findings over the past 3 decades. Hence, there is a need for
constant monitoring of air quality among high-rise buildings and new measures to
be developed and implemented in urban planning to improve air quality in both the
indoor and outdoor environment of high-rise buildings.
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The Science Perspective
Materials in Skyscrapers
Tan Kuan Khoon Royston
Material Science and Engineering, Year 3
Many books and journals have been published about the use of materials in construction of skyscrapers. The focus of most research is on the understanding of
material properties and how they act in-situ. Considerable research is also done
on new materials and composite methods in order to improve building properties.
However, research on materials for buildings and skyscrapers face a unique problem
not faced by materials for other purposes. These buildings are meant to last at least
50 years and skyscrapers, which define a city’s character, may last even longer.
Skyscrapers also tend to house many people, be it for work, play or residential thus
the tolerance for any damage or failure is much lower. Given its unique problems
such as wind and seismic resistance and its low tolerance for failure, researchers
have to work on a complete understanding of the materials properties and also how
it may change over time.
Perhaps the most difficult task is to predict the behaviour of materials over the
long term in environmental conditions as they undergo different processes such
as degradation and creep. Although some research has been done to observe such
effects, they are often hindered by the long time frame of such effects, which may
take many years to observe. Creep can occur in regions of 1 mm per year, which is
barely noticeable to most people but precise fittings and walls in the rooms may be
affected. There were precedents of ceramic walls cracking and falling off buildings
possibly due to the lack of understanding and consideration of this effect. Creep
effects are amplified by the stress accompanying the huge weight of skyscrapers on
the lower floors thus their understanding becomes even more critical. However, we
must also keep in mind the diverse grades of materials used in construction (e.g.
high strength versus normal concrete) that requires observation to be done in each
example.
Degradation has only come to the forefront of material understanding recently,
having previously been accepted as inevitable. While some buildings such as the
stone pyramids and pantheons of the past could afford to ignore these effects due
to the resilience of stone, the newer materials such as steel and concrete are not
resistant to the effects of degradation. Steel, even stainless steel rusts over time
depending on the conditions of the atmosphere. Concrete may crack and spall over
time as well. This ignorance has cost many organizations around the world millions
in repairs and replacement. In a skyscraper, the harsh environmental conditions such
as high stress on lower floors and high winds at higher floors can exacerbate these
problems, thus a thorough understanding of the material properties is important.
In the aspect of understanding the properties of materials, the use of advanced
computer models allows us to predict such behaviour with some degree of accuracy.
These models are often able to upscale material properties from small individual
tests to predict their behaviour in buildings. However, it must always be remembered that such data are extrapolated and may not be the real situation. For example,
The Science Perspective
31
the lack of certain defects for small pieces of certain materials causes its material
properties to be often superior compared its larger samples. Thus, we can see many
articles refining old models based on new data and new understanding. Experience
with modeling tells us the change of certain small and possibly rather obscure
parameters of the equations could yield totally different results and modeling of
skyscrapers with its complex structures and supports would make use of many of
such equations thus accuracy is of utmost importance. Calibration with real life data
is not only recommended but rather crucial to making sure that the calculations are
relevant.
Besides research to understand existing technology and materials, there is also a
considerable amount of ongoing research to improve on the qualities of our current
materials. One example is the constant search to find stronger and lighter materials,
which has resulted in high strength steel and concrete. However, with every new
material we need to build up a body of understanding before it can be safely applied
to buildings and skyscrapers. High strength concrete, which was very exciting when
it was first used experienced problems in situations of fire. The concrete walls would
sometimes spall explosively when exposed to heat. This was a problem not considered by many designers until the events of September 11, 2001 where it was
suspected that fire was the main cause of collapse. Thus, a complete understanding
of the character of a material is important in any application, especially for building.
Many researchers also tend to focus on disaster prevention. Unfortunately, these
usually occur after a major disaster such as the 1994 Northridge earthquake and
the September 11, 2001 plane crash. Many lessons were learnt but these are painful
lessons. If work was done earlier to predict and prevent such disasters, considerable number of lives would be saved. Thus, it is the work of structural engineers
and designers to predict the possible worst case scenarios and work towards their
prevention. This is especially true for skyscrapers where the possibility of damage
may be highest. One possible consideration where less work is being done is the
possible effect of tsunami or hurricanes given many of these skyscrapers are found
in coastal cities. Even if there were no evidences of previous occurrences, the cost
of planning for such possibilities may save lives in the future. One example is the
Republic Plaza, which has earthquake proof features in spite of Singapore being in
an earthquake free zone. This would aid occupant comfort in light of the tremors
from large earthquakes from Indonesia. Thus planning ahead to foresee problems
and prevent them should be a major focus for structural engineers and the materials
engineer would support them with materials designed for such purposes such as fire
insulation, damper material and tougher materials to withstand damage.
Towards the future of material research in skyscrapers, many researchers consider composites to be the way to go in the future. Composites are by no means new
to construction. In fact, the first composites could be traced to the bricks made of
straw and mud. Composites of the future would be made of more exotic materials
such as carbon fiber nano-tubes, which could provide better mechanical properties
at a much lighter weight, ideal for construction of skyscrapers. The problem often
comes with the processing cost of such materials but with superior properties that
cannot be matched by any other materials, it is sometimes out of necessity that
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The Science Perspective
these high performance materials are used. Thus, research focus could be on the
processing of such materials in order to bring the down the cost and improve ease
of use.
Thus, we see materials research and understanding supports the skyscrapers quite
literally but often times the material knowledge lags behind the dreams and ideals of
the designers. The onus is on the researchers to catch up to those dreams and ideals.
While we can push for innovation, it must be tempered with care especially for a
low tolerance environment like skyscrapers, as any mistakes or oversight could lead
to massive loss of lives and resources.
The Science Perspective
33
Physics Matters
Tan Wei Lin
Science (Physics Major), Year 2
Physics is the study of how nature works. A few broad categories of topics relevant to high-rise buildings within the discipline of physics include: mechanics,
wave and acoustics, electrodynamics and thermodynamics. I will briefly discuss
each of the abovementioned topics to explain why I consider them relevant to
high-rise buildings. Firstly, mechanics deals with the motion and thus stability of
the building. Secondly, wave and acoustics are responsible for lighting and noise
control of the buildings respectively. Thirdly, the study of electrodynamics will aid
understanding in electrical systems and circuits. Electrodynamics is also important
to the understanding of atmospheric electricity, for example, lightning, under atmospheric physics, which is an application of physics to the study of the atmosphere.
Lastly, thermodynamics explains the heat transfer mechanisms within the building.
Therefore, the study of the stability of high-rise buildings as well as its safety and
comfort is highly dependent on the principles of physics.
A major proportion of the literature found falls under the topic of mechanics, especially wind-induced motion of the buildings. The studies regarding windinduced motion of the buildings range from methods, calculations and predictions of
wind-induced motion of the building, to the measures taken to stabilize the structure
and reduce such motion. There are many factors involved in this phenomenon. The
building shape and geometry, the direction of wind and its fluctuations, the surrounding buildings and their positions and dimensions all contribute to the motion
of the building in response to wind. Due to the complexity of this phenomenon,
the investigations have spanned through the decades, from 1960s to 1990s. Some
of these investigations have tried to generalize the study by introducing a shape
variable to use in the calculations. However, the description of a shape variable
seems to be rather arbitrary and hard to implement.
Another approach taken by some is to define a building with a uniform cross
section, such as a square, and to start the calculation from there. The advantage of
this approach (though its application has become limited due to various unsymmetrical designs recently) is that the investigation can be more in-depth. Eventually, all
these studies have shown how to measure the wind effects on buildings and provide
a good reference for engineers to derive and calculate the wind loading effects of
any specific building they have in mind. The other line of studies, which continues from calculating the effects of wind loading, is the measures taken to reduce
those movements. Different types of dampers are well discussed. There is a good
range of literature on the studies of wind-induced motion of the buildings and their
self-regulation.
Similar to the wind-induced motion of buildings, seismic responses and other
forms of vibration of structures are also well investigated through the decades. The
structure of these investigations takes a similar form as that of wind-induced motion.
With respect to the different types of loading, structures such as shear walls, steel
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The Science Perspective
frames and concrete are also investigated to ensure their stability. The studies on
such structures have shifted from an emphasis on shear walls and steel frames to
more studies on composite types. This is probably an indication of more integration
of the different types of technology used and probably shows how the advantages
of each system have been used to complement each other. The indication is that
high-rise structures have evolved to use more composite systems so as to ensure
efficiency.
From the late 1960s to 1980s, it can be seen that most of the literature deals
with the structural stability of high-rise buildings. However, from 1990s onwards,
while the studies on structural stability continue, there is more discussion on factors
relating to design and comfort, such as cladding, ventilation and elevator systems.
The importance of cladding extends beyond the design of the buildings; it is also
very important in providing shade and insulation. Appropriate cladding will help to
reduce the transmission of excess heat into the building, which helps to reduce the
need for air-conditioning to improve thermal comfort. At the same time, it can also
aid in improving the natural lighting of the building. Ventilation is closely related to
occupants’ health as the regulation of internal air and external air helps to maintain
the balance of air quality within the building. Elevator systems provide the necessary
transport within the building. Such studies have been aimed at improving the service
it provides occupants of tall buildings. However, the number of these studies, though
increasing, is still lacking in rigour and in-depth study. For example, the materials
of cladding used and their relative positions along the surface of the building could
have been discussed more, using case studies as well. The positions of windows
within the tall building and the measures taken to control wind speed through the
building can also be discussed.
Although the application of science on high-rise has shifted from ensuring structural safety to improving the comfort of occupants, much of the literature is to suggest improvements for the status quo of high-rise, and lacks speculation about the
future. In discussing the structural stability of tall buildings, for example, very little
is said about the height when buildings become almost impossible to be stabilized.
Much of the studies are made within fixed parameters of height and building shape,
if not, just arbitrary variables. Therefore, this question of the height limit of high-rise
has never been addressed.
As we go higher, air compositions and density will be different. The lower air
pressure at greater heights will also make natural ventilation difficult. Wind speed
will be higher, leading to greater wind loading effects. Due to the height, the acceleration observed on the top floors of the building would also be very significant,
resulting in discomfort. These natural phenomena may possibly impose a limit to
how tall we can build. Among others, the question is then how to evaluate and place
a numerical value on this and the practicality of doing that. Stating a specific value
as a cut-off height limit may be uninspiring, challenging the notion that the sky is the
limit. This may be the reason for the lack of motivation for research on this question.
However, study on the maximum buildable height would raise interesting issues to
contemplate, especially in the current race to build the world’s tallest building.
The Annotated Bibliography
In the Humanities
Film
Abrams, J J, Kurtzman, A and Orci, R (2006) Mission: Impossible III, Paramount
Pictures, United States of America.
Mission: Impossible III is the third of the very popular Mission Impossible movie series.
A large part of its draw comes from the thrilling action that takes place in, along and
across skyscrapers. The plot revolves around the assignments of Ethan Hunt, team leader
of the Impossible Missions Force, an espionage agency that is frequently employed by the
government of the United States of America. As expected, the plot is full of suspense and
fast paced action, with assignments that indeed are, impossible missions. Since the agents
are affably competent, and their villains equally skilled, both are usually employed by
extremely wealthy organization. The consequence is that they usually end up fighting each
other in iconic skyscrapers. Skyscrapers are used for dramatic scenes, where death defying
stunts are performed. For example, there is a scene where Hunt slides down a skyscraper
that is a near vertical drop. Such scenes and more are possibly only because of the immense
vertical space that skyscrapers both occupy and create.
Burton, T, Kane, B and Hamm, S (1989) Batman, Warner Brothers Pictures, United
States of America.
High-rise here represents a postmodern reading, being sites of power struggle. In the architectural sense, skyscrapers join to form a Gothic-like city, one that is mysterious and gloomy
with its long-drawn silhouettes and shady figures that hide among the tall walls of each
high-rise. Batman is their mightiest foe, a lone ranger sworn to protect Gotham City after his
parents were killed by a hoodlum when he was a young child. In the film, the final struggle
between Batman and his greatest enemy, Joker, takes place in the Gotham Cathedral. One
can see the postmodern perspective very clearly as Joker and Batman battle it out. In the
end, Joker falls to his death in the church belfry. But as policemen surround his body they
hear eerie sounds of laughter. It is a recording put up by Joker, and seems to promise that in
the dark walls of Gotham City’s skyscrapers there will be more evil.
Clouse, R, Lee, B and Spears, J (1978) Game of Death, Concord Productions Incorporation, Hong Kong.
This 1978 remake of Bruce Lee’s partially finished film focuses primarily on the martial
art action that takes place at the Red Lantern Complex. Billy Lo, the main character of the
film, is typically threatened with his kidnapped girlfriend’s death if he does not come out
of hiding from where he is systematically killing members of the triad one by one. Thus,
37
38
In the Humanities
he has to defeat a different martial art exponent at each floor, and eventually the film ends
with his victory. The reading of high-rise in Game of Death looks to be a postmodern one;
that is, high-rise as a site of power struggle, simply because Lo pits himself against these
martial arts experts and has to overcome all of them before he can rescue his loved one.
There is also likely a direct parallel with each of his successes, and subsequent ascension to
the next level, where a deadlier foe awaits. Thus, Game of Death employs both the subtle
and postmodern touch in its use of high-rise.
Emmerich, R and Devlin, D (1996) Independence Day, Centropolis Entertainment,
United States of America.
The science-fiction thriller revolves around a battle between aliens whose aim is to destroy
Earth, and humans who fight against the impending doom of the world. In this film,
skyscrapers are given a postmodern and national reading. They are devastated en masse,
including (but not limited to), the Empire State Building and the United States Bank Tower.
Again, the symbolism is that of humankind pitted against dark forces, this time aliens. As
the physical evidence of Man’s progress crumbles and falls under the alien’s attacks, it
seems that the latter are winning, and that Earth will have its resources plundered and then
obliterated. On the nationalist level, film watchers are also led to identify themselves as
united citizens against aliens that threaten to wipe them out of existence. As each high-rise
falls then, film watchers will feel that they are personally being endangered, and will thus,
subconsciously participate in the movie through supporting the heroic team as they suspend
their disbelief.
Ephron, N and Arch, J (1993) Sleepless in Seattle, TriStar Pictures, United States of
America.
This 1993 film takes advantage of high rise for the most significant part of the plot, which
is about how a grieving widower and a journalist in an unhappy relationship come together.
High rise takes up relatively little land area considering that most of the space it uses extends
vertically. Thus, a sense of constriction results and Ephron capitalizes on this to create a
feeling of urgency as the film’s two stars almost lose each other, one missing the elevator
that the other is on, and almost walking away forever. In a modern society, courtship is no
longer conducted amidst picturesque walks down country lanes while the sun sets; life is
more harried, and urban life bustles. Skyscrapers capture that essence. Thus, using high rise
as the site where the lovers meet is an accurate portrayal of the fleeting breaths of experience
by which we live our lives today.
Geronimi, C, Penner, E and Perrault C (1959) Sleeping Beauty, Walt Disney Productions, United States of America.
Another story from Children’s Literature, Sleeping Beauty tells a tale of a beautiful princess
cursed by an evil fairy, who declares that she will prick her finger and thereafter be doomed
to an enchanted sleep until her prince comes and rescues her. The tower in Sleeping Beauty
is the abode of the princess as she lies in her unnatural sleep, placed there by the good fairy
who helped to soften the initially fatal spell. Thus, it represents the task that the prince must
conquer before he proves himself worthy of her love. It seems like a postmodern reading
of power struggle, but considering its history as written in the 17th century it seems rather
premature to call it that. The tower is a symbol of power, this time to be won and gained by
the bold prince. As fairy tales go, in the end he succeeds, and they all live happily ever after.
Guillermin, J, Allen, I, Stern, R M and Scortia, T N (1974) The Towering Inferno,
Irwin Allen Productions, United States of America.
In the Humanities
39
The Towering Inferno is a disaster-centred film – a film genre that has a catastrophe either
imminent or ongoing. The skyscraper in this film is quite certainly solely used for nationalist
purposes; the film was released the year the Sears Tower was opened, and a year after
the construction of the two World Trade Center skyscrapers. They were the world’s tallest
buildings during the two years of their releases. Action in this film borders around the new
but shoddily constructed skyscraper. On the night of its dedication an electrical panel short
circuits and a fire starts, trapping hundreds of people still in the building, some of whom
are at a celebration party thrown in honour of the opening. Firefighters battle the blaze
and make many heroic attempts to rescue these people. The film’s theme is thus about the
tension between courage and fear, and its issues include safety concerns – both about the
reasons for the fire, and the lack of preparedness, evidently reflecting real-life concerns of
high-rise.
Jackson, P, Walsh, F and Boyens, P (2005) King Kong, Big Primate Pictures, New
Zealand.
The plot is as follows: A film crew on Skull Island for a shoot, encounter a monstrous
gorilla who takes a fancy to their female lead and capture her. After many tremulous events,
he is captured and taken to America to be exhibited. However, he escapes, and in an iconic
scene, climbs to the top of the Empire State Building and battles aircraft in an attempt
to protect the girl. In the end, he dies. From the summary, several inferences can be made.
Firstly, the Empire State Building is here given a post-modern and national sense. The power
struggle is obvious enough; King Kong and Man fight against each other, and the winner
will symbolize either the triumph of Man, or beast. Nationalistic feelings are also aroused,
as watchers are led to identify themselves as citizens of the nation (in this case America),
and will thus naturally desire this nation to win against its terrible foe. The Empire State
Building is the treasure, where the party who claims control of it is the ultimate victor.
Kellogg, D, Heyward, A and Chalopin, J (1999) Inspector Gadget, Walt Disney
Pictures, United States of America.
This 1999 film makes skyscrapers part of its central theme, using them as symbols of power
and wealth. Based on the popular animated cartoon series of the same name, Inspector
Gadget centers around two rival technological companies who are vying to be the best
at gadget productions. Most of the action occurs at PPG Place in downtown Pittsburgh, a
very castle-like tower with its neo-gothic architecture. PPG Place is the headquarters for
Sanford Scolex, the villain of the film. The first reading of Inspector Gadget appears to
be a capitalist one, where Scolex Industries is the creator’s expression of his obsession for
greater riches and power. It is also the place where he runs his money-making program, the
“Gadget Program”. It is also given a post-modern interpretation, Scolex Industries being the
place where John Brown (Inspector Gadget) and Sanford Scolex battle it out for good and
evil.
Lang, F and Harbou, T (1927) Metropolis, Universum Film, Germany.
A 1927 silent science fiction film, it was created by the famed Austrian-German director
and produced in Germany. Skyscrapers in Lang’s film have a very specific use – they are
a major part of the film’s social discourse on the class stratification between the rich and
the poor. The privileged class in Metropolis reside above ground, while the workers live
under it. Skyscrapers are thus a physical expression of the imbalance in society. A film
seeped in Marxist ideologies, it also has Biblical parallels. A tower is in construction by
the upper class as a monument for the greatness of humanity, and is meant to reach far into
the stars. Obviously a reference to the Tower of Babel, it is given an ironic twist because
the two classes of humans cannot understand each other’s motives and desires even though
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In the Humanities
they speak the same language. Thus, the theme of Metropolis is on the social crisis between
workers and owners in capitalism, and a major concern is that of injustice.
Mann, M and Beattie, S (2004) Collateral, Paramount Pictures, United States of
America.
Released in 2004, a significant amount of Collateral’s action takes place in skyscrapers.
Tom Cruise plays an assassin whose hired personal chauffeur turns the tables on him by
the end of the film. In between though, Cruise seeks to kill five witnesses for an important
case. He kills the first one in a skyscraper’s car-park, perhaps riding on the general idea
that the higher up, the more isolated one is and isolation makes it easier to commit crimes.
This makes it easier for movie audiences to suspend their belief and get into the movie, as
opposed to having to convince themselves that Cruise got away with murder in a noisy market, if the shot had been filmed that way. The other idea that the producers take advantage
of is the unease that comes about in deserted skyscrapers to increase the sense of fear and
anticipation in movie goers. Thus, the tendency of skyscrapers’ as sites of crime and evil
when empty and devoid of people is artfully employed by Mann.
Marguand, R, Lucas, G and Kasdan, L (1983) Star Wars: Episode VI – Return of the
Jedi, Lucasfilm, United States of America.
The skyscrapers in this movie are completely out of the world, literally. Set in the vast
galaxy, Return of the Jedi is the third film in the Star Wars. Known internationally as an
epic space opera, it is interesting to view the Return of the Jedi through the lens of a student
of skyscrapers. The tall buildings in the Return of the Jedi are given a feminist reading in the
postmodern sense. The Galactic Senate Building is specifically focused on in this film. The
Galactic Senate Building was the political structure which housed the Galactic Republic’s
political figures. As the major building that juts out of the Galactic Republic skyline, it
is an undoubtedly phallic symbol of might and power. Indeed, decades on in the Star Wars
timeline, much has happened but the Senate Building is still visible on the coruscant skyline,
even at the time when the second Death Star has been destroyed, a symbol of the structure’s
lasting might.
McTiernan, J, Thorp, R and Stuart, J (1988) Die Hard, Twentieth Century-Fox Film
Corporation, United States of America.
A popular film series, the first of the Die Hard series, revolves around various skyscrapers
in a capitalist and postmodern sense. The villains in this film use a terrorist pretense to
cover their actual act – theft of $640 million in bearer bonds from the building. Given the
relatively confined space in the horizontal sphere, the direction then proceeds to cram a lot
of action within the building itself. As such, suspense and thrill are imparted to the film
watches. Here, McTiernan goes a step further and consciously employs the vertical heights
of the skyscraper for more drama. There are various scenes of hangings: a man hanging
onto a chain, the latter separating him from a fatal fall and the mastermind hanging for his
life onto a woman’s watch before the protagonist rushes up and causes him to plunge to his
death.
Moore, M (2004) Fahrenheit 9/11, Lions Gate Film, United States of America.
Quite uniquely, but hardly surprisingly, the fall of the World Trade Centre has been taken up
for political discourse by filmmaker Michael Moore. The event is revisited for the express
purpose of questioning the Bush administration, and the manner by which they handled
the September 11 attacks. Thus, using the Twin Towers, he criticizes and shows a side
rarely seen in the pom-pom carrying American corporate media that were “cheerleaders”
of the Bush administration. Other issues he takes up against the administration include his
In the Humanities
41
contention that they neglected to take action, and implies that President Bush’s priorities are
not about the nation, but of story book reading, as seen from how the President continued
reading to young children even after being told of the attacks and that the nation was in
danger. He also links 9/11 to terrorism, and declares that the war against Iraq was built on a
lie. Fahrenheit 9/11 won the extremely prestigious Palme d’Or for his documentary.
Neame, R, Mann, S and North, E H (1979) Meteor, American International Pictures,
United States of America.
Another science fiction film, an asteroid named Orpheus, is on a collision course with our
world. Although skyscrapers are similarly the victims of massive chunks of meteorites and
destruct into mere stumps of concrete, they should be taken only on a dramatic sense. This is
because there are no enemies for movie-goers to take their stance against for the event; it is
an event caused by natural permutations and combinations. Still, film watchers are directed
to remember that skyscrapers are symbols of advancement and progress. Thus, horror is
evoked amongst watchers as the World Trade Center is destroyed, and in the suspense of
belief feel themselves to be in danger too. In the midst of it all are politics as various leaders
come together to try and solve the impending disaster. As such, the main themes of this film
are cunning and manipulation, and victimization.
Nemes, C, Aoun, K and Bedia, R (2001) Tour Montparnasse Infernale, La, 4 Mecs
à Lunettes Production, France.
The plot centers around two window washers, and humour is used as the medium of the film
where their unintended stumble into heroism by saving a group of people from gangsters
who mean to rob the building of fifty million francs. Skyscrapers are portrayed here from
a capitalist reading, given how, as majestic structures that rise formidably into the sky, they
also represent capital accumulation. It is also quite unarguable that a low-rise building might
not have had the same effect – grocery stores and quaint shops are low-rise; high-rise is an
irrefutable statement that there is wealth in the business building. Thus, skyscrapers have
been employed for their symbolic meaning of wealth, and the struggle by various groups to
obtain that wealth.
Raimi, S, Lee, S and Ditko, S (2002) Spider-Man, Columbia Pictures Corporation,
United States of America.
A character from the Marvel Comics industry, it is safe to say that Spiderman would not
exist if skyscrapers did not tower around New York City, creating a vertical landscape that
had probably been irresistible to his creators. Spiderman uses these tall buildings as his
means of manoeuvring his way around the city, since he cannot fly. He also frequently
rescues various parties from a range of disasters, be it a girl stuck at the top floor of a
burning building, or battling his nemesis the Green Goblin who is threatening to blow up
a skyscraper. Due to their splendour, rising stately from the ground and continuing high
into the sky, Raimi has crammed all manner of activities into different buildings, and gives
movie goers more pleasure as they watch Spiderman defeats each gang that is terrorizing
some people in a skyscraper, or confessing his love to Mary-Jane shortly after going against
one of his greatest foe, Doctor Octopus.
Ratner, B, Nathanson, J and LaManna, R (2007) Rush Hour 3, New Line Cinema,
United States of America.
Classified under the martial arts-action-comedy genre, the film uses the Eiffel Tower for a
significant length of time, as it is the site for the climax and conclusion. The high-rise tower
is used for dramatic effect when one of the main characters is trussed up outside the Jules
Verne Restaurant, and held for ransom. The villains repeatedly lower her ropes until it looks
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In the Humanities
as though she might be crushed amongst the grinding wheel cogs outside the restaurant, but
in the midst of the fight she is freed and one of the key assassins is crushed to death instead.
More dramatic effect occurs when Chan engages in a fatal battle against his sworn brother
Kenji whom he still cares very much for, and even as Chan tries to save him despite the
ripping safety net, in the end Kenji kills himself by releasing himself from Chan because
he knows that the weakened netting cannot take both their weight. Finally, the high-rise is
used as a parachuting base for Chan and Tucker to escape from, to comic effect. Thus, we
see the various uses of high-rise employed by Ratner in his film.
Scott, R, Fancher, H and Peoples, D W (1982) Blade Runner, Ladd Company,
United States of America.
An American cyberpunk science fiction film, skyscrapers are used for feminist, capitalist and postmodern readings, thus, taking on different meanings. Combined together they
represent a world that is paranoid, masochistic and containing a high level of tension
between the past, present and future. The future, as depicted in the film, is retrofitted –
high-technology is the norm in some places as buildings shine and gleam, but in others the
high-rise is aging and decadent. Blade Runner is about the struggle between the haves and
the have-nots; this time the latter being robots that purportedly behave more like humans
than humans themselves do, having the ability to feel their burdens, and care for one another.
As the already thin boundaries between humans and machine are blurred and fought, one
is increasingly unable to tell them apart, or even recall the definitions that spilt them in the
first place.
Selwyn, E, Baldwin, F and Sullivan, C G (1932) Skyscraper Souls, Cosmopolitan
Productions, United States of America.
Very post-modern in its interpretation of skyscrapers, Skyscraper Souls is largely about
power struggle. However, it is also one of the few movies that has feminism as a major theme
for its skyscrapers, the latter represented as a phallic symbol, or the expression of Man’s
superiority. The movie’s themes center around the male ego, power and money. Again,
skyscrapers symbolize wealth and power since the one who owns the greater building must
also be greater in terms of riches and status. Thus, the building in Skyscraper Souls, even
bigger than the Empire State Building, is the center of a gigantic power struggle, and clearly
enough, whoever gains control of the skyscraper wins the rat race. Issues explored in the
film include greed, lust and morality, where various tycoons lust over wealth and women.
Stone, O, Berloff, A and McLoughlin, J (2006) World Trade Center, Paramount
Pictures, United States of America.
A film based on true stories recovered from various police officers and firemen, it recalls
the heroism displayed by these men on the fateful day of 9/11 who sprung into action after
realizing something was terribly wrong at the World Trade Center. Essentially, it seeks to
uplift watchers of this film by reminding them also of everyday citizens who helped one
another amid this cataclysmic event. Quite predictably, its central theme is directed towards
recovery, post-9/11. Following the same lines then, the film’s issues are about courage under
fire, heroism shown by people who did what they had to do, and did not falter, and above all,
the spirit of putting others before self. This film, like many works that focus on the fall of
the World Trade Center, is to be taken from a national level, where symbolically the nation
is pictured into the rise and fall, and after effects of the Twin Towers.
Vidor, K and Rand, A (1949) The Fountainhead, Warner Brothers Pictures, United
States of America.
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The Fountainhead comprises of skyscrapers from a capitalist, feminist and post-modern
perspective. Buildings here symbolize power struggles yet again as men fight amongst
themselves to be the most powerful, and the greatest, and expressed their desires in commissioning skyscrapers of ever increasing heights. As the phallic symbols rise higher and
higher, the protagonist is a highly talented architect who is one of the rare few who refuse
to sell their souls for fame and success. His designs are clearly brilliant, but because they do
not conform to the conventional structures that are men’s signallers of success, he appears
to die unappreciated. Along with rivals who are far less skilful but infinitely hungrier for
fame, they shoot and attack each and every chance he is offered to make a name for himself.
At the emotional, climatic courtroom scene where the protagonist seems destined for jail
after having dynamited a building that was not true to his design, he turns the tables by
giving a passionate speech describing what it truly means to create, and also to watch one’s
creations corrupt at the hands of blinded societies.
Wachowski, A and Wachowski, L (1999) The Matrix, Groucho II Film Partnership,
United States of America.
One of the most famous films in the world, The Matrix, is a philosophical take on the world,
questioning what it is. The film sees the world as an illusory stimulated reality construct on
the world developed by sentient beings who wish to keep human beings docile. Skyscrapers
are thus part of the lie – a very interesting proposition since it forces us to consider the
probability that if skyscrapers really are an illusion, then everything we believe ourselves to
have achieved is likewise false. Ultimately, we are led to question what we place our hopes
and trust in; somewhat essential concerns. However, the film has an intriguing offer – it
ends with Neo the protagonist being able to leap over skyscrapers and even fly in to the sky,
because he has learnt to control the Matrix. A parallel can be drawn to film watchers, who
may turn the tables and one day control their mundane existence if they will only transcend
above seeming boundaries.
Literature
Alten, S (2008) The Shell Game, Sweetwater Books, Johnstown.
A thriller based on the 9/11 attacks, Alten has constructed a postmodern reading of
skyscrapers and high-rise in general. He views skyscrapers as sites of power struggle, and
as such his novel claims the fall of the World Trade Center as a government-led job. As
might be expected, The Shell Game is very much a government conspiracy theory centric
work. Essentially, the fictional novel’s argument is that the government of the United States
of America is corrupted, so it can, does and did perpetrate mass-murder terror schemes
for profit. Amongst other theories thrown up in the book are profit for the control of oil,
international gamesmanship, and political mastery. At the end of his novel, there is an actual
nuclear incident occurring within an American state, again from a government conspiracy
theory angle. Alten has included other issues, for example, his instigation of the media as
puppets of the government, incompetent and incapable of being true journalists. His issues
ultimately arise because of the great symbolism high-rise holds as sites of wealth and power.
Beard, P (2005) Dear Zoe, Viking Adult, New York.
Beard gives a sensitive portrayal to the lesser stories on the day of 9/11, caused precisely by
the event but never given a chance to be aired and healed because the fall of the Twin Towers
per se was the only thing that was important. Another nationalist reading of the occurrence,
Beard here focuses on a grieving girl whose baby sister (Zoe) was killed by a car after
she toddled away while Tess DeNunzio, the older sister, was momentarily distracted by the
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In the Humanities
attacks on the World Trade Center. The basic theme of Dear Zoe is how the catastrophic
event befalling a building can overshadow other events no less important, even if they are on
a less dramatic scale. The Twin Towers’ fall is the reason for the DeNunzio’s grief, and her
entire life subsequently hinges on that one day. Indeed, the attacks may not be the core of
this story, but they come to symbolize struggle, tension and confusion in a young adolescent
who eventually learns how to let go.
Beigbeder, F (2003) Windows on the World, Miramax Books, United States of
America.
Given a national reading with regards to skyscrapers, Beigbeder is a post-9/11 writer. His
is an especially sorrowful tale because it opens with protagonist Carthew Yorston being at
the World Trade Center with his two young sons, as a fulfilment of a long-made promise to
have breakfast with them at the eatery on top of the North Tower with the same name (as
the title). Beigbeder here uses the fall of the Twin Towers as an opportunity to examine the
meaning of life, and what being a father or son entails. Each chapter is a short rendering of
every minute from 8:30 to 10:29 of that morning, and they are oftentimes mere snatches of
conversation, disconnected and seemingly nonsensical; depicting more starkly the reality of
people who know they will meet their deaths shortly, but have to wait some hours before
the end comes. Mostly though, it is filled with self-reflection and questioning, and one is
filled with a despairing sense of horror at the end of it all.
Boey, K C (1992) The Planners, Times Books International, Asia.
Singapore poet, Boey Kim Cheng is generally known for his introspective, somewhat dreary
outlook on Singapore society and his existential ponderings. In The Planners, he goes out
full force, lashing his angst against the city planners of Singapore, accusing them of selling
the nation’s history and soul for economic progress, to him manifested in the ever increasing
high-rise buildings that gleam and glisten in the sun. Skyscrapers take on a capitalist and
postmodern meaning. Taking skyscrapers as expressions of capital accumulation, planners
seem to have exchanged the country’s intrinsic worth and identity that took decades to
build up for mere economic prosperity. In other words, they have sold out Singapore. In
the postmodern sense, these sites are places of power struggle, and the fact that high-rise is
the overwhelming fact of Singapore life is evidence, to Boey, that cold-hearted dollars have
won the fight to be first in the nation’s life. Skyscrapers are to him the physical expression
of the government’s culture of mechanism at the expense of the soul.
Chomsky, N (2001) 9-11, Greg Ruggiero, Westfield.
Noam Chomsky, the American author, lecturer, linguist, philosopher and political activist
has written a book based on the fall of the Twin Towers, accusing the United States of America to be a terrorist state herself. The theme of his book is the need to understand, as well as
the need for commonly respected institutions. By this Chomsky means that if people were
to put effort toward understanding, there would be less tension amongst political entities.
Secondly, he is of the opinion that even if there were serious disagreements and tension, a
common consensus to acknowledge the decisions of international non-government organizations such as the United Nations would result in a much more ideal environment around
the world. For example, if America and China were to have a major clash between Taiwan,
they could refer to the United Nations and accept its resolution. This acceptance would
see much less violence in the world. One sees how skyscrapers, or eminent buildings can
symbolize, or become, the focus of a debate on the importance of understanding enemies.
Colon, E and Jacobson, S (2006) The 9/11 Report: A Graphic Adaptation, Hill and
Wang, United States of America.
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The 9/11 Report: A Graphic Adaptation was a personal mission undertaken by two veterans
of the comic industry. With the fall of the Twin Towers as its subject matter, the argument
for the educational use of graphics is a happy consequence of the adaptation. Given that a
picture paints a thousand words, this book is a godsend to those who are weaker in literary
skills.
Delillo, D (2007) Falling Man, Picador, London.
Falling Man explores the new reality for the lives of many after the 9/11 attacks. If the
fiction novel were to have an argument, it would seem to be that the fall of the Twin Towers
was the catalyst for many to examine their perspectives and beliefs. We also see the fragility
of relationships, and the effect of 9/11 on each character as they try to rebuild their lives after
the incident. Delillo goes further than most of the other writers, including in his list of issues
cross cultural and political miscommunications. He also expresses human vulnerability and
people’s painstaking efforts to rebuild their lives with other people whom they thought they
knew, but after the 9/11 incident discovered that that was a flawed assumption. Ultimately,
Delillo uses the fall of the World Trade Centre to show how we are all different with our
deeply entrenched perspectives and worldviews, and sometimes, it all boils down to each
partner’s determination to consciously love the other.
Dwyer, J and Flynn, K (2005) 102 Minutes: The Untold Story of the Fight to Survive
inside the Twin Towers, Times Books, New York.
Categorized somewhat loosely under non-fiction, 102 minutes is an account of the literally,
hundred and two minutes from the time the first plane hit the first Twin Tower, till the time
it collapsed and fell. Taken from hundreds of interviews with eyewitnesses, thousands of
radio transcripts, emails, and phone calls, it seeks to recreate that 102 minute time span.
Evidently, its theme is that of death: impending death, reactions to death, responses from
both the people inside the Tower and their loved ones whom they tried to contact before
they were killed. The mood of 102 Minutes is somber and gut-wrenching in its simplicity.
A man fatally trapped on the eighty-eighth floor sends a phone message to his fiancée: “
Kris, there’s been an explosion . . .. I want you to know my life has been so much better and
richer because you were in it“ . Another calls his wife in his final moments, telling her to
cancel a surprise trip he had planned for her. This book centers around the loss and pain the
fall of the Twin Towers brought, and recalls that hopeless day.
Foer, J S (2005) Extremely Loud and Incredibly Close, Houghton Mifflin, United
States of America.
Skyscrapers are brought forth in the nationalist sense in this book. The destruction of one
building is specifically focused on in the fiction novel, namely, the World Trade Center in
the United States of America on the 9th of September, 2001. This book traces Oscar Schell’s
efforts to deal with his loss of his father, who died in the attacks, and his subsequent recovery. The fall of the Twin Towers in Extremely Loud and Incredibly Close also trigger off
other painful memories and stories. The overall story seems to have its purpose as emotional
therapy for the victims of the September 11 attacks, who undoubtedly experience catharsis
as they feel Oscar’s bewilderment, and struggle to cope, combined with determination to
make sense of his tragic situation. A significant inclusion to this novel is a flip-book of the
Falling Man. Foer has reversed the order of his fall, so that it looks as though the Falling Man
is actually, floating. This could be taken as a symbol of Oscar’s healing, and transcendence
over his trauma.
Grimm, B (1812) Rumpelstiltskin, Brothers Grimm, Hanau.
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In the Humanities
Towers frequently figure in Children’s Literature, and Rumpelstiltskin is no different. The
tale of a miller’s daughter whose boasting father lies that she can spin straw into gold, she is
taken and imprisoned by the king, and ordered to prove her father’s words by the third day or
she will be put to death. The tower is a symbol of the king’s power, and this is probably best
reflected through a feminist reading which will interpret the building as a phallic symbol
of the male power. However, a gnome accomplishes her task, after procuring her promise
of her first born child. This probably reflects the beliefs of early 19th century, the time
when this tale was collected by Brothers Grimm. People believed in magic and sorcery, and
held these super powers to be above man’s ability. As such, Rumpelstiltskin’s breaking in
is probably a symbol of men’s inferiority to fairies. Thus, high-rises in Rumpelstiltskin are
social commentaries on the beliefs and hierarchies of the early 19th century.
Hugo, V (1831) The Hunchback of Notre Dame, Penguin Books, Gosselin.
The Hunchback of Notre Dame is in its original title, Notre-Dame de Paris. This is more
revealing of Hugo’s subject and theme, which is actually the Cathedral of Notre Dame.
Hugo was a staunch supporter of the Cathedral, and in fact the purpose of his novel was to
treat it as a statement for the preservation of the Cathedral, and not to modernize it. Thus,
in The Hunchback of Notre Dame the Cathedral takes centre stage; elaborate descriptions
are sprawled all over the book with detailed examinations on the Gothic structure of the
Cathedral. The Gothic genre’s influence on the Cathedral is also significant. Like the genre’s
characteristics, the Cathedral’s incredible vastness, repulsive gargoyles and many dark and
secret passageways represent extremes of architecture, religion and passion, all of which
are integrated into the building of the Cathedral itself. Thus, Hugo’s work on the Cathedral
of Notre Dame is notable in his concern for the building itself, criticising the deplorable
state it had been left in since the Revolution where angry mobs had abused, pillaged and
vandalized it.
King, S (1987) The Dark Tower II: The Drawing of the Three, Viking Adult,
England.
Stephen King is a master storey-teller, and his Dark Tower series is his crowning glory.
A seven part series, together they tell the quest of Roland of Gilead in his quest to find
the Dark Tower. In the second volume of the series, three doors are placed in his way,
and he opens them as part of his quest. Skyscrapers in this book are employed by Stephen
King as structural metonymy, or, the use of physical landscapes as a clue of what is really
happening around the protagonist. Each of the three doors open into different times, and
the skyscraper in each reality is reflective of the current social issues facing Roland and the
other main characters. For instance, in the first door opens up into the year 1987. Eddie Dean
is a heroin addict, and the person Roland becomes involved with. Fittingly, his surroundings
reflect the situation. High-rises are grimy and dubious, with much crime and filth going on
inside. As the novel goes on, buildings are described according to the mood the King wants
to set. This is part of his genius, using high-rise as a structural metonymy to alert readers as
to his intended meaning.
King, S (2004) The Dark Tower VII: The Dark Tower, Viking Adult, England.
The final book in the Dark Tower series is where Roland of Gilead finally gains access to
the actual Dark Tower. The Dark Tower has various meanings in here. Firstly, high-rise in
this novel is used more in the feminist sense, where Roland encounters various rooms that
have signs of his journey en route to the Dark Tower. Secondly, the Tower represents the
only reason for living to Roland, and thus it should actually be understood more from the
metaphorical sense than the literal structure, even though it is indeed a high-rise. He has
devoted most of his life to the search of the Tower, in the hopes that its power might slow
down or even reverse his slowly dying world and indeed, it has taken seven full length novels
In the Humanities
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to properly tell of his efforts. Thus, the Dark Tower, though an actual physical building, in
this case should be considered from its metaphorical and figurative sense, as is the case with
most literary works.
Sparks, N (2006) Dear John, Warner Books, New York.
Dear John letters is a term referring to a letter written by a woman to her significant other
to inform him that she wants to end their relationship. In Nicholas Spark’s novel, the main
characters are two strikingly different people who are attracted to each other. They both hold
very opposing values, which add to the strain of the relationship. One is a drinker, the other
is a teetotaler. He is open to one-night stands, while she is a virgin. The theme of Dear
John is the conflict of attraction and values, and its main issues are lifestyle choices and
moral purity. In the end, 9/11 occurs, and he as a military regular has to go. Ultimately, their
relationship cannot withstand the test of distance, and he gets the expected letter. The fall of
the Twin Towers is here used on the national level, to symbolize the fragility of structures –
not just of concrete and mortar, but that of relationships and love.
Spiegelman, A (2004) In the Shadow of No Towers, Pantheon Graphic Novels, New
York.
As can be inferred from the title, Art Spiegelman’s book In the Shadow of No Towers is
quiessentially about reactions and emotions pertaining to the September 11 attacks. When
the towers fell, people felt as though they had been placed on the exact spot where exceptional world events and exceptional personal events were one and the same, yet they lacked
the ability to express their feelings towards such a mammoth event. Thus, like Falling
Man, Spiegelman’s book appears to act as a substitute reality where people who have been
affected can place themselves into his book and release some of their trauma. Other issues
are hysteria, dislocation, grief, horror, anxiety and government conspiracy theories. Spiegelman takes them all and works within himself to understand and accept the changed reality
of the United States of America. What is especially interesting is Spiegelman’s inter-mixing
of art and prose into his work. To him, artwork forces one to question one’s true position
over the event. And since he yielded to art’s influence to critically question himself, In the
Shadow of No Towers becomes all the more enriched for his labour.
Stern, R M (1974) The Tower, Warner Books, New York.
The Tower is about a terrorist suicide-bomber who sets off a home made explosive in the
basement of the tower. It starts off a ghastly fire that spreads, eventually trapping a group of
partygoers in the penthouse. An attempt is made to save them by running a chair device to
the adjacent World Trade Center. However, it is only partially successful and in the end most
of the people died from the flames. Skyscrapers have been given a few main interpretations
by Stern, and these include: the capitalist reading of skyscrapers as capital accumulation,
as seen from the very wealthy partygoers. The post-modern interpretation is also apparent
when the terrorist detonates himself. In doing so, he is making a power statement against
the Western capitalists. The buildings are symbols of the West’s wealth and power, and by
destroying the skyscraper the terrorist is proclaiming his ability to demolish – indirectly –
their wealth and power.
Stoker, B (1897) Dracula, Archibald Constable and Company, United Kingdom.
Dracula is a book from the gothic genre, which means to say that it employs various objects
and techniques all for the goal of horror. In Dracula, the high-rises are castles, which are
high and grand – inspiring mere mortals to feel the sublime, or, transcendence, and to recognize how weak and insignificant they are in the face of such incredible vastness. Castles
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are also invariably the site for fear. Through subversion, suspense and the uncanny, Stoker
breathes life into strange and evil things, such as ghostly women, locked doors, and a veritable prison of a castle, dark and foreboding, set on the top of a steep precipice. Unnatural
acts are performed by the vampire, such as scaling a castle wall downwards with his cape
streaming behind him, yet not falling to his death. Ultimately, high-rise is employed to strike
fear into the reader; fear of the unknown in hidden passageways, dark corridors that yawn
into nothingness, and the inexplicable happenings that defy science and common sense.
Tolkien, J R R (1955) The Return of the King, Allen and Unwin, Australia.
This book is essentially about the battle between the forces of good and evil. The onceflourishing city Minas Tirith has come to decay. Its castles and great buildings are proof
of that. Towers act as a metonymy of sorts, albeit a structural one. That is, the buildings
facades are a physical representation of the moral standing of the Ages. For example, during
the Second Age Isildur son of Elendil built a tower he named Minas Ithil, meaning, Tower
of the Rising Moon. The walls were of white marble, designed to catch and reflect the
moonlight, and so shine with luminescence. However, during the Third Age, Minas Ithil
was taken by force. It was renamed Minas Mogul, or the Tower of Black Sorcery. The walls
were studded with fortifications that were menacing, reflecting the change in times. Thus
Tolkien uses buildings as an indication of the moral standings of the Times, as each change
and evolve.
Walters, J (2006) The Zero, HarperCollins Publisher, United Kingdom.
Jess Walters is one of the few post-9/11 writers who see the fall of the World Trade Center from a capitalist point of view. He dares to give an unflattering reading of that day;
especially rare because the American public has glorified it to the extent that the only
associations allowed are basically tales of exceptional courage, bravery, and rage against
the incompetent builders who neglected to design firewall staircases in favour of more floor
space – since the latter would translate into more money for business. His central theme
is the surreality of a post-9/11 world, and the utter importance of the Twin Towers falls to
the lives of American citizens. One of the most pertinent issues he tackles is the double
tragedy of the 9th of September – that of the day itself, and then of human exploitation of it.
He discusses America’s culture, and it’s unfortunately parasitic reaction to the demolished
buildings. He argues that people treat the former skyscrapers as a site to gawk, as though it
is a tourist attraction and not a historical event where citizens paid for their political leaders’
mistakes.
West, M L (1968) The Tower of Babel, Morrow, New York.
When the book report is from the Bible, one supposes the author is rightfully God. One can
also suppose the Tower of Babel was therefore put into the Bible for a reason, and that would
be very much correct. The Tower of Babel was built for Man to showcase their progress and
advancement, and most importantly, self-sufficiency, a kind of primitive capitalist reading.
Thus, the Tower represents Man’s rebellion against God, for it was made with the purpose
of glorifying Man, and not Him. The outcome of the event serves a didactic function – God
confused their language, so that they were not able to complete their self-idolatry, and they
eventually separated into nations. The Tower of Babel has been a tremendous influence in
literature, sparking off allusions in many works, from plays to songs and even video games.
The significance of The Tower of Babel is simply that of its history; stretching back to the
beginnings of time and containing much symbolism in the relationship between God and
rebellious men.
In the Humanities
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Politics and Policy
American Society of Civil Engineers (2006) Critical infrastructure assessment and
homeland security. In: R. Kemp (Ed), Homeland Security Handbook for Citizens
and Public Officials, McFarland, Jefferson, 52–55.
While the security of critical infrastructure has generally improved in the United States
post-9/11, this paper argues that the information needed for engineering professionals to
ascertain security conditions of important high-rises and buildings is simply not enough.
Certain policy decisions have to be made, and the policies implemented with sufficient
political will, in order for the long-term maintenance of public safety and the sustained
usage of current infrastructure and buildings. Suggestions include incorporating security
as part of an “all hazards” approach in the design, construction and operation of critical
infrastructure. Also, the Congress will have to approve and provide adequate funding to
meet current infrastructural needs as well as to sustain long-term research and development
to improve the liveability and overall security of high-rises and other important financial
or governmental infrastructure. Such policy recommendations will have to be implemented
both at the federal and at the state levels, which highlights the difficulties faced by the
United States political system when putting in place plans to improve infrastructural safety.
Best, R (1992) Housing after 2000AD: the likely effects of political, social and
economic change. In: W. A. Allen, E. Happold, R. G. Courtney and A. M. Wood
(Ed), A Global Strategy for Housing in the Third Millennium, Taylor and Francis,
London, 21–42.
Britain’s housing market underwent notable changes engendered by changing political,
social and economic conditions in the late 1980s to the early 1990s. Many of these changes
were not unique to the British experience; rather, the causal relationships affecting urban
form in cities around the world were characterized by similar socio-political factors. For
example, longer life expectancies and a lower birth rate caused demographic changes to
British society as a whole, which in turn translated to an increase in the demand for smaller
dwelling units: houses and flats with one or two bedrooms. Also, this situation caused large
numbers of large homes to be torn down, making way for high-rise residential apartments
offering the smaller units that society demanded. From this, we can clearly see a direct
link between demographic trends and the modern Man’s obsession with building taller.
High-rises are, thus, an architectural response to the social and political configuration of
contemporary society, and Britain’s experience in this respect, as explored in this chapter,
are certainly not exclusive to her alone.
Chow, S T and Mcdonald, A (1984) Planning and design of public housing estates
in Hong Kong. In: Y. M. Boey (Ed), High-rise, High-density Living, Singapore Professional Center, Singapore, 25–34.
Hong Kong’s public high-rise housing programme parallels Singapore’s Housing and
Development Board schemes in many aspects, and there is little wonder for this considering
the degree of similarity between the two polities. Both Singapore and Hong Kong face the
problem of extreme land scarcity coupled with a steadily increasing migrant population,
and hence have to contend with ‘running up a sandy slope’. This set of preconditions bring
with it challenges and demands for the relevant authorities and planners, because they have
to be nimble and adapt their policy decisions to the changing situation and demographics
on the ground. High-rises must continually adapt to the needs of the community: a fledgling
nation-state requires the rapid construction of functional apartment blocks, as compared
to a more affluent and family-oriented society which will necessarily demand larger units.
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In the Humanities
This flexibility is essential in ensuring that high-rise living remains a good option for small
autonomous polities like Singapore and Hong Kong.
Gilbert, R V (1984) Improving the quality of life on high-rise estates through tenant
participation in management. In: Y. M. Boey (Ed), High-rise, High-density Living,
Singapore Professional Center, Singapore, 165–170.
The writer was the Director of Housing in Australia’s Ministry of Housing. He used examples from the Australian experience with public high-rise housing to elucidate certain
aspects of high-rise living. Often, governments have made use of high-rise living as a political tool, achieving the dual purpose of having something tangible to show with regards to
national development, as well as housing the poorer segments of society. It is economically
impossible for the private sector to provide housing for all, and thus the government has
to step in to ensure that the poorest have a roof over their heads with low-cost housing
programmes. However, these quick-fix projects often run into problems in their later years.
This is due to the rising expectations of people, who become discontent with the lower
cost units as time passes. This paper emphasizes the importance of flexibility in planning
and the fluid nature of the property market, and how the public have to work together with
relevant government departments to ensure good quality public high-rise housing for those
who need it.
Lim, S S (1984) The role of Residents’ Committees in HDB housing estates. In:
Y. M. Boey (Ed), High-rise, High-density Living, Singapore Professional Center,
Singapore, 214–217.
If we allude the issue of high-rise living to computers, we can say that apartment blocks
are the hardware and residents are the software. Residents’ Committees (RCs), comprising
groups of these residents arranged into a working organizational hierarchy, are then the software upgrades which improve the entire setup. Integral features of Singapore’s HDB public
housing programme, RCs are the subject of study in this paper, and the writer attempts
to analyze the functions of RCs and their role as a cohesive force creating a tight knit
community among citizens in a neighbourhood. Some examples include the implementation of community projects and activities, promotion of an effective communication system
amongst residents, and encouraging residents’ participation in grassroots activities. Overall,
RCs play an integral role in gelling the community, promoting the spirit of neighbourliness,
and enhancing the quality of high-rise living in Singapore.
Liu, T (1984) Housing policies and life style. In: Y. M. Boey (Ed), High-rise, Highdensity Living, Singapore Professional Center, Singapore, 9–24.
As ex-Chief Executive Officer of the Housing and Development Board (HDB) in Singapore,
Liu has had tremendous influence over policy making and marketing the idea of high-rise
living to the great majority of Singaporean citizens. Not only content with building shelter
for the people, the HDB is also intent on providing a way of life that is sustainable for
land-scarce Singapore, yet appealing and affordable. Then, high-rise living did not exist in
a vacuum; the HDB built shops, food centres, carparks and gardens to cater for a holistic
approach to the HDB lifestyle. Progressing from the first generation’s aims to construct
as many new houses in as short a time as possible, Liu’s HDB was more concerned with
meeting the broader social objectives of creating a community within its neighbourhoods.
Perhaps it is this holistic enmeshment of public housing into everyday life that makes
HDB relatively successful to other similar programmes elsewhere. By giving Singaporean
families a tangible stake in the form of HDB flats, they are committed physically to the
well-being of the nation and ideologically to her political leaders.
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Perera, L R L (1984) High-rise trend in developing Sri Lanka. In: Y. M. Boey (Ed),
High-rise, High-density Living, Singapore Professional Center, Singapore, 82–88.
Sri Lanka’s experience in promoting high-rise living as a legitimate way of life has not
been entirely smooth sailing. The writer states that high-rise living was not suited for Sri
Lanka at the time of writing, and this is due to several reasons. The most important is
the unsustainable nature of high-rise public housing projects, and the inability of the state
government to pour investments into this area of national development. Perera argues that
high-rises have always been coveted for its ability to project a sense of modernity and
national progress, but issues of prestige do not dominate the minds of Sri Lankans for now.
The money that would have otherwise gone to high-rise housing projects can be diverted to
other aspects of national development that will perceivably yield more results in the short
term. This article shows us the difficulties in high-rise development, and the conditions that
disfavour high-rise living and prevent it from becoming an accepted way of life.
Pichter-Milanovic, N (1996) Response to ‘comments on “the role of housing policy
in the transformation process in Central-East European cities”: is economic efficiency the end-all?’ Urban Studies, 33(1): 117–123.
The article discusses the anomalous situation in ex-communist Central-East Europe where
the privatization of housing seems to be causing problems to the social fabric in the name
of economic expediency. The wave of privatization has been closely linked to the forces
of decentralization shifting power from central governments to local governments within
part of Central and Eastern Europe. The issue of ‘high-rise’ features both as a contributing
factor, as well as an area adversely affected by housing privatization. Firstly, it has been
stated that the impetus to privatize dwelling units emerged both due to housing shortages
and a growing dissatisfaction with monotonous high-rise housing estates. Also, as a result
of rapid privatization of apartments in Central and Eastern Europe, older buildings and highrise housing estates at the urban periphery have become a new ‘ghetto’ of sorts, housing a
new ‘post-socialist’ underclass who can afford only public rental flats. Clearly, the apparent
failures of post-World War II high-rise housing feature regularly in academic discourse
when examining the social problems engendered by forces of urbanization in the West.
Ruchelman, L I (1977) The World Trade Center: Politics and Policies of Skyscraper
Development, Syracuse University Press, New York.
The high rise building under scrutiny, New York’s World Trade Center (WTC), features
very prominently in the body of literature which concerns itself with both politics and
skyscrapers. Published back in 1977, this book approaches the WTC in poignant contrast
to other works written post-9/11. While the title might seem ironic for many people, the
author examines the issues of policy-formation and skyscraper development from a highly
objective point of view, using the WTC merely as a case study for the politics of building
taller. Engendered by economic necessities and an exceeding amount of political will, the
WTC Towers were intended to add luster and prestige to Lower Manhattan, and strengthen
the economic fabric of the entire area. Then the second tallest building in the world, its
geographical situation near the banks, which serviced the bulk of United States foreign
trade not only provided for a logical concentration of office space, but also crystallized, in
architectural form, the spirit of American capitalism. The many policy issues involved in
building and developing this skyscraper were discussed in great detail over many chapters
of the book, oblivious to the political forces that would bring about its downfall sometime
in the future.
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Scoffman, E R (1984) What rise high-density – how dense high-rise? In: Y. M. Boey
(Ed), High-rise, High-density Living, Singapore Professional Center, Singapore,
59–66.
High-rise has almost always been equated with high-density in the literature on urban built
form, but the writer of this paper is of the opinion that this perception cannot hold true.
Pointing to historical progression in architecture and city planning, Dr Ernest Scoffham
traces the various stages in the refinement and implementation of city plans, ranging from
Milton Keynes to Letchworth. Using geometric diagrams and calculations, he seeks to
show that high rise need not be equated with high-density, and that the ideas of prominent
figures such as John Seed and David Dennis go to demonstrate that the possible spatial
characteristics of an urban structure can still remain habitable, workable, convenient and
attractive. Also, Scoffham brings our attention to the fundamental differences governing
Western models of urban high-rise development and the conditions facing countries in the
Far East, particularly that of a rapid increase in population size.
Shepherd, R (2003) Skyscraper: The Search for an American Style 1891-1941,
McGraw-Hill, New York.
Skyscraper: The Search for an American Style details the arguments levelled for and against
what was then a new architectural form: the skyscraper. Some of the issues touched on
include the skyscraper as a distinct cultural expression of the American polity, and the
various reasons why skyscrapers should or should not be constructed in United States cities
then. Particularly interesting was the suggestion that skyscrapers were politically important because they were iconic, just like Greek temples and Gothic cathedrals, in symbolizing American ideals. Initially seen as a ‘problem’ in itself, high-rise buildings eventually
became a mainstay in the American architectural scene over a period of decades.
Sim, L L (1989) Guide to Condominium Housing in Singapore, Singapore University Press, Singapore.
In examining the conditions of high-rise living in Singapore, this guide provides insights
into a much neglected dimension of ‘high-rise’ within the polity: private condominium
housing. While there is plenty of academic scholarship with regards to public housing in
Singapore, little is said or written about condos despite their role as status symbols and their
politicization as a result of recent en-bloc sales disputes. In pursuing the high-rise solution
to the problem of housing Singapore’s citizens, condominiums are an interesting dimension
of the government’s housing policy. The collective ownership and high density of condominium living were intended to discourage fragmentation of plots, urban sprawl, and to
encourage a more intensive use of scarce land. The up-market nature of such developments
also appeal to the status consciousness of middle-class and upper middles class Singaporeans who are not content with living in HDB units. Thus, the facilities and exclusive lifestyle
of condominiums cater to the specific needs of these groups of people, and condos offer a
pragmatic and sustainable solution in offering social mobility to aspirants of a higher social
class.
Stephens, S (2004) Imagining Ground Zero: Official and Unofficial Proposals for
the World Trade Center Competition, Thames and Hudson, London.
Collected in this book are proposals submitted to find the perfect replacements for the single
most politicized architectural form of our generation: New York City’s World Trade Center
(WTC). The competition for the new WTC, to be built on the site of the old twin towers, saw
enthusiastic response from both architectural firms and members of the public, translating
the emotions of grief and loss into powerful creative energy. The winning entry, submitted
by David Childs of world-renowned architectural firm Skidmore, Owings and Merrill, was
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to be called Freedom Tower, and a memorial was to be built alongside it. In Lower Manhattan, a geographical location characterized by her high-rises and financial skyscrapers,
residents, stakeholders, planners and architects worked together to conceive the resurrection
of the WTC to an area historically defined by tall buildings. The politics of Freedom Tower
are evident in its design: the height is 1776 feet (1776 being the United States Independence
Day), a strong reiteration that the American spirit of freedom is indomitable and resilient.
Sudijc, D (2006) The Edifice Complex, Allen Lane, London.
In The Edifice Complex, the writer poses the question of why humans build what they build,
exploring the deeper reasons behind Man’s need to assert power over his surroundings
through architecture. One chapter is devoted to what is termed the high-rise syndrome,
an alternative way of referring to Man’s obsession with building taller and taller. In the past,
people have described Minoru Yamasaki’s World Trade Center design as dehumanizing,
because it reduces the individual to a position of visual insignificance. The same can be said
of all skyscrapers, which then leads us to ask the question ‘Why are humans obsess about
building taller’? Perhaps the answer can be found by superimposing the basic egotism of
men onto the larger inter-state political picture: one builds taller just so he can outdo his
next nearest rival. Or, perhaps it is the human response to his lack of wings, and only by
building skyscraping towers can they put themselves nearer to the clouds and the sky. Sudijc
argues that we build for emotional, psychological and ideological purposes. It is possible,
then, that high-rises and skyscrapers symbolize the spirit of humanity in this modern era,
and of our need to overcome the challenges posed to us by natural constraints.
Security
Blossom, D R (2006) Evacuation procedures for buildings. In: R. Kemp (Ed), Homeland Security Handbook for Citizens and Public Officials, McFarland, Jefferson,
80–88.
In addressing the multitude of issues and concerns brought forth by the 9/11 incident, the
writer highlights two glaring facts that have so far eluded our attention. Firstly, it seems
that we are expecting too much out of our firefighting services in asking that they fight fires
in buildings that are way too tall. Secondly, we have grossly underestimated the issue of
high-rise evacuation. Both of these problems must be solved for the high-rise to remain as
a viable urban receptacle for human activity in the modern era. Some suggestions listed to
tackle these issues include occupant training, and improvement of firefighting and evacuation infrastructure. Since it is unfair to demand that firefighters climb up to a hundred stories
with their equipment to fight fires, there could be hardened emergency lifts to send them up,
or alternatively building owners can provide for firefighting equipment in the upper floors of
their high-rise to negate the need of having to lug the heavy equipment up. Such measures
will undoubtedly improve the safety of high-rises and make them more liveable and viable
for urban use.
Emigh, J (2006) Access control systems improve building security. In: R. Kemp
(Ed), Homeland Security Handbook for Citizens and Public Officials, McFarland,
Jefferson, 13–15.
This paper, as part of a compilation of articles pertaining to homeland security policies
issued after the 9/11 incident, offers a detailed account of how the Washington State Department of Social and Human Services made use of photo identity (ID) access controls to
securitize all their buildings and facilities. In the wake of 9/11, much has been said about the
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vulnerability of high-rises and skyscrapers to attacks originating not only from the outside,
but also from within. This is especially valid when considering the volume of human traffic
flowing through commercial skyscrapers on any given day, and how easy it would be to plan
and execute a terrorist act from within. Such photo ID access controls in key financial and
government buildings will allow entry only to core personnel and keep away those who have
no business in those buildings. A colour-coding system will differentiate different levels of
access to different groups of employees depending on job-scope and seniority, and even
allows for registered visitors into the building.
Marcuse, P (2002) Urban form and globalization after September 11th: The view
from New York. International Journal of Urban and Regional Research, 26(3):
596–606.
Following the fall of the World Trade Center twin towers on September 11th 2001, there
has been much speculation and realignment of views regarding the future of architecture.
Peter Marcuse points out possible developmental trends affecting urban form, including
decentralization and ‘citadelization’. The former concerns what many perceive as overagglomeration, which is equated with danger and vulnerability in a modern context that is
largely dominated by fears of opportunistic terrorism, paranoia and insecurities. The New
York Stock Exchange has decentralized its operations to avoid a total shut down should any
one of its nerve centers be hit, as has firms like American Express and Lehman Brothers,
which have moved significant portions of their business to suburban areas. On the other
hand, citadelization postulates that in lieu of going ostentatiously high-rise, the direction
of development will be towards protected, secured citadels to internalize and protect critical activities. Integrated into these new-age fortresses will be an intricate web of security
checks, protective barriers and high technology. Presented in this article are just some of the
changes wrought upon the modern urban form by the tragic events of the 9/11 incident.
Nicholson, J (2006) High-rise structures, disasters, and public safety. In: R. Kemp
(Ed), Homeland Security Handbook for Citizens and Public Officials, McFarland,
Jefferson, 107–109.
In studying the reasons for the collapse of the World Trade Center twin towers on 11th
September 2001, engineers have stated that the impact alone would not have been able to
bring the buildings down. Rather it was the resulting conflagration, fed by massive amounts
of aviation fuel (91,000 litres of it), that melted the steel trusses and other key structural
support features. This informed understanding of the real cause of collapse has led public
policy makers to focus on improving other aspects of high-rise safety such as fire retardant
building materials and sprinkler systems. Also, developers of high-rise may choose to go
for options such as redundancy, which refers to the creation of excess capacity and support
in anticipation of possible failure of some of the main load-bearing structures. However, the
World Trade Center’s developers have claimed that such measures were in place to prevent
disasters of a limited nature, but the situation on 11th September 2001 simply overwhelmed
everything that the towers had. As such, it is evident that a comprehensive securitization
process is needed to complement infrastructural improvements to ensure the liveability of
high-rise buildings in the world today.
Smith, T (2006) The Architecture of Aftermath, University of Chicago Press, Chicago.
In The Architecture of Aftermath, Terry Smith deals with what is termed the ‘Iconomy’ of
modern buildings: the battleground of ideas and cultures represented by their respective
symbols and icons. Contemporary architecture, especially that of high-rise buildings, lends
itself very well to encapsulate the ideals and aspirations of a collective group of people
within its walls, and thus expresses a certain system of values in concrete terms (literally
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speaking). Such structures inevitably induce responses in those with dissenting views, provoking unexpectedly intense urges toward their destruction. Smith imposes a somewhat
bleak undertone to his examination of contemporary events such as the construction of the
Guggenheim Museum in Bilbao and the fall of the World Trade Center Towers, stating that
all buildings constructed by humans do violence to the natural order and offers us protection
against the forces of nature in exchange for the constraints the built form imposes on our
lives. However, the 9/11 incident demonstrates that it is impossible to guard against the
violence humanity perpetuates upon itself. The disfigurement of our urban form merely
reflects a deeper dismemberment of mankind, and the future of architecture and high-rise
construction depends entirely on man’s ability to overcome the challenges of the contemporary world.
Wagman, D (2006) Infrastructure protection is enhanced through technology and
cooperation. In: R. Kemp (Ed), Homeland Security Handbook for Citizens and Public Officials, McFarland, Jefferson, 118–123.
This article revolves around the idea that technology can be integrated into modern lifestyle
to create an “intelligent city”, an urban environment empowered to handle and manage
emergencies arising from any unforeseen situation. Closed-circuit TV cameras, smog detectors, and Global Positioning Systems are just some of the possible components of this intelligent high-rise landscape, a secure living and working environment that can prepare for
and mitigate threats, as well as respond to and recover from disasters in the city. Integrating business owners into the information loop will also increase urban viability and make
high-rises safer. In the case of the 9/11 incident, workers in Tower 2 were advised not to
evacuate after Tower 1 collapsed, and it was only through the defiance of tenants such as
Deutsche Bank (which insisted on evacuating its employees) that many lives were saved
on that fateful day. All in all, sound emergency planning, coupled with the maximal use
of technology in disaster management and information sharing, will ensure that high-rises
remain safe and viable in the urban setting.
Sociology
Chan, Y K (1984) Life on confined living space: with special reference to housing in Hong Kong. In: Y. M. Boey (Ed), High-rise, High-density Living, Singapore
Professional Center, Singapore, 187–191.
Drawing on the examples provided by Hong Kong’s unique experience in the state provision
of public high-rise apartments, Chan attempts to explore the negative effects of high-rise
living and the ways in which one can cope with them. For example, he points to spaceintensive recreational activities, such as mahjong and TV-watching, as a coping mechanism
in helping Hong Kong citizens adapt to and deal with the lack of space. However, there are
also examples of how a lack of space at home actually causes an increase in the number
of youth delinquents, and the high-density creates a condition of overload interaction with
family members and neighbours, leading to additional stresses and strains. In rounding off,
Chan reiterates the importance of the built environment in shaping human tendencies, and
good architecture and design can actually facilitate community building. The state has a
huge role to play in this respect to ensure that high-rise living does not impose additional
social costs to the society.
Douglas, G H (1996) Skyscrapers: A Social History in America, McFarland,
Jefferson.
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Tall buildings are among the most forceful and defining characteristics of the American
urban landscape, and no other architectural form has evoked the kind of ambivalence that
skyscrapers have: some people have described it to be iconic and majestic, while others
think that high-rise buildings are inherently pretentious and vulgar as a built form. The
writer argues that skyscrapers dramatize America’s energy and flamboyance in its architecture, articulating Americans’ desire for things that are fresh, new and forceful. The chapters
in this book discuss various iconic American skyscrapers, and how they are the products of
American political, social and economic forces. These include, the Empire State Building,
the Rockefeller Center, the Sears Tower and of course, New York’s World Trade Center
twin towers. By exploring the historical dimension of these tall buildings, the writer aims to
describe the ways in which skyscrapers have come to symbolize the United States’ idealism,
capitalism and the abundance of opportunities within her borders.
Koerte, A (1984) Confinement versus liberation – a cross-cultural analysis on highrise, high-density living. In: Y. M. Boey (Ed), High-rise, High-density Living, Singapore Professional Center, Singapore, 175–186.
In dealing with the loaded juxtaposition of confinement and liberation, the writer argues
that both are embedded within modern high-rise living. However, the actual physical environment of tall buildings often becomes the scapegoat for the sense of mental confinement
reflected in society. The fast pace of development in some countries has accelerated the need
for people to adjust themselves to the demands of the urban environment, which contributes
to the adverse effects of this confinement. Despite all the pathologies that have often been
linked with the conditions of high-density living, Koerte is of the opinion that there is still
immense potential in high-rises as long as we take special care in designing public high-rise
apartments. Things that planners and architects have to take note of include the culture of
high-rise residents, aspects of the public domain such as play areas and carparks, and the
inclusion of balconies and gardens.
Kunstler, H J and Salingaros, N A (2007) The end of tall buildings. In: A. Chavan,
C. Peralta and C. Steins (Ed), Planetizen Contemporary Debates in Urban Planning,
Island Press, Washington, 117–128.
Written a week following the 9/11 terrorist attacks on the World Trade Center, Kunstler and
Salingaros predicted the demise of high-rise construction, pointing to various reasons, both
political and sociological. Firstly, they argue that tall buildings generate ‘urban pathologies’
and deform the long term ‘health’ of urbanism in general. They also claim that there is an
alternative form of urban life other than that housed in ‘megatowers’, and that the American
government should not rebuild the World Trade Center simply as an act of defiance, as suggested by some. Readers’ responses to Kunstler and Salingaros’s arguments were mainly
negative, citing its lack of academic depth, speculative theories and sweeping remarks
about the perceived harms of high rise buildings. All in all, while this article provides a
refreshing look at the modern day obsession with building towards the sky, its claims are
weak and factually unpersuasive. Their subsequent update on this article touches on the
‘un-insurability’ of modern day skyscrapers and its lack of economic justification. This
similarly lacks statistical data and insufficient factual support, dwelling more on subjective
notions of human comfort and urban well-being.
Murakami, M (1984) Urban unit Tokyo ‘83. In: Y. M. Boey (Ed), High-rise, Highdensity Living, Singapore Professional Center, Singapore, 43–47.
The Tokyo Metropolitan area is a huge sprawling megalopolis with a population exceeding
28 million people back in the 1980s. A city of this size runs into many problems relating
to diseconomies of scale: for example, people living on the fringe have to drive very far to
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reach the city center. In light of this need to rearrange and redevelop parts of this city, a
private project team has come up with an urban community design known as Urban Unit
Tokyo ’83. Essentially, it refers to a self-contained high-rise apartment block catering to
a comprehensive range of needs for its residents. Such urban units are meant to relocate
segments of the population out of the denser areas into the parts which enjoy a lower density, yet retaining the variety of activity that is often associated with crowded city centers
and dense urban areas. This model for development provides an interesting insight into
redefining high-rise and utilizing it to decentralize activity away from areas of high density.
Odeleye, W and Jogun, D (1984) Some social significance of high-rise living in
Lagos, Nigeria. In: Y. M. Boey (Ed), High-rise, High-density Living, Singapore
Professional Center, Singapore, 203–207.
This paper is concerned with the social and pathological effects of high-rise or high density
living on man, and aims to explore this area by looking at high-rise apartments in Lagos,
Nigeria. The findings of a survey conducted show that living in a high rise environment
does not seem to affect the feeling of friendliness and neighbourliness among residents, as
compared with low-rise living. Also, there does not seem to be much difference between
high-rise and low-rise living with regards to their impact on privacy of individuals and
issues of loneliness. However, if given a choice, many Nigerians would still prefer low-rise
housing because of anxiety over certain aspects of high-rise living, including poor elevator
service, children’s welfare and safety. This could reflect the fact that the spread of high-rise
living as a lifestyle choice could be constrained by factors fundamentally linked to housing,
thus governments must take charge in solving such problems.
Olszewski, P S (1984) Roads and car parks in high-rise housing estates – some
planning and design problems. In: Y. M. Boey (Ed), High-rise, High-density Living,
Singapore Professional Center, Singapore, 75–81.
High-rise public dwellings contribute greatly to transportation trip generation within a certain zone due to their high-density. Of the various modes of transport, the private ownership
of motor cars creates the additional problem of carparking provision, and this has to be
planned for adequately in order for the quality of high-rise living to be maintained. In this
paper, Olszewski argues that the provision of carparks and access roads in Housing Development Board housing estates is a major problem. The land area required for a high-rise
apartment block is proportional to its height, and thus building taller increases the space
needed for carpark construction. In land scarce Singapore, this clash in planning logic has to
be resolved: the space saved from building taller cannot be lost to bad planning of carparking
facilities. However, there are synergies that can be developed between carpark planning and
high-rise public housing development. Carparks can act as a buffer between housing estates
and the main road, thus improving the environmental quality and safety of the neighbourhood. As a complementary dimension of Singapore’s acclaimed public housing policy, the
issue of car parks and access roads planning must be given sufficient attention in order to
ensure a decent standard of high-rise living.
Onque, E T (1984) Planning and design with people for people. In: Y. M. Boey (Ed),
High-rise, High-density Living, Singapore Professional Center, Singapore, 25–34.
Drawing from the example of the United States of America, Professor Onque aims to
explore the nature of high-rise housing developments and the impact that this form of
residential living has on the people who are subjected to it. In Pittsburgh, the Housing
Authority released a one-time grant back in 1980 to revitalize one of their major public
housing communities known as Northview Heights. Some of the design solutions to the
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problems of this community included high-rises for the elderly with elevators which stop
at every floor and laundry facilities at each level, and converting low-rise housing from one
floor apartments to two storey masionettes. Such revisions and upgrading help improve the
quality of high-rise living. Onque argues that planners and architects have the obligation to
design living spaces that allow for human potential to grow and flourish, instead of high-rise
prison cells to constrain our activity and to dehumanize us.
Parades, C (2007) Highrises: Social Living, Loft, Barcelona.
High-rise living is a lifestyle symbolic of the modern era, and the expansion of social
movements during the late 19th and early 20th centuries has been said to be the key factor
motivating the new architecture of high-rise residential buildings to conceptualize housing
for both the anonymous masses, as well as the growing middle class living in the cities.
Highrises: Social Living brings together a broad sample of the most outstanding multiresidential projects to explore the evolution of high-rise living and how it has come to take
on many different faces. While some of the high-rises featured are extravagant and luxurious
in its design and use of materials, others are conceptualized to be efficient and accessible
buildings emphasizing function over form. Other themes and issues being explored include
gentrification, ecological sustainability, the fragmentation of the nuclear family and the
changing social perceptions and expectation that people have of residential buildings in
today’s world.
Safdie, M (1984) High-rise building as a microcosm of the city. In: Y. M. Boey (Ed),
High-rise, High-density Living, Singapore Professional Center, Singapore, 35–42.
In this paper, Safdie argues that we have to realign our perceptions of modern living and
view high-rises as miniature cities within cities, or what is termed a microcosm of the city.
Tall buildings are the product of both necessity and capability; reinforced steel structures
and elevator technology make it possible to build high-rises fit for human occupation and
activity. This has in turn resulted in high-rise buildings growing larger and taking on an
increasing number of uses and functions – the same skyscraper can house a shopping mall,
convention halls, residential apartment units and even hotel rooms in addition to its offices.
It is also argued that a marginal decrease in density to human activity within urban areas
would not greatly affect efficiency. This would require a rethinking of urbanism among
planners and architects, and new building types may be needed to create an urban form
conducive for high-rise living.
Simpson, W (1984) Environmental factors and their effects on the planning and
design of high-rise residential buildings. In: Y. M. Boey (Ed), High-rise, Highdensity Living, Singapore Professional Center, Singapore, 48–58.
The built form alters natural landscape in a way that any callousness in planning and design
would cause it to clash with its environment, potentially causing unhappiness, sensual
discomfort or even injury to its users. As such, it is important to consider environmental
factors when constructing high-rise buildings, and this paper brings up several examples
of relevant cases and legislations from the Australian experience in building tall buildings.
This is especially relevant as the high density of high-rises demands a greater degree of
care and effort in making sure that environmental concerns are addressed by the builders
and urban planners. In 1979 the New South Wales government enacted the New South
Wales Environmental Planning and Assessment Act to impose minimum standards on and
guide high-rise residential developments. Such regulations pertaining to building locations,
height, site allotments, plot ratio and landscaping are important in making sure that residents
enjoy a decent standard of living in the high-rise development.
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Weaving, A (2004) High-rise Living, Gibbs Smith, Salt Lake City.
Andrew Weaving paints the modern high-rise dweller as yearning to be part of something
greater than themselves, of belonging to a neighbourhood in the sky. By exploring the
evolution of the built form since the late 19th century, a gradual progression of forces,
both ideological and political are depicted to be pushing urban development in the upward
direction. The works of many of the greatest architects and firms are explored in this
volume, including Skidmore, Owings and Merrill, and Ken Yeang, to give readers both a
sense of historical procession, and the future direction of tall buildings and high-rise living.
Both financial skyscrapers and mixed-use high-rise developments are included, such as the
Nakagin Capsule Tower in Tokyo, and Kuala Lumpur’s Petronas Towers. All in all, it is
Weaving’s intention to draw the link between high-rises and the modern man, and how the
varied lifestyle of urbanites can only be fulfilled by the high-rise architectural form.
Yuen, B, Yeh, A, Appold, S J, Earl, G, Ting, J and Kwee L K (2006) High-rise living
in Singapore public housing. Urban Studies, 43(3): 583–600.
This article seeks to address the issue of high-rise buildings as viable residences from the
point of view of those living in them, or as the paper puts it, “it is ultimately the person
whose foot has to be fitted with the shoe who knows whether it pinches or not.” By conducting interviews on randomly selected households in Toa Payoh New Town, it is hoped that
a closer look at Singapore’s famed public housing scheme will shed light on the qualities
which make high-rises liveable and those that turn people away. Based on the information
collected during the study, it seems that the Housing and Development Board (HDB) has
hit the right notes in pitching high-rise living to Singaporeans, with a high percentage of
respondents expressing satisfaction. Also, it seems that respondents display a high level of
adaptability to take up residence in HDB flats, with the younger generation most in favour of
buying into this new lifestyle. From this study, it is apparent that planners and builders have
to seriously consider user needs when constructing high-rise residences, as it determines
whether high-rise living remains viable in the long run.
Unpublished Works
Chin, J K F (1970) The probationer living in high-rise housing – a study of twelve
cases. Unpublished dissertation, University of Singapore.
Zooming in on the marginal portions of Singaporean society affected by the relocation to
Housing and Development Board (HDB) public housing estates, this dissertation seeks to
study how high-rise living could possibly contribute to juvenile delinquency in contemporary society. The writer made use of twelve probationers to help understand the effect
that high-rise living has in engendering the conditions conducive to immorality and crime.
Such factors include a situation of anomie and social dislocation, brought forth by the lack
of human interaction, which results in a greater probability of social maladjustment and
anti-social behaviour. In a high-rise dwelling, one’s interaction is mainly with his or her
family and not so much with neighbours and friends, as compared to the traditional kampong setting of pre-HDB Singapore. Thus, one’s family upbringing is critical in determining
the extent of socialization, and in isolated cases where the family consists of an abusive or
mentally unstable member, increased interaction from living in the confined area of an HDB
flat might in turn create unhealthy levels of mental stress, unhappiness and other conditions
that predispose one to delinquent behaviour. From a ‘micro’ perspective, this paper focuses
on the negative effects of high-rise living affecting a peripheral minority in Singapore, a
country where the state is immensely proud of its public housing policy.
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In the Humanities
Delillo, D (2001) In the ruins of the future. Unpublished article, The Guardian.
An essay on the rhetoric of seeing 9/11, the Twin Towers are examined on the national level.
One of the few in 9/11 literature that is about critical arguments, Delillo’s theme is actually a
question – that of response. 9/11 has unarguably been largely about reactions and responses
to all aspects of the incident. However, to him, responding is not so much as a knee-jerk
reaction but to take that step back and question the haws of responding. Significantly, he
calls for ethical respond-ability. The approach he takes automatically sharpens and critically
questions any representational judgment of the 9/11 incident. The adverb here is crucial;
representational judgment here means judgment stemming from one’s own position; a decision tricky and problematic because one’s position usually has much unrevealed bias and
prejudice, and thus to obstinately stay on one’s position and be unwilling to consider others
is exactly the moral high ground Delillo calls to avoid.
Ismail, R (1983) Adjustment to high-rise living: a case study of the Malays in
Clementi New Town. Unpublished Honours thesis, University of Singapore.
Approaching the issue of Housing and Development Board (HDB) high-rise public housing
in Singapore from the unique viewpoint of the Malays in Clementi New Town, the writer
brings up the disparity between the communal instincts of ethnic groups and the stateimposed policy of racial quotas and integration. In managing the relocation of citizens to
high-rise dwellings, the government has sought to depoliticize the issue of race by preventing communal enclaves from forming by means of racial quotas in HDB estates. However,
there are also interesting observations to be made in this particular study. According to
the writer, Malays are less property-conscious as compared to the other races, choosing to
emphasize familial ties and bonds above other aspects of life. This has apparently led to
easier integration into their new high-rise environment, which affords them quality family
life together with the benefits of high-rise living. Given time, the Malays have proven to be
able to adapt well to the demands and constrains of high-rise living in HDB flats.
Lim, S H (1973) Relocation, social networks and neighbouring interaction in a block
of flats – a case study. Unpublished Honours thesis, University of Singapore.
The high-rise living environment poses several challenges to newly relocated families with
no prior experience of urban high-rise living. In this thesis, the writer aims to study the
various factors that affect neighbourly interaction in new Housing and Development Board
(HDB) public housing, and points to the benefits and constraints of high-rise lifestyle as key
determinants of social networking in such a setting. Acknowledging that the collective experience of most Singaporeans relocating to HDB flats then had thrust them into a lifestyle
they were not socially prepared for, the writer notes a lack of communal solidarity in HDB
housing estates despite a relatively high level of neighbourliness, both manifest and latent.
This suggests a highly superficial nature to the ties that exist within high-rise neighbours,
and seems to reflect Stanley Milgram’s theory of overloading in an urban high-density environment. As people have to grapple with an increased number of social relationships, they
start to filter and prioritise these interactions based on a set of superficial criteria, instead of
qualities that can only present themselves in a deeper relationship. Such mindsets must be
changed in order for high-rise living to remain a viable and socially sustainable lifestyle.
Loh, E J (1974) Sociological consequences of internal density on personal and
family relationships – a case study. Unpublished Masters thesis, University of
Singapore.
This thesis deals primarily with the sociological impact of high-density living on personal
and family development, using information obtained from fieldwork in the Kallang HDB
housing estate to explore the ways in which the internal density of dwelling units affect
In the Humanities
61
various aspects of human well-being. For example, the writer drew the connection between
the adverse effects of living in an environment of great density and students’ tendency to
achieve poorer grades, stating that children from such family backgrounds generally fare
worse in academic performance. This in turn leads to them achieving fewer academic qualifications and consequently finding lower-paying jobs and in the long run, perpetuating a
cycle of poverty that bears few exceptions in grades-obsessed Singapore. Other instances
mentioned in the paper include social stigmatization of large families living in cramped
conditions and marital communication in a high-rise environment, go to show that relocation efforts to high-rise apartments have to be complemented with policies and measures to
improve not only the physical conditions of residents, but also the material and social ones.
Macintyre, M (1975) A study of Malay family life-styles in high-rise and low-rise
homes. Unpublished Honours thesis, University of Singapore.
This thesis deals with the oft-mentioned problems associated with high-rise residential living, and focuses on the Malay ethnic group in Singapore to illustrate the ways in which
Housing and Development Board (HDB) living has transformed their way of life. The
choice of ethnicity is conscious and deliberate: the Malays as a race are known to be highly
family-oriented; hence any change to their ‘kampong’ lifestyle will be very much apparent
as compared with families which are not as home-oriented in the first place. Public housing
in the 1970s had a strong political element to it, as it was the main instrument of the PAP
(People’s Action Party) government’s ambitious housing project which aimed to provide
shelter to the majority of Singaporeans in high-rise public apartments. While the HDB has
won accolades for its success in achieving this goal, the transition to high-rise living was
not without its share of disapproval and disgruntlement. In particular, the Malays, who were
used to their kampong lifestyle, had to adapt to urban high-rise living with its attendant
problems and inconveniences. For example, small children were confined, in both play area
and in everyday living, by the physical barriers designed to protect them from harm and the
walls which separate households from one another. They can only play along the narrow
corridors outside their units, are constantly reminded to pipe down so as not to disturb
the neighbours, and suffer from an acute lack of space in contrast with the vast open spaces
afforded by kampong living. This thesis reminds us that the problems of high-rise residential
living are universal despite Singapore’s relative success in implementing its public housing
scheme.
Quah, J S T (1975) Administrative reform and development administration in Singapore: a comparative study of the Singapore Improvement Trust and the Housing
and Development Board. Unpublished PhD Dissertation, Florida State University.
This dissertation concerns itself with administrative reform and development administration
in Singapore, the topic itself being an important branch of political science dealing with
public administration. By comparing the Singapore Improvement Trust (SIT) and the Housing and Development Board (HDB), Quah seeks to illustrate the conditions for the success
of the HDB in constructing public high-rise housing and establishing it as an accepted way
of life, as compared to the SIT’s relative failure in the early stages of Singapore’s nationhood. From his study, Quah finds that of the various factors contributing to why the SIT
failed in its public housing efforts, the most important ones included internal organizational
problems such as low calibre officers and a paternalistic leadership style, as well as external
factors such as a lack of focus in the SIT’s agenda. Subsequent reforms led to the creation of
the HDB, which, having improved on the problems that plagued its predecessor, was able to
not only deliver affordable housing to a great majority of Singaporeans, but also reaffirm the
political legitimacy of the ruling party. The politics of public high-rise housing add another
new dimension to this complicated field, increasing its complexity to a certain degree.
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In the Humanities
Tai, C L (1986) Relocation and high-rise living: a study of Singapore’s public housing. Unpublished PhD thesis, University of Hull.
According to the author, housing has been, and will continue to be, a controversial political
issue in both industrial and developing countries. In Singapore, Housing and Development
Board (HDB) public housing provides shelter for a vast majority of citizens, and the social
and political impact of the government’s ambitious scheme is the subject of much civic discussion. In particular, many wonder if the massive relocation of people into public housing
estates engender the same set of problems for all, or does it affect different ethnic and social
groups differently. This has been the topic of debate since HDB’s implementation, and Tai
brings it forward to the mid-1980s – a relatively stable and prosperous period compared
to the preceding decades. Issues of racial and ethnic integration complicate the already
complex array of problems facing adaptation to high-rise living, but the findings paint a
rather positive picture of high-rise residential living in the 1980s, and this can be attributed
to the comprehensive approach taken by the state. HDB estates are conceived not as physical
structures, but are packaged and marketed as a whole new lifestyle and symbol of identity.
This has cleverly made use of the high-rise housing scheme to intertwine Singaporeans with
a common perception of nationhood and communal living. Although not without its problems, this approach has largely been successful in adapting the majority of Singaporeans to
high-rise HDB living as a lifestyle choice unique and symbolic of the island-state.
Tan, K C (1973) Public housing in Singapore 1947–1970: the work of the SIT and
HDB. Unpublished Honours thesis, University of Singapore.
The situation of public high-rise housing in 1970 was a far cry from what it is today, and
the transformation of high-rises since then has changed the face of urban development in
Singapore. This paper provides a historical connection to the forces that have directed and
acted upon public housing development in Singapore, notably the Singapore Improvement
Trust (SIT) and the Housing and Development Board (HDB), and creates a basis from
which a thorough study of the issue of high-rise in the Singapore polity may be carried
out. By looking at the political environment of post-war Singapore, her subsequent independence and struggle for survival, and her eventual years of double digit growth, Tan
paints a compelling story of the transformation from the days of squatter settlements to the
relative stability and success then in the 1970s. High-rise public housing in the early days
of Singapore’s statehood was tentative and experimental, and it is important to understand
the factors which contributed to its accomplishment in making high-rise living a way of life
for the majority of Singaporeans today.
Tan, K L (1972) Impact of relocation on HDB tenants: a case study of the Bukit
Merah housing estate. Unpublished Masters thesis, University of Singapore.
The key issue being addressed here is adjustment, as Tan’s study focuses mainly on the
effects of relocation to Housing and Development Board (HDB) public housing. Using the
Bukit Merah Estate as the chosen research area, surveys and interviews were carried out to
ascertain the presence and nature of problems that affect new residents moving into HDB
flats, both involuntary and voluntary. While Western literature has focused much on the
anomie and dehumanization that results from high-rise residential living, Singapore’s brand
of state-imposed public housing seems to experience less of such problems of social dislocation. This is due to the fact that relocation had not drastically altered social organization,
and most respondents maintained frequency of contact with their kin n primary social circle.
However, the economic costs of relocation loomed large in the minds of Singaporeans then,
as they experienced a stark increase in living expenses. Compared with other academic
studies of the same nature, citizens within the Singaporean polity seemed to have adjusted
In the Humanities
63
well to the notion of high-rise living as a way of life, and this could have accounted for the
phenomenal success of the HDB programme.
Wenzelberger, J P (1987) The economic analysis of tall buildings. Unpublished PhD
dissertation, George Washington University.
The economic rationality of high-rise buildings has always been the subject of much debate
in relation to its centrality in modern urban architecture. This dissertation concerns itself
primarily with the economic factors at work in the design, construction and operation
of tall buildings, and also to point out flaws in current models of economic and real
estate investment analysis. The writer demonstrates the utility of computer programmes
and spread-sheet software in analyzing the many economic factors present in tall office
building projects. This particular dimension of the study on high-rise is of highly relevant
and important, because economic data of high-rise office developments determine policy
making and legislation with regards to construction and administration of these financial
hubs. Wenzelberger suggests future research efforts to be directed at issues such as property
resale, the cost of energy-saving, and parking. A deeper understanding of computer model
application in the economic analysis of tall buildings will go a long way in rationalizing
vertical cities and to justify the adoption of high-rise as a legitimate way of life in the
urban era.
Yap, G Y (1976) Family life-styles in high-rise and low-rise homes among the Singapore Chinese. Unpublished Honours thesis, University of Singapore.
This study focuses on the family lifestyle of Singaporean Chinese in high-rise and lowrise public homes, and how features of both can possibly be integrated to reap both the
benefits of high-rise and low-rise living. The usual grouse against high-rise family living is
that children are not allowed the luxury of space as compared with the setting of low-rise
housing and traditional kampongs, where space is in abundance. Yap approaches the topic
from the premise that human behaviour articulates, in some systematic way, the physical
environment, and pays special attention to how the physical form of high-rise Housing and
Development Board (HDB) flats limit and constrains family life. The findings concurred
with mainstream academia, concluding that high-rise living does indeed restrict family life,
especially for children. As a solution to this issue, the writer brings up the residential design
of Kiyonori Kikutake, which incorporates a ‘semi-public’ space every 4 to 5 stories in a
high-rise apartment block. This allows residents to reap the benefits of high-rise living, yet at
the same time constructs a micro-level setting of abundant public space that is characteristic
of low-rise houses and walk-up apartments. Despite being written over three decades ago,
this study provides insights and proposals that are still highly relevant to the study of highrise living today.
In the Sciences
Acoustics
Coley, D A (2002) The reverberation time of tall spaces. Journal of Sound and
Vibration, 254(3): 595–598.
This paper seeks to investigate and determine rules by which large rooms in new buildings
are to be built so as to minimize unwanted echoes, which arise from the reflection of sound
off walls or ceilings that are further away from the sound sources than in common rooms.
This is an interesting and important study since it can easily be overlooked when an architect
considers the more urgent issues such as structural stability. Also, many modern tall buildings feature large halls for conferences and multi-purpose use as well as large entrances and
lobbies to enhance the experience of a visitor. Thus, it is very important that such spaces
be able to minimize reverberation for good acoustics. The author presents his findings that
increasing the height of a room will not increase reverberation time if certain sound absorbing walls are installed, which is achievable in existing rooms by the modification of some
surfaces. This field may well increase in importance in the future given that tall buildings
are increasingly being built for prestige and comfort and as a consequence, better and better
indoor conditions will be sought after.
Godinho, L, Antonio, J and Antonio, T (2002) Sound propagation around rigid barriers laterally confined by tall buildings. Applied Acoustics, 63: 595–609.
This paper studies the propagation of sound waves under the influence of sound barriers
placed in the vicinity of tall buildings. These sound barriers are placed generally to shield
the inhabitants of tall buildings from external noises such as road and rail traffic. As in the
numerous cases we have seen above, there is a need to model the effects of these barriers so
as to predict and identify their optimal placement positions. The authors analyze different
geometries and varying layouts of several buildings and sound barriers. Interestingly, the
sound diffracts off the barrier edges; it is also found that the addition of nearby buildings
reduces the effectiveness of the barriers due to complicated inter-reflections off the numerous surfaces. The authors conclude that increasing the vertical length of the sound barriers
increases the performance while admitting the limitations of the study, which assumes all
surfaces to be homogenous and rigid. Nonetheless, this study is important and it has already
been applied extensively in many countries.
Hossam, H, Dien, E and Woloszyn, P (2004) Prediction of the sound field into
high-rise building facades due to its balcony ceiling form. Applied Acoustics, 65:
431–440.
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In the Sciences
This study specifically wishes to determine how the angles of balcony ceilings for various
balcony floor depths affected the amount of protection the balcony gave to its owner in terms
of acting as a sound barrier. The authors utilize an algorithm to model the outdoor sounds
to a high degree of realism, since the algorithm is able to reproduce effects such as sound
passing through sound barriers, edge diffraction and the scattering of sound from the edges
of external surfaces. This is clearly a development from the previous studies; in fact, it is
probably based on results obtained from those models. The authors finally conclude that the
effectiveness of balconies as sound barriers is proportional to balcony depth and inversely
proportional to ceiling angle. As a direct result of these findings, designers will now be
able to incorporate sound shielding into the façade of a building itself without the need for
additional sound barriers as well as not increasing any costs. With further verification, this
would be an essential consideration in the design of upcoming residential high-rises.
Kai, M L and Siu, H T (2003) The predicted barrier effects in the proximity of tall
buildings. Acoustical Society of America, 114(2): 821–832.
The authors employ a more developed method by modelling the sound as a ray. Similarly,
diffraction around the edges of barriers and the multiple reflections of the surfaces are taken
into account. They then proceed to verify these with experimental results of indoor noise
levels. The ray model is also compared to a wave model in which sound is treated as a wave,
which is what sound actually is. It is important to note that the previous study involved the
modelling of the sound barriers; in this study, the sound waves are modelled as rays. In
these two examples we see the progress in the research in this field. Using intuitive ideas,
scientists can proceed to attempt the modelling of a natural phenomenon on something that
is simpler, and if the results are satisfactory, there is development and the same concepts of
modelling can then be furthered by the next group of researchers. Clearly, the motivation
here was the comfort of inhabitants of the building, and surely as technology progresses,
greater efforts will be placed on comfort instead of just ensuring the safety of inhabitants in
tall buildings.
Aerodynamics
Al-Jiboori, M H, Xu, Y and Qian, Y (2001) Local similarity relationships in the
urban boundary layer. Boundary-Layer Meteorology, 102: 63–82.
The authors in this study attempt to statistically map and investigate wind turbulence in the
urban boundary layer, which contains many tall building tops, based on observations from a
meteorological tower in Beijing. In doing so, they attempt to find relationships between
quantities, by modelling them on mathematical functions, each representing a physical
quantity such as the wind velocity or the temperature gradient. It was then found that such
a model successfully predicted the behaviour of turbulent winds under unstable conditions,
but instead ironically failed to predict very well the behaviour of winds under normal conditions. This is to be expected, however, since turbulence by definition refers to phenomena
that cannot be exactly determined, which was why the authors used a statistical framework
in the first place. Thus, the results are considered substantial and when used in combination
with the other techniques presented in this paper will allow accurate predictions of wind
around tall buildings.
Bai, H, Shen, G and So, A (2005) Experimental-based study of the aerodynamics
of super-high-speed elevators. Building Service Engineering Research and Technology, 26(2): 129–143.
In the Sciences
67
As buildings go taller, the elevators that ferry people to different levels become more and
more indispensable. Furthermore, there is also a new need for these elevators to be increasingly speedy so as to improve efficiency of the users. As such, aerodynamic forces become
significant in the design of elevators cars and this paper seeks to improve the shape and
design of existing elevators to reduce the air resistance and improve energy efficiency. In
fact, the literature for working on elevator aerodynamics is rather rare, although high speed
elevators are potentially riddled with problems such as excessive vibrations, noise, and rapid
pressure fluctuations in the cars. A physical model was constructed for simulation purposes.
The researchers then proceed to measure quantities such as pressure differences between the
top and bottom of the elevators were measured for different car shapes and elevator shafts of
which scale models were used. Thus, by experimenting on these variables, the researchers
are able to determine the behavior for each car shape. They mention several aspects of the
scaled model that differ from real elevators; however, they account for each one convincingly enough to allow this paper to be the basis for further research and experimentation to
determine the optimal elevator design.
Boggs, D, Peterka, J and Cermak, J (1996) Wind-tunnel methods for prediction of
structure motion at the design stage. In: Council on Tall Buildings and Urban Habitat
(Ed), Tall Buildings and Structures – A World View, Lehigh University, Bethlehem,
375–383.
This paper describes the methods involved in predicting structure motion when subjected to
wind forces, motivated primarily by occupant comfort in the presence of building motion.
Three methods are outlined, namely, the mean pressure measurement, the aerodynamic
models and, the aeroelastic models. The authors consider the first approach, the method
used in building codes, unhelpful as it is mainly used for cladding pressure study. In the
second method, the fluctuating wind load on the structure is measured. This method is
quick and inexpensive and the results produced are valid for most practical buildings. For
the last method, the model is mounted on a flexible base moment balance so that the natural frequency of the model is in scale with the frequency content of the approach wind
spectrum. This method is highly accurate but expensive and the results need a long time to
obtain. This study is useful as it weighs the efficiencies and shortcomings of each method of
measurement. The amount of data measuring human discomfort in tall buildings is surprisingly small. Therefore, even as measurements of building sways become more advanced
and accurate, the lack of a measure of human comfort renders such measurements of building motions insignificant. Therefore, a possible suggestion for the measurement of human
comfort index compatible to the study on building motion would make this paper more
helpful.
Bose, P R and Datta, T K (1994) Lateral-torsional motion of tall buildings to alongwind forces. Computers and Structures, 53(4): 897–905.
This study is concerned with the three-dimensional response of tall buildings to wind
dynamic forces. For the response analysis, a method based on a spectral approach with
matrix formulation is presented. The power spectral density function (PSDF) matrix of the
response is related to the PSDF matrix of the random dynamic forces through the complex
frequency response function matrix of the building. The PSDF matrix of random forces
is obtained by dividing the face of the building into a number of elemental areas forming
a mesh and lumping the wind forces acting over the area at its centroid. The method is
developed for a fixed base condition and wind incident normal to one of the faces of the
building, and can be easily extended to include across wind and torsional wind forces.
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In the Sciences
Campbell, S, Kwok, K C S, and Hitchcock, P A (2005) Dynamic characteristics
and wind-induced response of two high-rise residential buildings during typhoons.
Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics, 93(6): 461–482.
Two high-rise residential buildings in Hong Kong, among the tallest in the world, were
equipped to monitor their wind-induced dynamic responses. The effects of typhoon Imbudo
and typhoon Dujuan on the buildings are presented in detail. Upcrossing analyses performed on the acceleration data indicated the wind-induced responses of the buildings during typhoons Imbudo and Dujuan followed a Gaussian distribution. Natural frequencies of
vibration in two orthogonal translational and torsional directions are estimated by empirical,
numerical, and experimental techniques. A comparison between these natural frequencies
reveals that experimental values are higher than empirically or numerically predicted values.
This finding suggests that tall, reinforced concrete buildings in Hong Kong are stiffer than
similar buildings in other countries.
Chang, C C and Qu, W L (1998) Unified dynamic absorber design formulas for
wind-induced vibration control of tall buildings. The Structural Design of Tall Buildings, 7(2): 147–166.
The objective of this paper is to establish some unified design formulas for various kinds of
passive dynamic absorber for wind-induced vibration control of tall buildings. A total of five
different passive dynamic absorbers are considered in this study. Firstly, unified equations of
motion for the building – absorber system under wind-induced excitation are presented. A
set of unified formulas for the optimal properties and the equivalent damping ratios for these
five dynamic absorbers are then derived analytically. The Shanghai Central Plaza, which is
a thirty-nine-storey reinforced-concrete building, is used as an example to demonstrate the
procedure and to verify the accuracy of the unified approach. The results showed that these
unified formulas provided direct performance evaluation and comparison between the five
dynamic absorbers for the control of wind-induced vibration of tall buildings.
Chen, J and Xu, Y L (2004) On modelling of typhoon-induced non-stationary wind
speed for tall buildings. The Structural Design of Tall and Special Buildings, 13(2):
145–163.
Typhoon-induced wind around tall buildings may not be stationary because it is a large
body of rotating air. A new approach is thus proposed in this paper for characterizing
typhoon-induced wind speed. Typhoon-induced non-stationary wind speed is modelled as
a deterministic time-varying mean wind speed component plus a zero mean stationary fluctuating wind speed component. The time-varying mean wind speed is naturally extracted
from the measured wind speed time history using empirical mode decomposition. Wind
characteristics described in the traditional approach based on a stationary wind model are
redefined and extended in the non-stationary wind model. The new approach is then applied
to wind data measured at the Di Wang building during Typhoon York. The results show
that most of recorded wind samples are non-stationary but they can be decomposed into a
time-varying mean wind speed component plus a well-behaved zero mean fluctuating wind
speed component admitted as a stationary random process with Gaussian distribution. Other
wind characteristics such as probability distribution of fluctuating wind speed, turbulence
intensity, gust factor, and wind spectrum obtained by the new approach seem to be more
realistic than those gained by the traditional approach.
Coceal, O and Belcher, S E (2005) Mean winds through an inhomogenous urban
canopy. Boundary-Layer Meteorology, 115: 47–68.
In the Sciences
69
Unlike the numerical methods mentioned before, this paper seeks to find a simplified
method of predicting winds in urban spaces with tall buildings, while also attempting
to minimize discrepancies when compared with actual measurements. The challenge, of
course, is the formulation of an effective model that can be applied to differing regions
each with distinct building layouts and characteristics, and even for application to a single
heterogeneous area. The authors thus propose the urban canopy model, which seeks to find
statistical averages for aerodynamic properties of groups of buildings instead of calculations
based on individual buildings. Then, each region can be separated into smaller groups of
buildings, each group with distinct mean building heights and densities. After modelling
these, they perform simulations on a selection of downtown Los Angeles and Salt Lake
City, and conclude several similar results as those that we have already seen, such as winds
slowing down when meeting a higher density of buildings, yet increasing their speeds at
ground level in the vicinity of taller buildings. This presents us with a good example in the
modelling of wind, yet the authors conceded that for the model to work effectively, substantial differences in mean building height and density, allowing regions to be separated, have
to be present.
Collin, K J (1993) Cold- and heat-related illnesses in the indoor environment. In:
R. Burridge and D. Ormandy (Ed), Unhealthy Housing: Research, Remedies and
Reform, E and FN Spon, London, 117–137.
This article examines the implications of excessive temperature in homes of high-rise buildings on the health of the occupants. Other clinical conditions arising from cold and heat
within building interior climates are also analysed. Parameters that influence health, comfort and safety of occupants within a building include humidity, temperature, lighting, air
quality and noise. In cold environments, the moisture content of the surrounding air can
be much lower than the relative humidity in the building, which may measure up to 100%.
If the surrounding air manages to enter the building through leaks or deliberate channels,
the interior relative humidity will decrease. Such incidents can lead to irritation amongst the
residents and respiratory problems due to increased vector transmission of airborne microbe
(caused by low humidity conditions). Consequently, this paper emphasises the need for
each building component ranging from thermal insulation to natural lighting to be carefully
evaluated prior to construction, so that the internal conditions can be better managed to
reduce cold- and heat-related illnesses amongst the residents.
Davenport, A (1967) The treatment of wind loading on tall buildings. In: A. Coull
and S. Smith (Ed), Tall Buildings, Pergamon Press, London, 3–44.
This is a study on the interaction of a tall building with wind as well as the approaches
available for making quantitative estimates of key design parameters. The author considers quasi-static approach usually taken to estimate wind loads to be unrealistic in several
respects. There is also a need to include other factors such as allowable deflections and
comfort of occupants when measuring wind effects. The properties of mean wind are first
discussed, along with the action of the wind on a tall building. Next, fluctuations of wind,
such as gusts and turbulence, are considered. Based on a list of performance criteria, the
approaches to improve the buildings’ response to wind are suggested. This is a comprehensive study of the different types of wind, and the building response, following up with
ways to improve performance, taking into account occupant’s comfort. However, this study
could be more useful if some discussion on how the methods of measurement of building
response to wind have been evolving and how else these measurements and testing methods
could be further improved.
Dowell, E H and Hall, K C (2001) Modelling of fluid-structure interaction. Annual
Review of Fluid Mechanics, 33: 445–490.
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This long paper gives a rigorous description of the various methods of modelling the
behaviour of fluids as they interact with structures, each in great detail. The authors compile
well established methods as well as those still under research and testing, from classical
models which, though simple, form the basis for more complex and accurate models later,
such as time-linearised models, non-linear dynamical models, and reduced-order models,
some of which we have already encountered. Interestingly, what is seen is that the general
trend of the ongoing research is such that the simplest solutions are always found first, based
on idealized applications of physical laws derived from fundamental principles. However,
with the non-trivial nature of most structures in the real world, these solutions are modified
again and again with increasing complexity such that they approach the true nature of real
objects and fluids. As such, one may conclude that the field has yet to achieve perfection
but instead studies conducted for increasingly complex structures will go on as long as the
demand for more and more technologically complex and taller buildings are present.
Fisk, W J, Delp, W, Diamond, R, Dickerhoff, D, Levinson, R, Modera, M, Nematollahi, M and Duo, W (2000) Duct systems in large commercial buildings: physical
characterization, air leakage, and heat conduction gains. Energy and Buildings, 32:
109–119.
This collaborative report examines a myriad of problems and challenges faced by duct systems usually installed in huge buildings such as tall skyscrapers such as air leakage areas and
rates as well as thermal conduction. Hence, this report is highly important as it addresses
a serious concern than many building managers have. To provide a large enclosed area
with air-conditioning is highly energy-intensive and any leakage in the duct or to external
surroundings will reduce system efficiency and hence, further increases energy consumption. Heat conduction along ducts will also influence cooling efficiency. Various methods
are tested and large inconsistencies are observed during data measurements. Measurement
methods and precision must be improved for better assessment. Apart from the study of
these leakages, the report enumerates the extent of daily energy wastage around the globe.
Ultimately, this report emphasises the need to pay closer attention in examining the physical
characterization, air leakage and heat conduction gains, especially when global concerns
with regards to climate change, global warming and energy crisis are pertinent.
He, Y and Vaughan, B (1996) Smoke spread experiment in a multi-storey building
and computer modelling. Fire Safety Journal, 28: 139–164.
This paper describes a model (Cesare-Smoke model) in which smoke spread from a fire in
a multi-storey building can be predicted. The mathematical model is able to calculate and
predict temperatures and smoke levels in areas far from the source of fire, and several fullscale experiments conducted in a real building are recorded in the paper, used to verify the
accuracy of the model. In the experiments, temperature, pressure, flow velocity, and smoke
density were measured in various parts of the building and compared to the predictions
of the Cesare-Smoke model. The authors conclude that the model is useful for qualitative
predictions of smoke flow but is unable to produce precise numerical results due to overidealization of the model which failed to take into account leaks from the building. However,
the results are generally valid and useful for predicting danger zones in the building. For
the purposes of tall buildings, this model would probably require a much greater amount
of processing power and the amount of inhomogenity would probably be overwhelming.
Nevertheless, it presents a good basis on which future studies and improvements can be
made.
Ismail, A (2006) Performance of wind scoops as ventilation retrofitting in tropical
tall buildings. In: P. Fazio, H. Ge and J. Rao (Ed), Research in Building Physics and
Building Engineering, Taylor and Francis, London, 943–950.
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This is a study on the natural ventilation of tall buildings and how the use of structures such
as wind scoops and atria can help to promote it. Model studies and wind tunnel environment,
as well as the climate of tropical countries form the basis of this study. The central atrium
performs like a natural chimney as it draws fresh air into the building through the temperature and thus pressure difference. Wind scoops are passive systems of natural ventilation
which are mostly used in high-rise buildings in humid urban cities where mean ground
wind speed is slow. Models made of perspex were created and a pressure test carried out
to find the pressure coefficients. Results obtained showed that the double inverted pitched
roof wind scoop with pitch angle between thirty and forty degrees to the top section of tall
building with vertical atrium and through opening at ground level proved to be the most
consistently effective one. This study is useful as constant reference of tall buildings is
being made, which makes the study more focused on high-rise living. However, this study
is only based on models. It would be more useful if more reference was being made to
actual buildings. Experiments of such can be carried out and included more extensively as
well.
Klein, P, Leitl, B and Schatzmann, M (2007) Driving physical mechanisms of flow
and dispersion in urban canopies. International Journal of Climatology, 27: 1887–
1907.
This paper seeks to summarize and present the findings on recent full-scale and windtunnel studies in the complex urban canopy layer (UCL). This has become necessary due
firstly to the fact that the threat of terrorism is very real; therefore, in the event of any
hazardous chemical, biological, or radioactive waste being released into the atmosphere, a
quick response, based on knowledge of how winds will carry the waste through the urban
canopy, can be carried out. Secondly, with the advent of increasingly taller buildings, the
need for this study becomes even more important since tall buildings greatly affect the
wind behaviour in the urban canopy. The authors discover that complex patterns of wind
recirculation occur at street level near tall buildings and they are also able to cause rapid
vertical mixing of air together with some sections of the street having very poor ventilation.
These results are achieved by modelling sections of the UCL on idealized “street-canyon”
intersections as well as a linear model, which allows simple prediction of wind at street
level. Finally, the authors conclude that although the results are generally reliable, some
discrepancies at specific areas between the calculated and actual wind flows are present.
These discrepancies point towards the need for a higher level of accuracy which current
models are unable to provide. As such, more research in this area can possibly be done, to
improve on this slightly secondary, yet important consideration in the construction of tall
buildings.
Li, L, Hu, F, Cheng, X L and Han, H Y (2004) The application of computational
fluid dynamics to pedestrian level wind safety problem induced by high-rise buildings. Chinese Physics, 13(7): 1070–1075.
In this paper, we see another application of modelling wind, again to examine effects on
pedestrians. While one may wonder at the level of impact wind can possibly have on pedestrians, in fact such wind brought about by tall buildings are noted by the authors to possibly
be strong enough to knock pedestrians off their feet. If so, then certainly these studies are
justified. The authors use a computational code named “Fluent” to predict air flow in areas
close to tall structures, and after significant amounts of testing and verification, apply Fluent
to the simulation of several hypothetical placements of tall buildings. They then conclude
that tall buildings do in fact raise the probability of hazardous wind occurring in their
vicinity, depending on the layout of structures and their size and height. Also, they make
a side point in debunking the myth that the presence of trees will reduce the wind hazard
probability. Accordingly, we now see the great impact that tall buildings may bring about
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on aspects of human life previously taken for granted, such as the ability to walk safely on
ground level. These studies, therefore, are not to be taken lightly but properly and diligently
done to prevent any unwanted occurrences.
Liang, B, Tamura, Y, and Suganuma, S (1997) Simulation of wind-induced lateraltorsional motion of tall buildings. Computer and Structures, 63(3): 601–606.
Modern tall buildings are built with high-strength, lightweight materials, making them
exposed to “excessive oscillation” from fluctuating wind loads. In a typical building, both
alongwind and acrosswind oscillations occur, while accompanied by torsional oscillation.
This paper deals with lateral-torsional motion of tall buildings. The author first built an analytical mathematical model to model such lateral-torsional motion in tall buildings. Several
estimated values are plugged in to enable the simulation. The computer-aided simulation
includes techniques such as multi-dimensional auto-regression method. The computational
method provided in the paper will be useful to estimate wind-induced lateral-torsional
response of tall buildings. While the provided simulation works with regular square crosssection, the equations used may be applied to rectangular cross-section.
Roaf, S (2005) Air conditioning avoidance: lessons from the windcatchers of Iran.
In: P. Fazio (Ed), Passive and Low Energy Cooling for the Built Environment, Taylor
and Francis, London, 1053–1057.
Centralised air-conditioning systems in buildings with fixed windows prove to be a highrisk strategy nowadays due to fuel energy insecurity and inflation, increased awareness to
reduce carbon emissions, and enhanced robustness in an event of extreme weather conditions attributed to global warming. Hence, there is an increased interest in natural ventilation
systems to reduce energy consumption and survivability despite blackouts. Air-conditioned
office buildings typically use much more energy resulting in higher carbon dioxide emissions which further drives climate change making us in need for more air-conditioning.
This is akin to an undesirable positive feedback loop. This paper outlines how lessons can
be learnt from the traditional windcatchers of the Middle East. It is an ancient and varied
technology that provides basic ventilation, convective cooling for people where indoor temperatures range from 25 to 35◦ C, evaporative cooling for those living above 35◦ C, and to
cool the structures in very high temperatures while being coupled with underground tunnels
and basements. Windcatchers are enhanced when coupled with earth, air and water heat
sinks. Traditionally, the skill of the windcatcher designer was passed on from one master
builder to another but they no longer exist. The paper highly encourages researchers and
designers to revisit the traditional palette and adopt them in modern building designs.
Rofooei, F R and Monajemi-Nezhad, S (2006) Decentralized control of tall buildings. The Structural Design of Tall and Special Buildings, 15: 153–170.
Active and semi-active control in reducing seismic and wind load response in tall buildings
have been actively studied. One of the main weaknesses of these studies is that all of them
require a central unit that uses the sensors and produce appropriate control mechanism. If
the central control unit were to lose its functionality, the operation of the systems will be
disrupted. The authors explore the usage of decentralized method of controls by dividing
the building into sub-systems. In particular the author explores decentralized subsystems
with overlapping information. Each sub-system is expected to know the information from
the top floors of the lower substructure. The author proceeds to provide a formulation
of the control algorithm and an applicative numerical example as an experimental study
for the decentralized algorithm. The results indicate that performance of centralized and
decentralized control algorithms is exactly the same. However, usage of fewer controllers
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degrade performance of the decentralized system. Furthermore, failure of any subsystem to
act properly largely reduces the performance of the overall system.
Ruegg, W F (1996) Storm driven trajectories of rain near balconies on tall building.
Journal of Architectural Engineering, 2(3): 100–106.
The author sought to explain and also predict the behaviour of rain droplets on tall buildings,
since some of the behaviour, such as the ability of water droplets to wet the tops of windows
which were well sheltered by balconies, seemed unintuitive and required an explanation
other than gravity. In fact, wind was the driving force behind the paths of the rain droplets.
Credit is due to this researcher for accurately deriving the observed phenomena, namely that
droplet sizes had to be within a certain range for the abovementioned phenomena to occur.
This study, together with others, probably formed the basis on which later wind models
were constructed and utilized to predict phenomena of greater significance.
Ruscheweyh, H (1998) Aerodynamic interference effects between buildings and
structures. In: J. D. Riera and A. G. Davenport (Ed), Wind Effects on Buildings
and Structures, Balkema, Rotterdam, 227–242.
This paper sets out to investigate interference effects due to adjacent buildings and structures, focusing on three main types: response of high rise buildings; aeroelastic effects
between stacks, and; influence on the cross wind vibration of a stack in the vicinity of a
building wall. The interference effect between two or more high rise buildings is found to
increase the dynamic response in most cases and higher wind loads may occur. Upstream
buildings increase turbulence intensity and broaden the band-width of the wind spectrum.
Model tests studied focused on the effects of the shape of upstream buildings and the angle
at which they are placed on the dynamic response of a downstream building. This is a
detailed study of the placement and arrangements of the surrounding buildings and is thus
useful. However, it lacks discussion on the wind flow around the buildings due to these
interference effects, which will affect the pedestrians and structures around the buildings.
The next section on cylindrical structures is important as many of the present super tall
buildings contain spikes at the top of the buildings. However, this study is mainly on the
interference between two cylindrical structures, not exactly on how these structures affect
the movement of the buildings they are attached to. The last section makes the whole paper
more holistic by discussing the interference between a cylindrical structure and a building
wall, merging the two sections mentioned earlier. This study is highly relevant to the study
of the response of buildings to wind due to adjacent buildings, which is more useful than
the usual isolated building studies.
Samali, B and Kwok, K C S (1995) Use of viscoelastic dampers in reducing
wind- and earthquake-induced motion of building structures. Engineering Structures, 17(9): 639–654.
Viscoelastic materials are a special type of material which is able to deform elastically and
resist rapid motion. This intriguing property allows it to be used as dampers in buildings
especially tall and slender buildings in order to resist wind motion and earthquake motion
for the comfort of the occupants. It is also a versatile solution which can be incorporated
in the design from the beginning or retrofitted into old buildings to improve its seismic and
wind performance. It was already in use by the time this paper was published in the case
of the former World Trade Centre Towers in New York City and the Columbia SeaFirst
Building in Seattle, Washington. Through the consideration of the literature available and
their own experimental observation and numerical simulations, the researchers have demonstrated the effectiveness of such dampers and identified the key factors affecting the performance and design of such dampers. Possible damper configurations and the damping
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mechanisms were also discussed in this paper. This paper advocates the use of viscoelastic
dampers as a viable, versatile and cost-effective solution.
Shiba, K, Mase, S, Yabe, Y, and Tamura, K (1997) Active/passive vibration control
systems for tall buildings. Smart Material Structures, 7: 588–598.
Resistance to motion by earthquakes and wind of any building are important to the comfort
and safety of its occupants. In this study, the researchers consider three types of vibration
control systems namely a hybrid mass damper which is an active system connected to
a computer which measures the vibrations of a building and actively compensates for it,
unbounded brace damper which is a passive system where energy from wind and seismic
activity are absorbed by including materials that will absorb these vibrations and lastly
rotational variable damper using electro-rheological fluid, which is a relatively new method
of controlling vibration using “smart materials” which are able to alter their mechanical
properties based on the electric field passing through it. The first two methods are already
in use in many buildings thus the study looks at specific case studies to determine their
effectiveness. However, the last method was still principally a design which had not been
applied yet. The studies show the performance of the different methods and the feasibility
of applying the last method through numeral analysis. However, it remains to be seen if it
could be translated into an actual damper system in a real building since many other factors
apply.
Smith, R F and Killa, S (2007) Bahrain World Trade Center (BWTC): the first largescale integration of wind turbines in a building. The Structural Design of Tall and
Special Buildings, 16(4): 429–439.
This paper describes the design evolution of the large-scale wind turbines proposed for the
almost-completed Bahrain Trade Center. It covers details of the wind turbines and their control, showing how several innovative ideas have come together and have been technically
validated to produce the design for this unique building. The two 50-storey sail-shaped
office towers taper to a height of 240 m and support three 29 m diameter horizontal-axis
wind turbines, which carry less than 3% of the project value but generate about 225 kW at
full power, amounting to approximately 11–15% of the towers’ electrical energy consumption. With similar projects coming up in Dubai, it seems that Middle East constructors are
riding high on the green energy wave.
Wang, B M, Liu, H Z, Chen, K, Sang, J G, Woo, G C and Zhang, B Y (2004) Evaluation of pedestrian winds around tall buildings by numerical approach. Meteorology
and Atmospheric Physics, 87: 133–142.
As an example of the interaction between fluids and structures, this paper shows a numerical
method used to simulate and model winds at street level around tall buildings, in the city of
Beijing. The motivation for this study arises from the fact that winds are often enhanced in
strength in areas with many tall buildings, to the discomfort of pedestrians. The researchers
advocate their use of a numerical method (as opposed to an analytical approach) since their
purpose is the determination of the actual phenomena to as accurate a degree as possible.
Using this method, they claim that this method accurately gives results of the flow field
at every location around the buildings in question. They also purport that since computers
have made the numerical methods cheap and efficient, this method is more economical and
yields accurate results faster. While this is true, it has to be noted that analytical methods
have the potential to, when well established, form the basis for further investigations and
the possible development of more efficient methods. Hence, it can be concluded that this
study is highly successful in attaining its set purpose, namely to investigate the local winds
in an area in Beijing but has less far-reaching implications as one may hope.
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Watanabe, Y, Isyumov, N and Davenport, A G (1997) Empirical aerodynamic damping function for tall buildings. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics, 72: 313–321.
The authors of this paper are from Shimizu Corporation, and thus they do an industrial level
study of vibration effects on tall buildings. While the previous studies have looked into
accurately modelling and predicting vibrations starting from simple structures to larger and
more complex ones, this particular study has a different approach in that it is empirically
resolved. Instead of using mathematical frameworks to predict the buildings’ movements,
beginning from simple rules, complex mathematical functions and graphs were proposed
and attempted to be fitted to existing observed phenomena (of damping of the vibrations),
and if they did, were used for future predictions. By first obtaining numerical values (to
enter into the functions) from tests done on prisms (simple shaped objects), the resulting
‘aerodynamic impedance functions’ that were obtained by the authors were seen to simulate
behaviour for large buildings as well. Parameters corresponding to real physical conditions
such as ‘tip-amplitude’ and ‘intensity of turbulence’ of the wind were found and thus predictions can be done for future applications. However, such an approach has its limitations
since, being empirical, the functions may have to be tweaked greatly for differing situations,
which raises questions of reliability once there has been too much deviation from the original tests done. As a result, more work must be done in order to validate the universality of
such functions.
Zhang, A and Zhang, L (2004) RBF neural networks for the prediction of building
interference effects. Computers and Structures, 82: 2333–2339.
The authors in this paper draw on the success of neural networks in other fields to examine
and predict wind loads on buildings. Earlier, we had seen the application of neural networks
to identify and locate structural damages in the event of strong vibrations affecting tall
buildings. In this case, wind loads are seen to differ greatly on isolated buildings and those,
which are part of a group of neighbouring buildings. Since the effects are hard to predict
in a multi building layout, a radial basis function (RBF) neural network is formulated and
applied to evaluate the interference due to neighbouring buildings. The authors then verify the theoretical results with measurements made and find close agreement between the
two. As such, it can be seen that the use of neural networks in application to tall buildings
has moved by a quantum leap. Without doubt, these techniques will be useful in future to
predict complicated phenomena, of which many more are sure to arise with taller buildings
coming up.
Air Quality
Anachem, I and Sandia National Laboratories (1982) Indoor Air Quality Handbook:
For Designers, Builders, and Users of Energy Efficient Residences, National Technical Information Service, Springfield.
Simple diagrams are used to explain certain concepts, such as ways radon could infiltrate a
house, in order to allow readers to understand the content easily. This book also discusses on
both the positive and negative impacts of energy-efficient features on the quality of indoor
air, unlike other books which tend to focus on only the adverse effects. Methods available
for the measurement of indoor air pollutants are listed in the book as well. However, these
methods do not seem to be suited for households but for business or corporations instead, as
the methods suggested are rather costly and results obtained require the analysis of professionals. Certain areas of discussion do not seem to be applicable to tropical countries too.
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For example, sources of contaminants as well as potential health effects related to furnaces,
chimneys and fireplaces do not apply, since countries with warm climate throughout the year
do not have such facilities. Using information related to indoor air pollutants, the author
integrates such concepts into the design of buildings. Hence, this book will be helpful to
designers and builders who wish to construct “healthy” buildings.
Bardana, E J J and Montanaro, A (1997) Indoor Air Pollution and Health, Marcel
Dekker, New York.
A detailed analysis of components leading to indoor air pollution is carried out in this
book without using over-complicated chemical terms, allowing easy understanding. Health
effects and the toxicology of indoor combustion pollutants such as nitrogen dioxide and
acid aerosols are explained in detail. An in-depth discussion on organic solvents (such
as aliphatic hydrocarbons and aldehydes) which are widely used in the manufacturing of
building materials is done as well. The Sick Building Syndrome is also highlighted here.
Sources of indoor air pollutants and means to control the indoor air quality of buildings
are mentioned. Ways to assess and evaluate the extent of indoor pollution in buildings are
elaborated. However, the methods suggested are not suitable for normal civilians as they
require the expertise of professionals. The fact that there are few resources dedicated at
addressing the issue of indoor air pollution is acknowledged in this book. Hence, this book
is targeted at providing relevant and crucial information to people in the various disciplines
such as engineers, environmental scientists and even policy-makers, which will be useful
for the construction of a safe high-rise environment.
Benda, G (1999) Indoor Air Quality Case Studies Reference Guide, The Fairmont
Press, Lilburn.
This book sets itself apart from others by highlighting the positive correlation between the
quality of indoor air and the energy efficiency of a building, which is rare since it is not
unusual to see authors relating energy efficiency with a decline in indoor air quality. It provides background information on indoor air pollutants such as volatile organic compounds
and allergens. An evaluation on methods to identify and measure the levels of indoor air
pollutant (e.g. gas chromatography and mass spectroscopy) is done as well. In this book,
case studies of various places such as office buildings and hotels where adverse effects due
to poor indoor air quality have been recorded are analyzed. Through these case studies, the
author provides a deeper insight into issues, allowing people to tap on the experiences and
learn from them. This can be rather useful as it prevents people from committing the same
mistakes and adopt methods which have been proven to work. Although not all the case
studies mentioned involve high-rises, the measures recommended and lessons to be learned
can be applied to tall buildings. For example, the preventive measures taken by McDonald’s
can be applied to any building.
Brookins, D G (1990) The Indoor Radon Problem, Columbia University Press,
Oxford.
The existence of radon indoors has been a problem for many countries, in particular for
buildings which rely on air-conditioning to keep the entire structure cool. Through this
book, readers are able to have a much clearer understanding on the chemical properties
of radon and its related impact on urban dwellers. Douglas Brookins makes the effort to
explain the mechanism of the activity of the radioactive radon, including the parents of
radon, uranium and thorium. Drawing on this background information on radon, the author
proceeds to illustrate the adverse effects of indoor radon on people’s health. Sources of
these carcinogenic materials are also mentioned to help clarify certain misconceptions that
people might have, and to highlight to readers how common radon actually is. The book proposes several methods aimed at increasing the ventilation of buildings in order to alleviate
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the indoor problem. It is important to note that certain information given in this book is
applicable only to the United States of America as most case studies mentioned are based
in the United States. Hence, there is a need to exercise caution when using this material. The
book is useful when analyzing the problem of indoor air pollution with regards to radon.
Cano-Ruiz, J A and Nazaroff, W W (1993) Removal of reactive gases at indoor surfaces: combining mass transport and surface kinetics. In: K. Saarela, P. Kalliokoski
and O. Seppänen (Ed), Indoor Air ’93: Proceedings of the 6th International Conference on Indoor Air Quality and Climate Volume 2, Indoor Air ’93, Helsinki.
In this paper, deposition rates of reactive gaseous pollutants onto indoor surfaces are analyzed by considering mass transport mechanisms as well as reaction kinetics between the
surface and gas molecules adsorbed. It is observed that discussions in this paper are closely
related to Physical Chemistry, such as Fick’s law of diffusion. The authors combine concepts of mass transfer and surface kinetics to formulate a model, which can be used to
determine the rates of deposition. However, the authors did not manage to provide a more
in-depth discussion on this issue other than touching on the fundamentals, perhaps due
to constraints on information available. Nevertheless, by investigating the reaction rate of
reactive indoor gases on surfaces and the mechanisms behind it, this paper presents a useful
framework for researchers to work with. Based on the findings, it can be seen that there are
many fields that can be ventured into, such as the effects of different interior furnishings on
the amount of indoor air pollutants. Improvements can also be made on the control strategies
available for poor indoor air quality.
Clausen, P A, Nielsen, G D, Wilkins, C K, and Wolkoff, P (2005) Organic compounds in office environments – sensory irritation, odour, measurements and the
role of reactive chemistry. Indoor Air, 16: 7–19.
This paper provides a deeper insight into issues related to indoor air pollution as the authors
investigate on new areas, such as the psychological and physiological effects of volatile
indoor chemicals. Through the studies conducted, it is discovered that people tend to experience discomfort even when the levels of certain indoor air contaminants are well-within
acceptable limits. Through this observation, the authors rationalized that odour thresholds,
rather than levels of indoor air pollutants, are the main factors for low odour tolerance
among people. This finding will be significant for building occupants as well as those in
the building industry, since it is shown that the emission levels of indoor air contaminants
should be considered with the odour threshold of the chemicals. The authors also noted
that the perception of indoor air quality will be affected by high relative humidity. The
association of perceived indoor air quality with high relative humidity will be useful to
tropical countries, since most countries in the tropic experience high relative humidity. In
addition, it is found that reactive chemistry and chemical structures exert a strong influence
on the odour threshold of compounds. Directing research in this direction would thus be
useful when tackling indoor air pollution.
Etkin, D S (1992) Office Furnishings/Equipment and IAQ: Health Impacts, Prevention and Mitigation, Cutter Information Corp, Arlington.
This book focuses on the indoor air quality of modern office buildings. The declining indoor
air quality is attributed to modern office furnishings and equipment. The chemical compounds responsible for the indoor pollution are also identified and are classified according
to their sources. Analysis through experimental techniques such as gas chromatography
and mass spectrometry is carried out to determine the amount of air pollutants emitted
from the office furnishings and the materials (e.g. fabrics) involved. Results obtained from
these experiments show that the emissions of the contaminants are substantial and may
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affect human health negatively. It is observed that the half-life of some pollutants such as
perchloroethylene (which is present in dry-cleaned fabric) is relatively long (approximately
100 days), which implies that people could experience prolonged exposure to these harmful
compounds. In addition, it is observed that factors affecting sorption and re-release rates of
volatile organic compounds varied with the rate of ventilation and temperature. Using these
observations, the author is able to point out methods that could be employed to reduce the
quantity of indoor air pollutants. The findings from this study will be beneficial to building
designers and engineers when looking at safety aspects.
Hoskins, J A (2003) Health effects due to indoor air pollution. Indoor and Built
Environment, 12: 427–433.
Even though buildings are becoming increasingly “air-tight” (due to the push for higher
energy efficiency), the author observes that there are significant interactions between the
indoor and outdoor environment, which contributes to the decline in indoor air quality.
Carcinogenic indoor air pollutants (e.g. benzene) and their related risks are discussed in the
paper as well. Although the paper is published in 2003, it uses sources dated as far back
as 1973. Hence, certain claims made by the author may no longer hold due to the use of
such obsolete information. In addition, it is noted that the paper does not include the use
of electric stoves when relating the emission of indoor air pollutants from cooking stoves,
despite the fact that electric stoves have been increasingly common in buildings then. Thus,
certain assertions stated in the paper may not be reliable since electric stoves contribute
differently to indoor air pollution compared to conventional stoves. However, there are
useful fundamental concepts of indoor air pollution highlighted in the paper, which can
be useful to researchers investigating indoor air pollutants (organic and inorganic chemical
compounds) and their related health risks.
Kay, J G, Keller, G E, and Miller, J F (1991) Indoor Air Pollution: Radon, Bioaerosols,
and VOCs, Lewis Publishers, Michigan.
Diverse areas related to indoor air pollutants are covered in this book. Building bake-out,
which is a method often proposed to reduce the concentration of volatile organic compounds, is analyzed through a simulation under laboratory conditions. Through the results
obtained, the effects of building bake-out on volatile organic compound emissions are then
discussed. Detailed experimental procedures of laboratory work (e.g. extraction and spectrometry) which are used to identify and measure semi-volatile organic compounds associated with air pollutants are also listed in the papers. Evaluation of the efficiency levels of air
cleaners and various methods for indoor air pollution control shows that air-filters designed
for residential uses are poor in removing low concentrations of volatile organic compounds
from the indoors. It is interesting to note that the discussion of the experiment included
measures taken to ensure the reliability of the results obtained as well as an evaluation on
the machines used. This will be useful in allowing readers to know the extent of accuracy
and soundness of the results. However, this book fails to address certain issues related to
indoor air pollution, such as the negative effects on health and better measures that could be
adopted to improve the situation.
Kemp, P C, Neumeister-Kemp, H G, Esposito, B, Lysek, G, and Murray, F (2003)
Changes in airborne fungi from the outdoors to indoor air; large HVAC systems in
nonproblem buildings in two different climates. Aiha Journal, 64(2): 269–275.
Airborne fungi were analysed in the heating, ventilation and air-conditioning (HVAC) systems of two large office high-rise buildings in two different climate zones. Samples of the
airborne fungi were taken in each of the walk-in chambers of the HVAC systems using a
six-stage Andersen Sampler with malt extract agar. Results showed that the fungi species
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changed with different locations in the HVAC systems. Outdoor air intake produced greatest filtration effect for both the counts and species of the outdoor air fungi and was further
reduced in the air directly after the filters. However, the counts were doubled and the species
different from the air leaving the HVAC system. Presence of the HVCA system in high-rise
buildings did not explain the changes in the mixture of airborne fungi from the outdoors
to indoor air. Some of the fungi present in the indoor air did not appear to be transported
indoors by the HVAC systems. Therefore, further research should be done to determine the
source of the fungi present in the indoor air of high-rise buildings.
Lee, J H and Jo, W K (2006) Characteristics of indoor and outdoor bioaerosols at
Korean high-rise apartment buildings. Environmental research, 101(1): 11–17.
This study attempted to evaluate both the indoor and outdoor bioaerosal exposure of residents living at high-rise apartment buildings in a city in Korea. Bioaerosal exposure was
associated with indoor characteristics like the apartment floor and room location, and associated with outdoor characteristics like seasonal variation and summer survey period. The
results showed that outdoor bacterial concentration were significantly higher in the lower
floors of the apartments than in the higher floors. However, the bacterial concentrations in
the indoor air of the high-rise apartments were not significantly different between the lower
and higher floors. Therefore, better air quality is found both indoors and outdoors especially
for outdoors when living on the higher floors of high-rise apartment buildings in the studied
city in Korea. Hence, future developments of high-rise construction in Korea may seek to
build higher and taller for better indoor and outdoor air quality.
Lin, Z and Deng, S (2003) The outdoor air ventilation rate in high-rise residences
employing room air conditioners. Building and Environment, 38(12): 1389–1399.
Air ventilation is important as it affects the indoor environmental conditions in high-rise
residences that may affect the health of the occupants, their perceptions and comfort. In
this paper, the monitoring of indoor carbon dioxide levels overnight and outdoor ventilation
rates in bedrooms employing air conditioners was studied in high-rise residential buildings in Hong Kong. Laboratory experiments were conducted where two typical residences
employing air conditioners were used to examine the outdoor air ventilation characteristic
in bedrooms employing air conditioners. The results showed that the “outdoor ventilation
rates in the measured bedroom equipped with room air conditioners in high-rise” buildings
In Hong Kong could not meet the requirement specified in the standard even if there was
only a single occupant in the room. To improve the condition, a window-type air conditioner
can be used to provide a higher outdoor ventilation rate as there “is more natural infiltration
when” this type of air conditioner is used. Hence, the use of a window-type air conditioner
does not significantly affect the outdoor ventilation rate and thus reduces the health impact
on residents living in these high-rise buildings.
Meckler, M (1996) Improving Indoor Air Quality through Design, Operation and
Maintenance, The Fairmont Press, Lilburn.
It is interesting to note that this book views the issue of indoor air quality at an angle
different from other books. Similar to other books, information on the sources and types
of indoor air contaminants is provided. However, dynamic models targeted at evaluating
indoor air quality (to ensure that it complies with the standard provided by ASHRAE
Standard 62-1989) such as carbon dioxide methods are developed and are elaborated by
the author, which is rarely done by others. In addition, chemical concepts behind indoor air
pollutant removal systems such as molecular sieving and adsorption processes are illustrated
in the book. The efficiency levels of adsorbents at removing indoor air contaminants are
shown as well. The author introduces a two-pronged approach (technical and management
strategies) to maintain and control indoor air quality, which can be very useful to buildings
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that face restrictions and constraints on indoor air quality. One thing good about this book is
that the author does not engage in data-dumping where readers are flooded with countless
technical terms. He goes down to the ground level to emphasize the concepts introduced
and provides examples to which people can relate to, thus allowing clearer understanding.
Meyer, B (1983) Indoor Air Quality, Addison-Wesley Publishing Company Incorporation, Canada.
Information on indoor air pollutants such as ammonia and nitrogen oxides is given in this
book. Metals which have a negative effect on human health and can exist in the air, such as
mercury, are highlighted as well. An analysis is carried out on data related to pollutant
concentrations in various buildings, including high-rise. Cancer-causing substances like
inorganic carcinogens (asbestos) as well as organic carcinogens are described too. However,
this book seems to be slightly unfocused in its discussion as it includes the historical background of respiratory needs and air pollution in the 1800s, which has no significant relation
to indoor air pollution. Some of the sources used are rather old (dating back to the 1800s)
and there is a high chance that these materials are obsolete. By referring to such outdated
information, the author may introduce concepts that are no longer applicable. There are also
certain sections that are inadequate in its explanation as information available is too brief,
which the author attributes to limited literature sources.
Mose, J R, Raber, J, Grill, D, and Kock, M (1981) On the evaluation of health
factors in high-rise buildings. 1. Behaviour of some environmental factors. Zentralbl
Bakteriol Mikrobiol Hygiene Originale B, 172: 312–322.
Test series were carried out with different parameters (for sulphur dioxide, fluorine, chlorides and germ counts of the air) to study whether those living on higher floors of tower
blocks are exposed to a greater burden than those living on the lower floors. However,
what was discovered was that the lower floors of the tower floor were exposed to dust and
dirt from the streets from the chloride analyses and germ courts made on the balconies of
the lower floors (second to the sixth floor), with maximum pollution of the third floor and
the highest germ count on the ground floor. The results may be accounted for due to the
location and building structure of the tower blocks which were located next to streets with
high traffic usage. Different results may be obtained in other places due to the different
conditions present. Hence, this research supports the construction of high-rise buildings as
the assumption that upper floors of high-rise buildings are exposed to a higher burden than
the lower floors cannot hold true in relation to the parameters that were used in the study.
Thus, staying on the higher floors will subject one to better living environments and better
air quality.
Nayebzadeh, A, Cragg-Elkouh, S, Racny, R, and Dufresne, A (1999) Sources of
indoor air contamination on the ground floor of a high-rise commercial building.
Indoor Built Environment, 8(4): 237–245.
Indoor air quality is a subject of growing concern among high-rise buildings in the developed world as many sources of indoor air contamination have been recognized and investigated. Due to the urban development of high-rise buildings and other facilities, external
sources of air contaminants from the surrounding environment can make their way into
high-rise buildings as well. In this report, the indoor air quality of a high-rise office building was surveyed. The results demonstrated that there were obvious seasonal changes in
the concentrations of carbon dioxide, nitric oxide and nitrogen dioxide. In addition, another
survey was carried out in the same building to identify the sources of air contamination in
the building. Results indicated that the location of a train station and street traffic near the
office building had a significant impact on the indoor air quality of the building. Hence, this
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81
showed that the location of the building and its surrounding facilities are important as if
the building was to be located near sources of contamination like streets with heavy traffic,
this will in turn have an adverse effect on the indoor air quality, affecting the health of the
occupants.
O’Reilly, J T, Hagan, P, Gots, R, and Hedge, A (1998) Keeping Buildings Healthy:
How to Monitor and Prevent Indoor Environmental Problems, John Wiley and Sons
Incorporation, Canada.
Air-conditioning systems play an important role in the ongoing development of vertical
cities as they allow indoor climate control. However, these systems become hazardous when
they cause indoor environmental problems, which result in health complications. According to the authors, indoor environmental problems arise due to the negative side-effects of
air-conditioning, such as limited ventilation and the recirculation of air. The book gives a
detailed explanation on the various chemicals (e.g. carbon monoxide, formaldehyde and
nitrogen oxides) involved in the problem of indoor air pollution and highlights the toxic
properties and its related implications on health. The authors then go on to demonstrate the
significance of indoor pollution on the society and the working environment. For example,
working time is sacrificed when workers have a greater tendency to fall sick, and this indicates a loss of income by both the company and the employee. To help prevent the problem
from deteriorating further, solutions and guidelines have been proposed and are illustrated
in the book.
Rohr, A C (2003) Indoor chemistry and health: where are we going? In: K. W. Tham,
C. Sekhar and D. Cheong (Ed), Healthy Buildings 2003 Volume 1, Stallion Press,
Singapore, 301–308.
Unlike most books, this paper does not focus its attention on primary indoor air pollutants.
Instead, it analyzes secondary products that are formed as a result of reactions between
various indoor air contaminants, in particular products of ozone-related reactions such as
alkene-ozonolysis. Reasons behind such reactions are explained using the concept of reaction mechanisms (e.g. free radical chemistry) at work. In addition, detrimental effects of
particle formation (as a result of ozone-related reactions) on human health are pointed out.
Particle formation due to the nucleation of products of alkene-ozonolysis is emphasized
as well. Other than merely listing health implications which arise due to the products of
ozone-related reaction, the author goes one step further by providing details on how such
by-products induce adverse health effects (e.g. water solubility level or acidity of some
products). Various knowledge gaps in this field of research such as toxicology of terpene
oxidation products have been identified too. This paper will be helpful for people looking
for information on the chemical aspects of indoor air quality as it provides a large source of
literature related to the topic.
Seifert, B, Esdon, H, Fischer, M, Ruden, H and Wegner, J (1987) Indoor Air ’87:
Proceedings of the 4th International Conference on Indoor Air Quality and Climate,
Institute for Water, Soil and Air Hygiene, Berlin.
This book is a collection of papers presented during the 1987 International Conference on
Indoor Air Quality and Climate. This particular volume covers a whole range of topics
related to indoor air chemistry as well as the biological aspects of it. Emission rates of
volatile organic compounds from building materials are analyzed. Various methods used
to identify and quantify indoor air pollutants such as formaldehyde are also evaluated. In
addition, there are numerous papers that study the indoor air quality of different buildings,
such as offices and residences. Negative health effects due to prolonged exposure to indoor
air pollutants are briefly mentioned as well. This book is published in 1987. Although the
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findings in the book may be slightly outdated, it can be used as a reference when analyzing
the trends of indoor air quality. Based on the information available, comparisons between
indoor air qualities of different decades can also be made. However, it is noted that most of
the papers presented focuses heavily on the results of experiments conducted. Discussion
on the results obtained is usually brief, which may not be helpful to researchers who wish
to look deeper into the issues and need to know more information.
Turiel, I (1985) Indoor Air Quality and Human Health, Stanford University Press,
Stanford.
The author attributes the decline in indoor air quality to the rising numbers of “air-tight”
houses. In this book, the more prominent indoor air contaminants (e.g. radon, formaldehyde
and asbestos) are analyzed. Using a variety of literature, the author provides a list tabulating
the sources and uses of some indoor air pollutants. Chemical properties of these compounds
which result in negative health effects are explained as well. Although this book does not
bring in a wide range of indoor air pollutants, its discussion on a few selected pollutants is
rather in-depth and can act as a good source of information. In addition, the author tends to
focus his discussion in the context of residential houses, rather than office buildings. Hence,
the data and findings of this book should not be applied to office buildings, since offices
tend to have many facilities which houses do not, such as photocopying machines. Thus,
the levels and types of indoor air pollutants listed here should vary significantly from office
buildings.
Weschler, C J and Shields, H C (1997) Potential reactions among indoor pollutants.
Atmospheric Environment, 31(21): 3487 3495.
This paper, an in-depth analysis is carried out on the chemical aspects of indoor air pollutants (e.g. surface chemistry and free radical reactions). Mechanisms of various reactions
involving different chemicals such as ozone and aldehydes are studied in great detail as
well. In addition, factors which affect the rates of indoor reactions such as rate constants
and temperatures are also explained. Understanding the chemistry behind indoor reactions,
such as possible mechanisms and rate constants for the reactions, will allow researchers
to analyze the indoor situation with greater depth. However, there are limitations in the
analytical methods employed, as pointed out by the authors, which may create barriers to
the development of research on indoor chemistry and undermine the reliability of certain
findings, since not all indoor pollutants are correctly identified. The discovery of secondary
indoor air pollutants adds another dimension that needs to be taken into consideration when
analyzing indoor air quality and is an area that researchers should not overlook.
Weschler, C J (2004) Chemical reactions among indoor pollutants: what we’ve
learned in the New Millennium. Indoor Air: International Journal of Indoor Environment and Health, 14(7): 184–194.
Reactions among indoor pollutants such as the formation of hydroxyl radicals from ozone
and terpene are analyzed here. The author points out that surface chemistry is more likely
to be responsible for the onset of the sick building syndrome than the primary pollutants
usually analyzed. He explains that this is due to confined areas such as buildings having a
larger surface area but a comparatively smaller amount of air pollutants. Hence, based on
reaction kinetics and other factors, ozone-related reactions are likely to occur on surfaces
(e.g. walls and carpets). Through separate studies conducted at different confined areas, the
author also shows that secondary indoor air pollutants (e.g. hydroxyl radicals) have a larger
population state than those of primary indoor air contaminants. The findings in this paper
will be extremely useful to the research area of indoor air quality and the sick building
syndrome. Concepts and theories related to surface chemistry will contribute significantly
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83
to the understanding of effects of emissions from materials. This will be particularly important to indoor contaminants which cannot be quantified or measured easily since surface
chemistry provides at least an estimation on the levels of such secondary pollutants.
Yocom, J E and McCarthy, S M (1995) Measuring Indoor Air Quality: A Practical
Guide, John Wiley and Sons Limited, Chichester.
This book attempts to formulate different methods to measure the level of indoor air pollutants. The various methods are described in a fairly systemic manner and are explained with
the help of illustrations and several diagrams. In addition, detailed analyses are carried out
on each pollutant. The chemical and physical properties, as well as sources of each contaminant are listed. An evaluation on the available measurement methods of each pollutant is
done as well. Findings of past studies which have been conducted on the contaminants are
summarized in the book, and this can be useful in helping readers get an idea of what the
current situation is like. Information in this book is presented in a rather concise manner,
which will be useful to people who wish to know more about indoor air quality. Indoor air
quality measurement programs illustrated in the book will also be helpful for those who
wish to improve the indoor air quality of buildings that they are working or living in.
Biomimetics
Dollens, D (2006) The Cathedral is alive: animating biomimetic architecture. Animation: An Interdisciplinary Journal, 1(1): 105–117.
Dollens makes an interesting proposition for “genetic architecture” by analysing the design
approaches used in an animation series entitled The Cathedral. The article emphasises
the integration of animation technologies with software visualisation in the modelling of
biomimetic architectural forms. The Cathedral brings the imagination of spatial possibilities
in building design beyond the “static realm of design” of 2D and 3D into the dimension of
time. With illustrations and stills from the animation series, the paper walks through the
process of how a human figure transforms into botanic growth and later into an architectural pillar. Like environmental simulations used by urban planners, research animation can
aid architects analyse how the insertion of a dynamic moving skyscraper into a historic
neighbourhood can affect quality of sunlight and shadow, as well as wind flows. Animation
resembles a useful tool that helps facilitate the linking process between biological forms to
the built structure of the final product. It also examines how digital animation can generate
ideas, forms and design in the brainstorming process when designers start looking at natural
objects like skeletons, plants and shells.
Rosemond, A D and Anderson, C B (2003) Engineering role models: do non-human
species have the answers? Ecological Engineering, 20: 379–387.
Interestingly, this paper questions the underlying values behind the biomimetics approach. It
suggests that not all effects by species in an ecosystem are beneficial, some are detrimental.
Organisms known as ecosystem engineers construct, alter and destroy habitats for food,
resources and survival. Within an ecosystem, keystone species have greater impacts on the
community attributed to their quantity, size or domineering capabilities. Concerns that matter to such species most include resource allocation, habitat creation and relative competitive
advantage, which coincide with issues related to skyscraper design and construction. Beneficial impacts constitute the ability to facilitate sustenance of other species, acquire efficient
nutrient recycling and engage others in mutualism. Coral reefs, salt marshes and forest
trees are cited as examples of autogenic engineers. The Northern American beaver (Castor
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canadensis), earthworm and termites are mentioned as allogenic engineers, organisms that
actively shape environments. These engineers inadvertently promote species diversity and
healthy growth of surrounding ecosystems. Characteristics of ecosystem engineers include:
presence of mutualisms, presence of other species, efficient nutrient cycling, and flexibility
and adaptability. Detrimental engineering are characteristics of exotic non-native species
introduced in new environments, leading to loss of species diversity, nutrient exhaustion and
degradation of ecosystem. Zebra mussels and feral pigs are cited as detrimental engineering.
Species’ impacts can be quantified and similar techniques can be used to model human
engineering solutions. The emulation of role model organisms that enhances diversity and
ecosystem function represent potential alternatives to traditional engineering approach.
Ultimately, there are two things we need to know: information about ecosystems, and means
to use such information in decision-making and planning.
Vincent, J F V, Bogatyreva, A O, Bogatyrev, N R, Bowyer, A and Pahl, A (2006)
Biomimetics: its practice and theory. Journal of the Royal Society Interface, 3: 471–
482.
This paper focuses on the transfer of ideas and analogues from nature to technology called
biomimetics. It recommends the use of TRIZ (Teorija Reshenija Izobretatel’skih Zadach),
the Russian method of problem-solving, to enlighten, motivate and manipulate such technological transfer. The TRIZ method first identifies and defines the problem through thesisantithesis matching and contradiction matrices. The more the thesis-antithesis pair conflict
each other, the more well-defined the problem becomes. With problems more well-defined,
solutions can be targeted better. Even though the natures of biology and engineering are
different, the driving force remains similar: to resolve a technical conflict. In the 1950s, a
successful problem-solving system called TRIZ or Theory of Inventive Problem Solving’
was developed by Genrich Altschuller and Rafik Shapiro. The authors analysed approximately 500 biological phenomena, ranging over 270 functions and at three levels of hierarchy. TRIZ analysis shows that as of now, biology and technology share 12% commonality
in the manner problems are solved. Technology solves problem by manipulating energy
while biology manipulates information and structure, two major field greatly ignored in
modern technological advancements. As a step forward, the paper recommends: observing
patterns in solutions to technological problems through TRIZ, finding patterns in biological
solutions through BioTRIZ (a system they tested) and making sense of these patterns so that
findings can be incorporated into a novel Biomimetic TRIZ. Although this paper does not
speak about skyscrapers, it recommends TRIZ, a highly-useful tool used in top industries
and businesses, to better identify problems faced by tall buildings, better identify solutions
from Nature and better integrate biology and technology to yield sustainable innovations.
Design
Ali, M M and Armstrong, P J (1995) Architecture of Tall Buildings, Mcgraw-Hill,
New York.
This book is a comprehensive overview on the architecture of tall buildings written by
members of the Council on Tall Buildings and Urban Habitat. They speak from experience
and the book covers much depth without leaving the laymen readers lost. With clear illustrations and clear explanations along the way, the book guides us to understand the processes
behind the design of tall building including initial planning, choice of materials, form and
aesthetics of the tall building and even the psychological impact of a tall building. Each
aspect is discussed in exceptional detail. For example, concrete was given an entire chapter
detailing its historical origins and usage, its performance characteristics, its applications,
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85
pros and cons and recent developments. Though the performance characteristics may not
include charts and graphs the scientist is more used to, it provides a concise understanding
without going too technical. Though the information may be old, it is surprisingly relevant
today as many aspects discussed such as structural expression of using a certain material
still very much applies today. It is a good place to start understanding what goes on behind
a skyscraper before going more in-depth in any specific aspect.
Cheung, C K, Fuller, R J, and Luther, M B (2005) Energy-efficient envelope design
for high-rise apartments. Energy and Buildings, 37(1): 37–48.
The energy required to create a comfortable living environment in high-density cities in
hot and humid climates usually demands a substantial electricity usage with an associated
environmental burden. This paper describes an integrated passive design approach to reduce
the cooling requirement for high-rise apartments through an improved building envelope
design. The results suggest that the use of thermal modelling in building design can assist
the architect to produce a more energy-efficient design by evaluating the effectiveness of
various alternatives. The results of this paper can be integrated with life cycle cost or energy
analysis to produce a more holistic picture of environmental impacts and cost benefits of
low-energy apartment design.
Halliday, S P and Kendall, K (1997) Architecture of habitat: design for life and
discussion. Philosophical Transactions: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering
Sciences, 355(1728): 1389–1403.
The significance of adopting a multi-disciplinary approach to the design and construction
of a building is highlighted in this paper. The authors first explain the different elements of
a built environment, such as construction materials and energy resources. Possible ways
to integrate the use of green energy (e.g. solar energy and wind energy) are illustrated
in the paper as well. It is interesting that the authors stress on the significance of having
green buildings by drawing the reader’s attention to the relationship between the use of
green products and the quality of the indoor environment. Such association between green
features and the indoor environment is generally not observed and would thus aid in the
push for sustainable buildings. However, it is important to note that quantitative analysis is
not carried out in this paper, since the authors tend to engage only in theoretical discussion.
Hence, it might be challenging to quantify the actual benefits and effects of integrating
green designs into buildings.
Harries, K A and Mcneice, D S (2006) Performance-based design of high-rise
coupled wall systems. The Structural Design of Tall and Special Buildings, 15:
289–306.
Coupled wall systems provide good lateral load resistance without increasing space and
materials required. Its design depends on the strength of the coupling beams to provide adequate stiffness and strength. Current designs are based on Strength-based design which often
leads to over-engineering to meet the specifications, wasting valuable space and resources.
Thus, the author proposes a more practical performance based design, which is based on the
performance standards of the wall to resist the forces specified. He utilizes the example of a
30 storey building which cannot be designed using the strength-based design but only using
performance-based design. In light of newer technologies and innovation, it is reasonable
to alter the standards to performance based design to accommodate and encourage the use
of future materials. However, care must be taken that the design should be able to perform
beyond the standards in case of non-standard situations such as an earthquake. While giving the designer more room to create his design, this also puts more responsibility on the
designer to create a safe building.
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Hart, G C (2005) The structural design of tall and special buildings. The Structural
Design of Tall and Special Buildings, 14: 473–486.
Tall buildings are the subject of this paper, which is a summary of the oral discussions at the
2005 Annual Meeting of the Los Angeles Tall Buildings Structural Design Council. There is
a clear focus on safety when designers design a building and the author proposes four main
questions to ask, namely, the lifespan of the building, the biggest factor that may cause
the collapse (earthquakes, wind), condition of the building after it is hit by that factor and
how to do quality control. Interestingly, the author believes the first three questions should
be answered by the people who want to build the building and not the structural engineer
as they would know the desired requirements of the buildings better. They designate the
limits of the building while the designers and engineers worry about how to fit in to those
limits. He goes on to discuss how each of these questions can be answered generally by the
structural engineer working with non-structural engineers. This paper is appropriate when
trying to understand what goes into the thinking behind building a tall building.
Lew, M and Bonneville, D (1997) New building code requirements for the seismic
design of tall buildings near active faults. The Structural Design of Tall Buildings,
6(4): 279–297.
The seismic provisions in the new 1997 edition of the Uniform Building Code contain
significant changes affecting the seismic resistant design of buildings. For buildings in
California, the most significant change is related to the amplification of forces in areas near
major active faults. This is done through the introduction of a near-source factor. This factor
affects the design of buildings throughout the spectral range, but particularly affects mid-rise
and high-rise buildings owing to their response to long period ground motions for which the
near source effect is most pronounced. This paper provides an overview of the code change,
a detailed discussion of ground motion mapping in the near field, and a discussion of the
effect of the code change on tall buildings. Preliminary near-source maps are developed for
the Los Angeles Basin. Studies are presented, comparing base shear values calculated based
on the 1994 and 1997 editions of the Uniform Building Code.
Mineteru, O (2001) The grounds of criticisms for high-rise residence: guidelines on
design of the inhabitant environment of high-rise multiple dwelling houses. Bulletin
of Japanese Society for Science of Design, 148: 73–80.
In this paper, Mineteru investigated the grounds of the criticisms for high-rise residence and
examined the guidelines on the design of the inhabitant environment of high-rise multiple
dwelling houses. What Mineteru found was that the points of arguments of the criticisms
for high-rise residence were mainly based on three factors: physiological and psychological
influence; restriction of behaviour; and the safety of daily life. As such, in the construction
of high-rise residence, one should think over the dispersion of playing field, community
space and other measures to reduce the occasion of physiological and psychological influence and the restriction of behaviour. However, there is insufficient evidence to attribute the
causes of crimes and accidents of daily life to high-rise dwelling. Nevertheless, it is still a
necessity to raise the awareness of problems associated with high-rise residence and multiple dwelling houses, and to take into account the age and family of residents in designing
the interior layout and environment of the unit.
Otani, S (2004) Japanese seismic design of high-rise reinforced concrete buildings –
an example of performance-based design code and state of practices. 13th World
Conference on Earthquake Engineering August 1-6, 5010.
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87
The Design Codes differ in each country, usually specifying the types of materials, joints
and even aspects of design such as where the pillars must be situated. These codes provide
safety to the occupants of the building with established designs aspects that will ensure
building integrity. However, many of these design codes are slow to change and adapt to
new materials and technologies thus designers using them have to apply for specialized
permits. The author gives us an overview of how and why the design code in Japan changed
over time. He also explains how it is applied with respect to dead load, snow load, wind
forces and earthquakes. It is noted that by basing a design code on performance, it frees
the designers to use their own designs which may result in innovation and cost savings.
With the advancement in computers, modelling can also help to predict the behavior of
buildings under different conditions making performance based design easier to apply but a
lot depends on the reliability of the model.
Thornton, C H, Hungspruke, U, and Joseph, L M (1997) Design of the world’s tallest
buildings – Petronas Twin Towers at Kuala Lumpur City Centre. The Structural
Design of Tall Buildings, 6(4): 245–262.
This paper provide a comprehensive look at the design challenges facing the construction
of the Petronas Twin Towers, and how these have been tackled with flair. Cast-in-place
high-strength concrete for the core, perimeter columns and ring beams provides economical
vertical load-carrying ability, stiff lateral load resistance, and inherent damping for occupant
comfort. Steel beams on metal deck slabs provide efficient, economical and quickly-erected
long-span floors which are easily adaptable to future changes in openings and loadings. A
unique arch-supported skybridge spans between towers in mid-air, where the towers move
more than 300 mm in any direction. A stainless steel pinnacle tops each tower. Extensive
analytical, force balance and aeroelastic wind studies addressed individual tower behaviour,
influences between towers, pinnacle behaviour, skybridge overall behaviour and arch leg
behaviour. Pinnacles have simple chain impact dampers. Each of the four arch legs has
three tuned mass dampers for the three main modes of vortex excitation.
Whittaker, A, Moehle, J, and Higashino, M (1998) Evolution of seismic building
design practice in Japan. The Structural Design of Tall Buildings, 7(2): 93–111.
The widespread destruction of the built environment in the Kobe region as a result of the
1995 Hyogo-ken Nanbu earthquake was unexpected by many design professionals, academicians and researchers, both in Japan and the United States (US). This paper aims to
trace the development of design and construction practices in Japan so that the observed
damage can be better understood, to briefly to compare seismic design practice in regions
of high seismicity in Japan and the US at the time of the Hyogo-ken Nanbu earthquake,
and to assess the implications of this devastating earthquake on design practice in the US.
The implication of the behavior of older buildings in Kobe during the Hyogoken-Nanbu
earthquake is that severe damage to similar constructions in the US must be expected in a
design earthquake. Further, unexpected severe damage and collapse of modern construction
in Kobe suggest that modern construction on the West Coast of the US would be likely to
suffer damage in a severe earthquake.
Electromagnetism
Ashdown, B and Scott, T (2000) Recommendations for protection and grounding
in rooftop stations. Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers Twenty-second
International Telecommunications Energy Conference, 34(3): 652–658.
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This paper gives a highly detailed view of the implications of the above studies. The motivation is practical; Communications Electronic Packages (CEPs) are mounted on the top of
tall buildings in general, and this places the CEPs at obvious dangers of lightning influence,
as can be concluded from the above mentioned studies. Moreover, a CEP will be usually
mounted on the tallest building in an area, operated by commercial power from the building itself. As such, a lightning strike would possibly damage and affect power supply in
the building. Thus, the authors proceed to recommend a comprehensive solution, based on
calculations and experiments conducted, which is cost-effective and customizable for use in
differing situations. Credit is due to these researchers for effectively applying concepts and
theories that have been studied. The paper gives insight on the many complications that can
arise, and the non-trivial methods, which have to be applied, with the advent of taller and
taller buildings. Undeniably, each progress made in research of electromagnetic phenomena
will eventually bring about progress in the design and cost-effectiveness of tall buildings.
Baatz, H (1977) Protection of structures. In: R. H. Golde (Ed), Lightning, Volume 2,
Lighting Protection, Academic Press, London, 599–632.
This is a study on the damage lightning can cause various structures and how to protect
against these damages. There is one section dedicated to high-rise buildings. Lightning can
cause damage to the building structure and the equipment and people within the building
itself. The principle of lightning protection is to intercept the lightning discharge and conduct the current safely to ground. In the case of high-rise buildings, some safety measures
are: electrical installations on the roof should be at least half a metre away from the airtermination network; rooms which are sensitive to induced voltages should be shielded with
wire-cage netting and; air-terminations should be equipped about every 20 to 30 m up the
building to guard against side strikes. The need for lightning protection is based on factors
such as type, height, method of construction, location, and probability of lightning strikes,
among others. This reading is useful as it provides information on how to guard against
lightning with reference made to the special needs of the high-rise building. However, the
description of protection methods seems to be rather general with respect to high-rise buildings. Buildings of different geometry may have different levels of susceptibility towards
lightning strikes and these factors could have been discussed.
Morrow, R and Blackburn, T R (2002) The stepped nature of lightning, and the
upward connecting streamer. Journal of Physics D: Applied Physics, 35: 69–73.
This paper uses a numerical method to study the nature of “stepped leader” lightning. Interestingly, this very study reveals the nature of “stepped leader” lightning from a numerical
method and the authors show that their calculations can adequately explain the behaviour
of such lightning. Previously, studies made by other scientists either failed to adequately
explain the reason that the lightning took “steps” to discharge, or could not produce the
accurate results, which coincided with observed phenomena. As such, this paper can be
seen as one of the important ones whose results later studies would have utilized greatly. In
fact, it would certainly be a worthwhile for the industry to proceed in the direction of using
such results to further the field, by applying them to practical calculations involving real
buildings so as to enable safety and a host of other considerations in building tall buildings.
Yoshihiro, B and Rakov, V A (2007) Electromagnetic fields at the top of a tall building associated with nearby lightning return strokes. Proceedings, 18th International
Zurich Symposium on Electromagnetic Compatibility, 179–182.
This paper has its authors investigating the vertical component of the electric field due
to lightning strikes on tall objects, of which buildings are included. So far, the previous
studies have included calculating the electric fields in the buildings and how measurement
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of electric fields on the roof tops are affected by the height of the building. In this case,
using a technique called the finite-difference time-domain (FDTD) method, the authors
solve Maxwell’s equations and conclude that the magnitude of the vertical electric field
on a roof top is respectively about 1.5, 2, or 3 times that of the same at ground level in the
absence of a building, for buildings of height 20, 50 or 100 meters. Thus, using these results
they are able to determine the electric field enhancement factor of a building, which can be
used to simplify future calculations involving electric fields. In doing this, the authors make
a significant contribution to the study of electric fields with respect to tall buildings and
the possible effects and necessary precautions needed in constructing taller in future. They
also conclude that the field enhancement factor is negligibly affected at horizontal distances
greater than 100 meters from the building.
Zhang, X (2002) Calculation of transient electric field inside the building struck by
lightning. Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers 3rd International Symposium, 290–293.
The author attempts to formulate a simple and efficient method of obtaining accurately
calculated values of the electric field that remains in a building after it is struck by lightning.
The implications of such a research are clear. All technological devices used today are
highly sensitive to electric and magnetic field disturbances since they operate on very low
levels of electric current as compared to the magnitudes generated by nature. The author
successfully formulates his method and uses it to calculate the electric field based on prior
knowledge of a building’s lightning protection system. In spite of the fact that the worked
example is based on a simple protection system, it has, according to the author, been tested
on a real building. If his claims are true, then this new method is superior to existing methods
used, and since tall buildings are especially susceptible to lightning strikes, this method
seems set to be used extensively from now on.
Health
Balsdon, A (1990) Sick Building Syndrome: Causes, Effects and Control, London
Hazards Centre Trust Limited, London.
This book is a study on the sick building syndrome based on information obtained from
the 1980s. Details of the symptoms of the syndrome are stated, of which lethargy and nose
irritations are more common. The author uses the case of the Legionnaires’ disease to highlight the significance of human negligence towards the environment, since the outbreak of
the Legionnaires’ disease in buildings is due to poor housekeeping methods. In addition,
the author has come up with an A to Z list of chemical compounds which contributes to the
decline in indoor air quality, such as ammonia, carbon monoxide and benzene, and elaborates on these chemicals. Other key factors of the sick building syndrome (for example
thermal radiation and ventilation) are provided as well. In this book, information related
to this syndrome such as the health impacts and its causes is explained in a concise and
thorough manner, allowing readers to grasp essential concepts easily. Hence, this book will
be useful as a guide to the management staff of offices who are looking for ways to improve
the working environment for their employees.
Byrne, D and Keithley, J (1993) Housing and the health of the community. In:
R. Burridge and D. Ormandy (Ed), Unhealthy Housing: Research, Remedies and
Reform, E and FN Spon, London, 41–64.
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Byrne and Keithley challenged the merit of a research enterprise, which seeks to attribute
individual ill-health to “bad high-rise housing”. They present a compelling and authoritative
argument for the monitoring of community health among high-rise housing by discussing
the methodological questions associated with high-rise housing and the causal process of
health. This was done by looking at research that investigated the relationships between
housing and health. It was found that there were improvements in health when dramatic
improvements were made to housing which was measure by the growth and development of
children. Byrne and Keithley noticed that for many years, interest in the origins of ill-health
had been in decline in urban societies with high-rise buildings. Thus there is a need to study
on whether the construction of certain forms of housing (especially high-rise accommodation) has had damaging effects on health. With that, future preventive measures can be taken
to reduce the damaging effects if any.
Chadee, D D (2004) Observations on the seasonal prevalence and vertical distribution patterns of oviposition by Aedes aegypti (L.) (Diptera: Culicidae) in urban
high-rise apartments in Trinidad, West Indies. Journal of Vector Ecology, 29(2):
323–330.
Chadee studies the seasonal prevalence and vertical distribution of the oviposition of the
Aedes aegypti with the use of modified ovitraps that were located at several elevations.
A total of 988 ovitraps were placed both indoors and outdoors in high-rise apartments
in the urban town of Trinidad, West Indies. The ovitraps collected during the months of
the wet season revealed that 404 ovitraps were positive with 18.536 Aedes aegypti eggs.
Those collected during the dry season revealed that 435 ovitraps were positive with 12.255
Aedes aegypti eggs. Data obtained from different elevations of the high-rise apartments
showed that more eggs were collected at elevations of thirteen metres to twenty-four metres
than any other elevation, suggesting that the invasion of high-rise ecosystems by the Aedes
aegypti can enhance the transmission of the dengue vector. As a result, this ecological shift
in the Aedes aegypti population has exploited new habitats associated with human activity,
suggesting that strategies should be developed to educate householders with the creation of
appropriate vector control measures to prevent future threats of dengue transmission.
Cohn, R D, Arbes, J S J, Jaramillo, R, Reid, L H, and Zeldin, D C (2006) National
prevalence and exposure risk for cockroach allergen in U.S. households. Environmental Health Perspective, 114: 522–526.
The prevalence of asthma has increased considerably as more Americans spend their time
indoors. This pattern has led researchers to examine exposure to indoor allergens in highrise buildings that are an important risk factor for the cause of asthma. One such risk factor
is the exposure to cockroach allergen in high-rise apartments in the United States. In the
project, residents of 831 high-rise apartments were surveyed. The allergen, questionnaire
and observational data of the residents were analyzed. Results obtained showed that the
concentrations of cockroach allergen were elevated and were associated with allergic sensitization and asthma. The odds of having even further elevation of cockroach allergen
concentrations were greatest when cockroach problems were reported or observed and
increased with the number of cockroaches observed. Hence, it can be concluded that the
allergen is prevalent in many settings and at levels in high-rise apartments that may contribute to allergic sensitization and asthma. As a result, steps should be taken to reduce the
exposure to these allergens to reduce the cause of asthma and allergic sensitization when
one is indoors in a high-rise apartment.
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Costa-Leonardo, A M, Barsotti, R C, and De Camargo-Dietrich, C R R (1999)
Review and update on the biology of Coptotermes havilandi (Isoptera, Rhinotermitidae). Sociobiology, 33(3): 339–356.
High-rise buildings are meant to house human beings and provide a comfortable environment for one to live and stay in. However, due to the tall and high nature of high-rise buildings, besides housing human beings, it may provide ‘housing’ for other animals like birds as
well. In this review, an “aerial principal nest was collected from the 15th floor of a high-rise
building and its subsidiary nest collected from the 14th floor of the same building”. The
population of both the principal and secondary nests consisted of several species of birds,
some larvae and nymphs but no eggs were found in either nest. Unfortunately, the review
did not mention whether the population of birds, larvae and nymphs post any health threat or
disturbance to the residents staying in the building. Nevertheless, precautions should still be
taken to prevent further nestlings from forming along the floors of high-rise buildings and
the two nests currently present should be removed to eliminate any possible health threats
to the residents.
Curwell, S R and March, C G (1989) Hazardous Building Materials: A Guide to the
Selection of Alternatives, Fernsheer Limited, London.
The impact of metals in building materials on human health are discussed in this book.
Common metal elements such as copper and zinc are included in the scope of discussion. In
addition, a brief explanation is given for each valence state for metals which have multiple
valence states, since different oxidation states have varying influences on human health.
Effects that lead (Pb) has on other aspects of buildings such as water pipes are illustrated as
well. Possible hazards due to toxic chemicals in plastics used in building constructions (e.g.
polyvinylchloride) are also considered. It is observed that the authors do not emphasize on
the negative repercussions of hazardous materials, which contrasts from most books since
majority tend to stress the adverse effects that such chemicals have on human health. This
may not be desirable if readers get the impression that building materials have negligible
effects on health and thus underestimate it.
Deshmukh, S K (2004) Keratinophilic fungi on feathers of pigeon in Maharashtra,
India. Mycoses, 47(5–6): 213–215.
A preliminary survey was conducted by Deshmukh and the results of the survey of keratinophilic fungi found on and associated with the feathers of pigeons on high-rise buildings in the Thane district of Maharashtra, India were reported. In the survey, a total of 100
samples were examined for the keratinophilic fungi. Out of the total 100 samples examined,
67 of the samples were found to be positive for the keratinophilic fungi. A total of 67 fungal
strains belonging to 10 species of 7 genera were isolated from the 67 samples that tested
positive for the keratinophilic fungi. Hence, future studies should be done to look into the
possible health impacts of the keratinophilic fungi on high-rise residents, and to develop
possible strategies to remove the pigeons found in the district to prevent future threats that
it may have (if any) on the health of the residents.
Evans, G W (2003) The built environment and mental health. Journal of Urban
Health, 80(4): 536–555.
Evans chose to examine the direct and indirect effects that the built environment has on mental health. He argues that high-rise housing does not favour the psychological well-being of
women with young children. Besides the quality of housing which may be difficult to draw
conclusions from, Evans mentioned that the mental health of psychiatric patients is linked to
design elements that affect their ability to regulate social interaction. He gave the example
of patients suffering from Alzheimer’s disease. For these patients, they were better adjusted
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in buildings that accommodate physical wandering. Hence, if these patients were to live in
a built environment consisting of high-rise housing, residential crowing and loud exterior
noise sources may elevate psychological distress in them. Besides that, air pollutants from
the urban surrounding heighten negative affect and may cause behavioural disturbances.
The properties of the built environment also affect personal control, relationships and even
restoration from stress and fatigue, increasing depressive symptoms. Hence, more attention
should be focused on the health implications of multiple environmental risk exposure of the
built environment and high-rise housing.
Freisitzer, K and Mose, J R (1981) On the evaluation of health factors in highrise buildings. 3. Sociological investigations and questioning of physicians about
living in high-rise buildings. Zentralbl Bakteriol Mikrobiol Hygiene Originale B,
172: 332–350.
Preference of living in a high-rise building may cause serious harm and damage to the community. However, Feisitzer and Mose mentioned that “accurate and sufficiently extensive
empirical investigations have not yet been undertaken”. In this study, it has been found that
residents living on the upper floors of high-rise buildings are not subjected to increased
incidences of determining certain diseases compared to those staying on the lower floors
of the buildings. This finding applies not only to adults, but to children as well. On the
other hand, other factors present with high-rise living like the factor “noise” may influence
resident’s health and outweigh other adverse environmental conditions. Therefore, to reduce
what may be perceived as the potential harm and damage that comes with high-rise living,
adequate town and housing planning and good workmanship must be done, regardless of
housing type. If living conditions are improved in high-rise buildings, this will overcome
and eliminate the shortcomings that come with this building type.
Gillis, A R (1977) High-rise housing and psychological strain. Journal of Health
and Social Behaviour, 18: 418–432.
For a long time, scientists have been concerned with the relation of housing to people’s
health, attitudes and behaviour. According to Gillis, “buildings that score high in facility
lighten the stress of life” and “low-scoring structures fail to alleviate stress or may even
contribute to it”. Hence, one building may satisfy the needs of one but not the needs of
another person. His research thus supports the “discovery that the vertical location of units
is directly related to the level of psychological strain experienced by the residents”. This
correlation only holds true among women whereas among men, the vertical location of units
is inversely related to the level of psychological strain. In his study, attempts were made to
satisfy the relationships by controlling twelve variables with other variables like household
composition, child supervision, confinement and social isolation as intervening variables.
However, the attempts made were unsuccessful. As such, in the study of the effect of highhouse housing on psychological strain among the residents, successful attempts should be
made to control any possible intervening variables that may affect and influence the results
obtained. With that, accurate results can be attained and any detection of psychological
strain among the residents can be attributed solely to high-rise living and not other factors
that may come into play.
Goh, K T and Ooi, P L (1995) Health and the Built Environment: Proceedings of
the Medical and Public Health Sessions of the Asia-Pacific Conference on the Built
Environment, Institute of Environmental Epidemiology (Ministry of Environment),
Singapore.
Various aspects of indoor environment in several commercial buildings are studied, such as
aldehyde cadmium levels. Most of the buildings selected are in Singapore, with a few case
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studies focusing on other places such as Japan and Shanghai. It is noted that various ambient
factors such as humidity levels are taken into consideration when the authors account for
the results obtained. Readers will be able to get a clearer understanding as plausible explanations on the data acquired from field studies conducted are given. However, it is observed
that discussions often include mitigation methods such as increasing ventilation rates or
prohibiting the use of materials which contain hazardous compounds (e.g. formaldehyde).
Yet, this may not be feasible as further research needs to be done before new variations of
materials can be formulated. Hence, such suggestions will not be able to eradicate current
problems associated with these indoor air pollutants. Increasing ventilation rates may not
be cost-effective for air-conditioned buildings as well.
Hynes, H P, Brugge, D, Osgood, N, Snell, J, Vallarino, J, and Spengler, J (2003)
“Where does the damp come from?” Investigations into the indoor environment
and respiratory health in Boston public housing. Journal of Public Health Policy,
24(3/4): 401–426.
The increased in the trend in the prevalence of asthma is significant and evident in children
of ages fourteen and below and there have been evidences that those children living in
high-rise public housing are most at risk. As such, the attention has been turned to the role of
indoor environmental risk factors in high-rise public housing in Boston that may contribute
to the prevalence of asthma. Some of these factors include “moisture and mold growth, pest
infestation, dust mites, building envelope, heating systems, inadequate ventilation and environmental tobacco smoke”. Therefore, this article focuses on intervention projects designed
to engage the Boston Public housing residents to improve respiratory health, quality of life,
building conditions and building maintenance in public housing. Research findings from
four pilot studies in housing developments were presented to lay the foundation for larger
asthma-related environmental intervention study. This is important so that measures can be
taken in future to reduce the prevalence of asthma in high-rise public housing.
Jackson, L E (2003) The relationship of urban design to human health and condition.
Landscape and Urban Planning, 64: 191–200.
The population of the United States is currently experiencing increased illness from dispersed and synergistic causes. Chronic aliments like asthma and allergies, obesity, diabetes,
heart disease and depression are also on the rise. This paper surveys the impacts of urban
design, in particular the design of high-rise buildings, on human health and well-being.
It outlines the influence that high-rise apartments have on aspects of physical and mental
health by drawing on recent literature. Jackson concludes that sufficient evidence exists to
reveal the urban design of high-rise apartments as a powerful tool for improving the human
condition. One example is the access to greenery both visually and physically, which are
the principle keys to health. Hence, Jackson feels that there must be elements which are
to be incorporated into the design of high-rise buildings to increase physical exercise and
enhance civic life of the residents. Further research is also recommended to strengthen the
relationships between the designing of high-rise buildings and health.
Lavin, T, Higgins, C, Metcalfe, O, and Jordan, A (2006) Health Impacts of the Built
Environment: A Review, The Institute of Public Health, Ireland.
The quality of indoor air in a high-rise building can directly affect the health of the occupants living in the building. The World Health Organisation has identified five main harmful
substances present in the indoor air of high-rise buildings. These five substances include:
“radon, environmental tobacco smoke (ETS), cooking pollutants, volatile organic compounds and asbestos, all of which have been linked to respiratory diseases including asthma,
lung cancer and mesothelioma”. In addition, radon and ETS have been identified as health
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risks associated with indoor air quality found in the United Kingdom together with other
pollutants like dust mites and carbon monoxide. As young children are more susceptible to
certain environmental threats compared to healthy adults, it may be unsuitable for young
children to live in high-rise buildings if the indoor air quality is poor and unhealthy. Hence,
the indoor air quality of high-rise buildings have to be monitored as poor indoor air quality
will cause the elderly and those with pre-existing respiratory diseases to be more susceptible
to developing other illnesses, supporting the claim that high-rise living is detrimental to
health.
Mant, D (1993) Understanding the problems of health and housing research. In:
R. Burridge and D. Ormandy (Ed), Unhealthy Housing: Research, Remedies and
Reform. E and FN Spon, London, 3–21.
Research into the relationship between housing and health is no easy feat, as poor health
conditions can be linked to poor and insufficient housing conditions instead of just type of
housing. As such, Mant outlines alternative research methods in considering the conceptual
and methodical challenges facing an inquiry into the health hazards of high-rise housing,
explaining the difficulties and doubts attached to each type of research method. He provides a guide to health and housing research and a framework for understanding the various
studies related to the topic. Mant’s assessment of the value of the different methodologies
is directed towards exposing the discrete world of research expertise to the untrained but
understanding eye of the non-professional. He also provides the research amateur with
checklists for evaluating the professional empirical investigator, thus providing a foundation for understanding and evaluating the studies of specific health hazards in relation to
high-rise housing and provides methods which can be used for future areas of research.
McCarthy, P, Byrne, D, Harrison, S, and Keithley, J (2004) Housing type, housing
location and mental health. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 20(3):
125–130.
In this study, people dwelling in high-rise flats are more prone in developing mental illnesses than those living in houses. This conclusion was examined “by comparing the rates
on an indicator of psychological distress in different dwelling types located in good and bad
council housing areas”. However, the results obtained suggested otherwise, that psychological distress was more closely related to the location of the dwelling rather than to the
housing type. “High-rise flats located on the inner-city estates” were related to high levels
of psychological distress while the opposite (low levels of psychological stress) was found
in high-rise flats that were located in the suburbs. The findings were also consistent with
other variables like the “effect of age, health, sex and household class” that were taken into
consideration. Thus the initial conclusion that people dwelling in high-rise flats are more
prone in developing mental illnesses than those living in houses do not hold true for this
particular study.
Ooi, P L, Goh, K T, Lee, H S, and Goh, C L (1991) Tussockosis: an outbreak
of dermatitis caused by Tussock moths in Singapore. Contact Dermatitis, 24(3):
197–200.
In this article, it was mentioned by the authors that there was an outbreak of dermatitis
(acute pruritic rash) that occurred in March 1990 among 141 residents. These residents were
living in a high-rise public housing estate in Bukit Panjang, Singapore, where the outbreak
occurred. The rash consisted of urticarial lesions that were distributed over the limbs and
trunks of the infected residents. Upon further investigation, it was found that the cause of
the outbreak was associated with a transient increase in tussock moths in the residential
estate which followed after an unusual short dry spell. This aetiology was established when
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patch tests with crude moth material produced similar eruptions in five out of seven adult
volunteers between the duration of forty minutes and twelve hours. A similar response to
that induced by histamine was elicited through the conduction of pharmacological experiments with aqueous extracts of moth hairs in isolated guinea pig ileum. Thus, to prevent
future or similar possible outbreaks among other high-rise public housing estates, further
studies on the vertical distribution and breeding environments favoring the tussock moths
can be conducted for future implementation to prevent the same situation from happening
again.
Potter, I N (1991) Sick Building Syndrome, The Building Services Research and
Information Association, Berkshire.
The author highlights the various symptoms of the Sick Building Syndrome, of which
sensoric irritation in the eye nose or throat is the dominating one. Parameters that play
an important role in the Sick Building Syndrome, such as the heating, ventilating and airconditioning systems of buildings, are identified as well. With the aim of creating guidelines
to act as preventive measure, a set of conditions targeted at alleviating the symptoms and
causes of the Sick Building Syndrome is formulated. Good housekeeping protocols that can
be put into place to minimize the symptoms of the syndrome have also been suggested. The
author brings up an interesting point, of which other books addressing the sick building syndrome have ignored – the complaints of people within the building. Be it living or working
there, the comments of these people should not be disregarded as such forms of feedback is
vital in allowing others to determine the effectiveness of the methods employed to address
the issue of the sick building syndrome.
Rivault, C and Cloarec, A (1997) Outcome of insecticide control of cockroaches
(Dictyoptera: Blattellidae) in public housing in France. Journal of Environmental
Management, 51: 187–197.
Rivault and Cloarec investigated the current situation in high-rise flats in the French city of
Rennes concerning the effects of insecticide control on the presence of cockroaches (Blattella germanica). An enquiry involving 838 flats was conducted and an improved control
protocol was drawn up and applied during a two year campaign of insecticide treatments
in 230 flats. The results obtained from the campaign showed that the proportion of flats
where cockroaches were found was lower than the proportion of flats in which the residents
reported seeing cockroaches when the enquiry was carried out. There was also a significantly higher proportion of cockroach infested flats where residents refused treatment than
what was revealed by the enquiry. Hence, what could be drawn from this study was that for
the success of cockroach control operation using insecticides in high-rise public housing,
access to all of the flats is an absolute necessity. It is also difficult to have an exact evaluation
of the cockroach population in each flat, especially if the population is small. This also
shows that pests like cockroaches are prevalent and can be found among high-rise housing
as well.
Saunders, T (2002) The Boiled Frog Syndrome: Your Health and the Built Environment, Wiley Academy, Chichester.
Thomas Saunders uses an intriguing analogy of boiled frogs to describe typical human
behavior of adapting to rising health hazards to satisfy our needs for better living, until
everything is too late. He touches on the sick building syndrome (SBS), which has become
commonplace. In this book, the upsurge in the number of cancer cases and other related
diseases has been attributed to the severe contamination of the environment in built-up areas.
In-depth discussion on the sources of environmental pollution, including contaminated land
due to landfills, toxic gas (radon) emissions, asbestos and volatile organic compounds, is
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done in the book. For example, Saunders highlights the use of asbestos in building materials, which are known to be cancer-causing. He also points out the severity of negative ion
depletion on the human health, since the lack of such ions has an undesirable impact on the
bodily chemical changes. It is important to note that points raised by Saunders may not be
applicable to all, since not all countries have the same practices. For example, there are no
landfills within the island of Singapore. Hence, it is unlikely that land contaminated land in
Singapore will be due to improper treatment of landfills.
Sulaiman, S, Karim, M A, Jeffery, J, Yusi, R, and Wahab, A (1993) A study on
the vertical distribution of Aedes aegypti (L.) in high-rise flats in an endemic area
of dengue/dengue haemorrhagic fever in Malaysia. Japanese Journal of Sanitary
Zoology, 44(4): 397–399.
A study on the vertical distribution of Aedes aegypti in high-rise flats was proposed. The
study was conducted in a sixteen-storey high-rise residential building in an urban area of
Kuala Lumpur to determine the vertical distribution of the Aedes aegypti so that future
precautions and preventions can be taken to reduce and prevent the transmission of the
dengue vector in high-rise buildings. From the results obtained, it was found that breeding
of the Aedes aegypti occurred in all sixteen floors of the building including the roof-top.
This thus indicated that in this particular study, the vertical height of the building does not
hinder the vertical distribution of the Aedes aegypti. However, it was found that the dengue
vector was the most prevalent and dominant at the second floor level. Hence, it can be
concluded that the height of the second floor was the optimal vertical distribution of the
Aedes aegypti. In future, the construction of buildings may be in such a way where the
second floor level may be left empty (like void decks) or for other uses which require an
enclosed air-conditioned space.
Hygrothermal
Abd, E and Khair-El-Din, M (1991) Earth sheltered housing: an approach to energy
conservation in hot arid areas. Architecture and Planning, 3: 3–18.
This paper provides several ideas on how clean and green technologies can be used for
earth-sheltered housing especially in hot arid areas. The crisis is generated by the unwillingness to adopt the use of innovative and less energy consuming solutions for human
settlements. Even though there is a huge inventory of solutions ranging from recovery processes, insulation techniques, simple orientation, treatment of building elevations, methods
of construction, size of windows, shading devices, building materials to size of elevations,
energy in these developments persists to be used wastefully in a very extensive way. This
is due to the questionable performance of imported lightweight materials such as asphalt,
asbestos, plastics, rubber, timber, glass and metal which are increasingly used in the hot arid
oil-rich Arab countries. Conservation is a crucial part of energy planning, helping to cut
down and reduce the negative environmental impact of any energy-intensive development.
The current situation dictates the need for the adoption of technology that is non-polluting,
simple in principle and socially acceptable. Our ancestors adopted simple, energy consuming techniques using earth and masonry as the fundamental construction materials for their
buildings. These climates favour the use of heavyweight material which has tremendous
heat performance and a high heat storage capacity. The use of earth can keep a building
cool during the warm days and warm during the cold nights. The objective of this paper is
to help achieve that goal through the analysis of earth sheltered housing developments, the
impact of environment, climate and site characteristics on their design and the subsequent
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impact of such developments on the overall ecological setting. The paper concludes that a
developed site with earth-sheltered houses will not disrupt the landscape, and instead will
enhance natural beauty. It mentions that earth sheltered housing is “a positive step” towards
achieving sustainability and energy conservation.
Bojic, M and Yik, F (2005) Cooling energy evaluation for high-rise residential buildings in Hong Kong. Energy and Buildings, 37(4): 345–351.
Based on the design of a typical high-rise public housing block in Hong Kong, the dependence of space cooling loads of residential flats on the constructions of external walls and
partitions, and the location of thermal insulation layer in the walls and partitions, was studied by detailed simulation. The results show that insulating the envelope and the partitions
would be effective in reducing the yearly space cooling load, by up to 38%, but could either
increase or reduce the peak cooling demand, depending on the number and positions of
insulation layers in the walls. Reducing the thermal capacity of the envelope and partitions
would lead to large increases in the peak cooling demand, by more than 60% in the extreme
case.
Chow, D H C and Levermore, G J (2007) New algorithm for generating hourly temperature values using daily maximum, minimum and average values from climate
models. Building Services Engineering Research and Technology, 28(3): 237–248.
Building designers often predict building performances using simulation programmes that
use hourly weather data. While some weather stations provide such data, many only provide daily data. As such, algorithms are required to obtain hourly weather data from such
data. The author offers a glimpse on available algorithms to perform such calculation and
introduces a new algorithm, called Q-Sin method. The author proceeds on to discuss the
effectiveness of each algorithm and compares them with each other. The results indicate
that the Q-Sin method introduced in the paper can reproduce hourly temperatures better
than other algorithms. It does so by utilizing daily maximum, minimum, and average temperatures while other algorithms utilize only maximum and minimum value. The study also
reveals that the specified time for daily maximum and minimum value is crucial to estimate
hourly temperature accurately. This study is useful for building simulation programmes and
provides more accurate data to obtain better simulation.
Collin, K J (1993) Cold- and heat-related illnesses in the indoor environment. In:
R. Burridge and D. Ormandy (Ed), Unhealthy Housing: Research, Remedies and
Reform, E and FN Spon, London, 117–137.
Collin analyses the health implications of both excessive cold and heat in the home of
high-rise buildings and raises other indoor climate related clinical conditions that can result
from a high-rise living environment. The “indoor climate of a high-rise building embodies
aspects of the hygrothermal environment, lightning, noise and air quality that influence
requirements for comfort, health and safety. In cold air temperatures, the moisture content of the outside air is low even though the relative humidity (RH) may approach 100%.
This air may then infiltrate the indoor environment of a high-rise building causing the RH
to become very low, creating an irritant effect for the occupants. This decrease will also
lead to respiratory illnesses and the upper respiratory tract infections due to the increased
transmission of infection as airborne micro-organisms survive better at lower humilities.
As such, in the construction of high-rise buildings, each component in the building from
natural lighting to thermal insulation has to be critically considered in relation to its effect
on the others as interactions may occur between the physical elements of the environment.
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Wong, M B and Ghojel, J I (2003) Spreadsheet method for temperature calculation
of unprotected steelwork subject to fire. The Structural Design of Tall and Special
Buildings, 12: 83–92.
In the case of a fire, the properties of structural components of a building may not be well
known. An overestimation of the properties may result in a structurally unsound building
during a fire while and underestimation may cause wastage of materials and thermal insulation. While it is simple enough to say that overestimation may be safer, companies are
always interested in greater profits and cost savings. This paper proposes an accurate and
efficient method of predicting the temperature within the steel using a simple spreadsheet
by considering heat transfer principles. They have also considered the gaseous composition
of combustion products which many papers ignore. It is claimed that this method can be
applied under most fire conditions. However, in a complex building, more factors such as
thermal insulation and interaction of concrete and steel may come into consideration thus
a more complicated program may be required nevertheless this simple method provides a
quick guide that is easy to apply.
Impact of Terrorist Attacks
Anonymous (2002) Dissecting the collapses. Civil Engineering, 72(5): 36–45.
This report analyses the collapses of the World Trade Centre Towers in the terror attacks on
September 11, 2001. Following the attacks, there were inquiries into the structural integrity
of the two towers from the general public and media sources, particularly due to the fact that
the towers collapsed, appearing to have been damaged beyond what was expected of them.
This was also partially due to the notion that the towers were built to withstand aircraft
impacts, yet they proved otherwise. The author, however, gives an insight into the possible
reasons behind the demise of the two buildings, analyzing the intended structural support
features of the architects and designers, and basically concludes that the collapses were a
result of combined cause of the failure of the fire protection system, the fire from the aircraft
fuel, and the structural damage dealt by the crash. More importantly, the author also rightly
suggests more studies based on modelling individual components of the buildings be done
to determine the actual causes. Also suitably recommended is the study on whether there
are actually feasible methods to stop collapses in buildings of comparable height, though
the author believes that airport security as a preventive measure is even more important.
Bazant, Z P and Zhou, Y (2002) Why did the world trade center collapse? – Simple
analysis. Journal of Engineering Mechanics, 128: 2–6.
The collapse of the World Trade Center during the attacks of September 11th came as a
shock to the world. In the months that followed it, many have continued to ask how it
happened. In this paper, the authors took a simplified approach to consider the engineering
aspects of how the building collapsed especially since the building was designed to take
the impact of a large aircraft. It is noted that at high temperatures, the yield strength of
structural steel tends to decrease increasing its likelihood of buckling. This was possible
in the case of the World Trade Center due to the aircraft fuel present, exposing the steel to
upwards of 800◦ C for long periods of time. The collapse did not occur immediately but upon
buckling of the structural steel of a single floor, the kinetic energy of the top crushing down
on the top floor causes the subsequent collapse of the floor below creating a domino effect.
Interestingly, the paper also examines through the use of physics many other questions like
why the building did not topple over like a tree. More importantly, the paper points towards
future research into fire safety and developing better materials to withstand such disasters.
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Brouwer, G (2002) Up into the sky. Civil Engineering, 72(1): 50–57.
The author of this report presents an overview on the fate of high-rise buildings following
the terror attacks on the World Trade Centre Towers. General discourse on the history of tall
buildings is also presented with the intention of familiarizing the reader with the motivations
of building tall buildings as well as the implications, and the theories revolving around the
reasons for the collapses of 9/11. The main theme that runs throughout, however, is the
question of whether super tall buildings like the two towers in New York are going to be
phased out or rather remain as common goals all over the world. In conclusion, the author
seems to suggest that super tall buildings will indefinitely be a feature of major cities around
the world due to the increasing scarcity of land. We see that his prediction is accurate, since
currently, in 2008, we see that buildings taller than the twin towers have been constructed,
and many more are under construction or being planned. Certainly, the threat of terrorism
remains real, but it has not deterred the major cities from going ahead with plans to build
such buildings. Almost certainly, these trends are set to continue indefinitely.
Fortner, B (2001) Designers embrace technology for latest skyscrapers. Civil Engineering, 71(5): 30–31.
Published just several months prior to the fateful terror attacks on September 11, this article
is almost embarrassingly optimistic about the future of tall buildings. In it, the Sixth World
Council on Tall Buildings and Urban Habitat is described as being attended by more than
320 engineers, urban planners, and architects, of which key figures such as presidents and
chief executives of top architectural and construction firms present their latest advancements
in technology. On the other hand, the report accurately describes computer technology,
along with mass dampers, light and strong materials, and innovative construction techniques, as quantum leaps in enabling taller buildings to be built more stably and economically. Evidently, the industry was at a peak of optimism and successful, rapid development.
Although the optimism died down following the terrorist attacks, it seems to have gained
momentum once again in recent years, and the industry has once again attracted much
attention, which will be the trend in future barring any unfortunate events.
Mendonca, D and Wallace, W A (2006) Impacts of the 2001 World Trade Center
attack on New York City critical infrastructures. Journal of Infrastructure Systems,
12(4): 260–270.
The authors of this study investigate the impacts of the terror attacks on critical infrastructures such as emergency services and transportation services in New York City. They focus
much on the interdependencies of these infrastructures and the resulting disruptions that
were caused. The findings include the fact that 20% of the disruptions involved interdependencies, for example emergency services being disrupted due to breakage in transportation
links. Thus, it is concluded that methods be formulated to manage infrastructure disruptions based on the knowledge of interdependencies. The authors are clearly right in their
deductions, since 20% of disruptions, involving interdependencies, can probably be greatly
reduced if such considerations were made. As such, much more emphasis will eventually be
placed on the planning aspect of city building. Moreover, since tall buildings present with
themselves a host of challenges such as transportation and human traffic, as well as possibly
requiring the disruption or rerouting of underground transport routes, more challenges will
be faced when considering the construction of such buildings.
Petroski, H (2002) The fall of skyscrapers. American Scientist, 90(1): 16.
This article pondered over the collapse of New York’s World Trade Center in the September
11 attack. It started with thoughts about the symbolic value of skyscrapers, looked into
the structural design of the twin towers to explain how it was built, the innovations and
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vulnerabilities involved, and talked about the forensic investigation in uncovering the cause
of the collapse, and what lessons can the builders of future skyscrapers learn from it.
Because the article was written just a few months after the terrorist attack, emotions were
still running high and so the author believed city skylines would remain unchanged for some
time due to the disinclination toward building more skyscrapers. Such a sentiment would
largely evaporate in a few years, however, as New York City and Chicago plan their new
record-breaking structures.
Yean, Y L F and Soh, L H (2005) Improving the design of tall buildings after 9/11.
Structural Survey, 23(4): 265–281.
The authors in this paper seek to investigate possible enhancements to the safety of tall
buildings following the terror attacks in New York. Their approach is unique in that it
focuses on architects and engineers in Singapore, by compiling the opinions of these experts
in the field as well as interviewing public authorities for their views as well. In this way, it
is targeted at providing grounds and material for future research in Singapore. Interestingly,
the architects and engineers generally agree that it is infeasible to design buildings to withstand aircraft impacts. Instead, the focus is on improving safety in reasonable peacetime
scenarios and enhancing existing methods to cater for taller buildings in future. The paper
concludes its findings by pointing towards four key methods of improving safety, including
the decentralization of fire protection systems and a separate design code for super tall
buildings. In effect, these aspects will probably lay the ground for the local government to
set the necessary guidelines and criteria, which is key for the safety and reliability of taller
buildings in the future.
Insect Colonies
Jones, J C and Oldroyd, B P (2007) Nest thermoregulation in social insects.
Advances in Insect Physiology, 33: 153–191.
Most social insect species exhibit the ability to control and regulate their nest temperature. This literature review investigates the diverse variety of systems that such species
have adopted and adapted to regulate nest temperature. Two broad categories are identified:
active and passive thermoregulation. ‘Passive’ thermoregulation includes mechanisms like
the selection and orientation of nest site to provide optimal internal temperature, structural
designs that allow passive cooling or heating, or brood translocation to more conducive
regions of the nest. ‘Active’ temperature regulation refers to individual behaviours that alter
nest temperature through physical activity like evaporative cooling or wing fanning. This
review further examines how termite mound designs differ according to climate and geography. Two termite species (Ametermes meridionalis and A. laurensis) in northern Australia
use structure and orientation to regulate nest temperature (long axis is oriented north-south
and in dry cooler seasons, they shift towards eastern face). Near Chicago, nest mounts of
Formica ulkei have a long slope aligned to maximise solar radiation. Under shading experiments, these ants modify the slope.
The North American harvester ants Pogonomyrmex occidentalis construct nests with
southeastern slopes and northwestern peaks to maximise solar radiation. Interestingly, this
design resulted in a range of temperatures under the ground from 12.9◦ C to 41.8◦ C and
under the peak 10.7◦ C and 43.3◦ C. This wide range is exploited by workers for different
functions. Bees, on the other hand, make use of batumen and cerumen (both plant compounds) in their walls to regulate temperature. Slender comb designs (in Ropolidia variegate
jacobsoni) tend to give cooler nest temperature than oblong ones (in R. fasciata). A silk
cap on pupae provides insulation too. He cited examples of a termite species Macrotermes
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bellicosus in two different habitats, savannah and galley forest, and two different nest architectures are observed. In the hotter savannah, they are tall and thin-walled. In the cooler
shaded galley forest, they are dome-shaped and thick. Experiments show that termites
modify their architecture from one form to another in response to the climate. It is also
observed that during construction, environmental factors such as wind can affect distribution
of ‘cement pheromones’ which affect final nest outcome. Such understanding can enhance
the interaction between architecture, engineering and environment. Several similarities are
observed amidst the diversity of thermoregulatory mechanisms. Interestingly, in the insect
world, all thermoregulatory mechanisms are self-organized in which individual workers
obey certain simple rules or guidelines. Certainly, it is a protocol worth exploring with
regards to participatory concerted action within a vertical city in which communications
face more boundaries as compared to horizontal communal living.
Kleineidam, C, Ernst, R, and Roces, F (2001) Wind induced ventilation of the giant
nests of the leaf cutting ant Atta vollenweideri. Naturwissenschaften, 88: 301–305.
This article aims to comprehend the importance of highly sophisticated nest architecture for
the regulation of nest climate. In addition, it examines the mechanisms underlying air ventilation in a large field nest of Atta vollenweideri. During summer, the predominant force driving the ventilation is surface wind. It draws air from within the nest through central tunnels.
The paper suggests that nest ventilation, in this case, is not driven by thermal convection
as the nest does not maintain the required temperature gradient. It instead contains fungus
that tolerates temperature below 30◦ C. Measurements show that temperatures within the
nest do not reach 30◦ C, the temperature required for significant thermal convection to take
place. Two functionally distinct tunnel groups were identified based on their predominant
airflow direction: outflow tunnels in the upper and central regions, and inflow tunnels in the
lower and peripheral region of the nest mound. Nest ventilation in the leaf-cutting ants Atta
sexdens and Atta cephalotes were first studied in 1939 by Wilson and Sheehy. By releasing
small smoke puffs at various openings, they both observed that certain nest openings ‘suck
in’ air. The extraordinary capability of leaf-cutting ant workers to measure absolute carbon
dioxide (CO2 ) concentrations makes this gas a probable trigger of regulatory responses, and
a high sensitivity to air flows, as observed in termites, could facilitate researchers in locating
outflow channels. Measurements were taken using anemometer tubes that were positioned
at a depth of 10 cm within the tunnels and were connected with a wire. All anemometers
were oriented in a manner that a positive sign of the sensor output voltage indicated inflow
and a negative sign outflow of air into the nest. Even though this article does not deal directly
with skyscraper design, it exposes an issue common between buildings and biological nests:
ventilation.
Korb, J and Linsenmair, K E (2000) Ventilation of termite mounds: new results
require a new model. Behavioral Ecology, 1(5): 486–494.
In 1955, Lüscher proposed a ventilation system for cathedral-shaped termite mounds to
exchange respiratory gases, in which the heat released by termite bodies in the central nest
would heat up the surrounding air, rise up the central vent and goes down the peripheral
columns, exchanging gases across the thin mound walls like a lung. To test this hypothesis,
the authors measured carbon dioxide concentrations, temperatures and air currents within
two types of Macrotermes bellicosus mounds: the tall and thin-walled savannah types with
ridges and the dome-shaped thick-walled forest types without ridges. The authors observed
two distinct ventilation mechanisms, depending on the surrounding temperatures. Referring to the savannah type, during the day, the peripheral columns are heated up, creating a
temperature gradient that leads to thermal convection and removal or circulation of carbon
dioxide. At night, as the peripheral column gets cooled more than the central nest, convection decreases and air becomes still. The carbon dioxide concentration in nests at night
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tends to be higher than in the day. It is found that the ventilation system in the savannah
type is externally driven by the sun. The dome-shaped nest however exhibits Lüscher’s
postulation, indicating a predominantly internally driven system. Hence, experimental data
does not support Lüscher’s hypothesis for the tall savannah structures.
Southwick, E E and Morritz, R F A (1987) Social control of air ventilation in
colonies of honey bees, Apis mellifera. Insect Physiology, 33(9): 623–626.
This report finds that the fanning behaviour exhibited by honey bees provides effective
ventilation inside the nest. There are several fascinating findings. First, even with only a
single small entrance leading into the nest, the fanning could be coordinated so as to induce
tidal ventilation akin to a typical breathing pattern. This fanning behaviour also regulates
temperature, carbon dioxide concentration and humidity. In addition, brood temperature is
maintained at 35◦ C by burning stored honey. Second, such periodicity in the active fanning
movement could expel an air current followed immediately by a passive air influx. Third,
interestingly, this fanning behaviour exhibits negative phototaxis (it gets induced due to lack
of light). Fourth, the respiratory activity of the bee colony reduces at night. Through field
observations and experimental setups emulating nest cavity, it is found that the bees coordinate amongst themselves by employing fanners near the entrance to regulate air movement
(into or out of the nest) depending on temperature and light. It is observed that large colonies
cost less metabolically in winter in terms of thermoregulation. Interestingly, measurements
and dimensions of nest cavity appear to be carefully planned out to optimise ventilation and
colonial survival. These observations point out that knowledge of occupant population and
seasonal climate changes during construction can lead to effective design. Ultimately, the
shape, volume and intense activity within the nest influence the nest microclimate greatly.
Ideas such as the burning of honey and proactive ventilation design can be applied into
construction technologies in the future.
Integrating with Nature
Barnett, D L and Browning, W D (1999) Why go Green? From a primer on sustainable building. In: F. A. Stitt (Ed), Ecological Design Handbook: Sustainable
Strategies for Architecture, Landscape Architecture, Interior Design and Planning,
McGraw-Hill Professional, London, 5–9.
Barnett and Browning concluded that there are a lot of reasons on why buildings should
be environmental friendly and have a positive instead of negative impact on the surrounding environment. Some of these reasons include “improved aesthetics, comfort and performance” which will in turn translate to improved and increased productivity with “lower
operational costs”. Even though the building cost of green buildings is comparable to that
of conventional ones, unlike conventional buildings, green buildings consume less energy,
obtain and harness energy from natural sources, and in turn produce less pollution. Thus,
green buildings provide healthier spaces for occupants and residents to live and work in,
as many work-related illnesses like headaches and eye strains are directly related to poor
lightning, inadequate fresh air, harsh acoustics and gloomy surroundings that prevail in
many office spaces found in conventional buildings. This is of great importance specially so
when 80% of the typical American spends most of their time indoors. Therefore, with the
construction of green buildings, absenteeism and sick-leave use will reduce significantly,
suggesting that green buildings are not only nicer, but healthier to live in as well.
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Kilbert, C J and Grosskopf, K (2005) Radical Sustainable Construction: Envisioning Next-Generation Green Buildings, White Paper, Philadelphia.
Green building activity in the United States has accelerated over recent years, indicating
a progress towards sustainable construction. Over 22 million m2 were registered as green
buildings as of March 2005 based on standards set by the US Green Building Council.
Weaknesses of present standards include no long-term assurance for sustainability, and
reliance on optimal use of existing materials, design methods and fee structures. Such
standards are insufficient. Radical innovations need to arise to better address environmental
sustainability issues. Problems faced impeding innovations range from detailed definition
of a green building, to general approaches like closing material loops, generating passive
designs and optimising hydrological cycles, and the lack of specific goals and targets to
measure green building performance. Such problems can only be addressed well with
radical sustainable construction. Integration of ecosystems and landscapes are encouraged
because ecosystems can help heat and/or cool buildings, store stormwater, treat water, provide food and enhance aesthetics. The closing of material loops involve designing buildings
for deconstruction and constituent materials from start to end must not release harmful
emissions. Incorporation of passive ventilation and lighting during the design and construction phase constitutes systems thinking. ‘Green’ roofs on structures and water recycling
systems help optimise hydrological cycles within the tower. Indoor environmental quality
(IEQ) measures like air quality, noise, lighting, vibration, views to the exterior, temperature
and humidity must also be introduced. With regards to the biomimetic approach, ceramic
seashells are produced at ambient water temperatures with no waste unlike our current
methods of producing ceramic which are energy intensive. Solar energy collectors could
be embedded into walls facing the sun using adhesives inspired from mussels that attach
themselves to rocks by the shore. Overall, this book emphasizes the need to give serious
thought on ecological design, beyond simply trying to improve building performance.
Law, J (2008) Towards bioclimatic high-rise buildings: is a bioclimatic design
approach appropriate for improving environmental performance of high-rise buildings? In: T. Riley and G. Nordenson (Ed), Tall Buildings, Museum of Modern Art,
New York, 1017–1025.
This paper seeks to address the potential of the bioclimatic approach in improving energy
efficiency, and providing better comfort condition for the occupants in typical high-rise
office buildings. There is an increasing need to conserve and minimize energy wastage and
need for heating and air-conditioning of high-rise buildings due to the large negative impacts
that wastage of energy has on the environment which in turn affects human health. In addition, high-rise buildings, which first originated from North America, can now be found in
almost every major city around the world especially in developing and developed countries
in Asia. Therefore, bioclimatic design is of utmost importance in the design approach of
high-rise buildings as the bioclimatic approach tackles problems of energy usage, air quality,
amenity that the building provides to the users and productivity which can all be affected
by the environmental conditions in the building. All these aspects are “directly linked to the
comfort criterion for the occupants”, hence it is necessary to look into the feasibility of this
upcoming approach in the design of high-rise buildings and how it exactly contributes to
improved health and well-being of the occupants.
Lawrence, R J (1993) An ecological blueprint for healthy housing. In: R. Burridge
and D. Ormandy (Ed), Unhealthy Housing: Research, Remedies and Reform, E and
FN Spon, London, 338–359.
“There are some pathological conditions that can be attributed to the quality of dwelling
units and their surroundings” even though it is commonly stated that there is a relationship
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between high-rise housing condition and the health and well-being of the residents. It is
recognized that high-rise housing in general provides some form of protection against exposure to external elements like vectors of communicable disease and polluted outdoor air. As
such, Lawrence discusses the various models and principles to be taken into account in formulating housing and health policies in high-rise housing design. He considers the internal
conditions of the dwelling unit and its relationship with the external environment, developing a range of high-rise housing and health indicators from an ecological perspective.
His approach illustrates the limitations of many of the conventional approaches to high-rise
housing and health. By examining the indicators in relation to health and well-being of the
residents, an evaluation of the indoor environment can be done.
Liu, J R, Wang, R S, and Yang, J X (2003) Environmental impact of two types of
residential building. Urban Environment and Urban Ecology, 16(2): 34–35.
House consumption is the main source of environmental impact of household. In this study,
the life cycle analysis methodology and Boustead Model is used to compare the energy
consumption and environmental emissions of two different types of residential building,
one a high-rise building and the other a low-rise building. The results obtained from the
study showed that the environmental impacts of the high-rise building are higher than that
of the low-rise building in these factors: content of energy consumption; air emission; water
emission; and solid waste. This is accounted for by the number of residents living in the
high-rise building compared to the low-rise building as the high-rise building could accommodate a greater number of residents (high-density living). As such, with a greater number
of households moving to high-rise buildings, the environmental impact of house consumption will increase at the same time. Hence, the construction of future high-rise buildings
should take into account the bioclimatic approach so that it will be self-sustainable, energy
efficiency and reduce the impact that it has on the environment.
Mulholland, J, Howard, S, and Roberts, C (2003) Energy management in buildings.
Practitioner, 4: 8–73.
The importance of energy-efficient buildings and related services in protecting the environment is highlighted in this paper. It centers on the issue of minimizing the use of carbon
resources, in the hope of helping to reduce carbon dioxide gas emissions. Optimizing the
energy use in buildings is demonstrated through various examples such as amenities like
heating systems, air-conditioning and lightings, which are explained in a concise manner.
Suggestions on the efficient use of energy in buildings are given for both new and current
buildings as well. In addition, concepts on thermal energy are brought in to aid readers in the
understanding of the proposed use of energy-efficient heating systems. Background information on the mechanisms of carbon dioxide emission and technologies involved in renewable energy sources (such as photovoltaic cells) are given in the paper. This paper showcases
the idea of energy-efficiency in buildings, which is significant in creating environmentallyfriendly high-rise since tall buildings tend to have a heavy demand for energy resources.
However, it is essential to note that some evidences listed are only applicable to the United
Kingdom.
Nagaoka, A and Harashina, S (2006) A study on the effect of environmental impact
assessment of high-rise buildings in the Tokyo metropolitan area: toward strategic
environmental assessment. Studies in Regional Science, 36(2): 419–432.
In 1981, an ordinance of Environmental Impact assessment (EIA) was enforced by the
Tokyo Metropolitan government which prescribes 26 types of developmental projects
including high-rise buildings as the view is that these projects are likely to cause significant
adverse effects on the environment. However, this ordinance was amended in 2002 to allow
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the easing of some restrictions. As such, most of the high-rise buildings projects have been
exempted from the ordinance since then. This may lead to the development of high-rise
buildings which may bring about a drastic or negative impact on the environment. In this
study, the amendments of the ordinance were explored. The current environmental quality
of high-rise buildings in the Tokyo central area was investigated as well to explore whether
the relaxation of the ordinance has led to drastic and negative changes in the environmental
quality as compared to before these amendments were made. By doing so, improvements
of the current EIA ordinance of Tokyo can be made to further improve the development of
high-rise buildings that are environmentally-friendly.
Ong, B L (2002) Green plot ratio: an ecological measure for architecture and urban
planning. Landscape and Urban Planning, 63(4): 197–211.
Ong concludes that the current research on the sustainability of high-rise buildings has
favoured the implementation and conservation of greenery in building development. He
feels that “the benefits of plants are not just environmental, but recreational, aesthetic and
emotional”. Even though the full benefits of plants and the role they play in the ecology
of high-rise buildings have remained to be mapped out, plants are still significant. In this
paper, Ong proposes an architectural and planning metric for greenery in cities and high-rise
buildings to integrate high-rise buildings and plants. This new metric is known as the green
plot ratio which is based on the “common biological parameter called the leaf area index”
and “defined as the single-side leaf area per unit ground area”. The use of the green plot
ratio is similar to the building plot ratio just that instead of controlling floor area, the green
plot ratio controls the area of the greenery on site, ensuring that there is an integration of
greenery with building development.
Raw, G J and Prior, J J (1993) The environmental assessment of new houses. In:
R. Burridge and D. Ormandy (Ed), Unhealthy Housing: Research, Remedies and
Reform, E and FN Spon, London, 361–379.
New homes like high-rise buildings have an impact on the global and local environment, the
use of natural resources and impact on the indoor environment. Raw and Prior identified the
contribution that construction methods and materials can make towards reducing pollution
and improving the environment for a healthier future. They describe a scheme developed
by the Building Research Establishment for the assessment of new high-rise houses which
accredits pollution-reducing and safety-enhancing features of high-rise construction. They
also provided another example of the potential for developing practical guidelines and evaluation criteria directed towards the reduction of specific health hazards in the home environment. This is especially important as the impact of high-rise construction and buildings
leads to health implications not only for the residents living in these buildings, but for the
earth as well (contributing to the depletion of the ozone layer and global warming).
Wooley, T and Kimmins, S (2000) Green Building Handbook Volume 2: A Guide to
Building Products and Their Impact on the Environment, E and FN Spon, London.
In this book, the authors focus on the concept of sustainable construction and emphasize the
importance of designing green buildings. Materials such as paints, carpeting and solvents
are discussed in a thorough manner. An analysis on the various aspects of materials (e.g.
constituents, toxicity, chemical properties, health effects) used in buildings is done as well.
By listing the negative impacts brought about by the use of conventional materials (which
harm the environment and humans), the authors gives a clearer picture on the possible dangers that building occupants can be exposed to. Alternatives that are non-toxic and pose the
least threat to the environment are also suggested. The authors have also managed to dispel
common misconceptions that people have using various literatures, such as the role negative
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ions play in the onset of the sick building syndrome. This book will be suitable for those
who work in the building industry as the information it provides can be applied to many
aspects of building construction and designs. Although the information given is not directly
related to skyscrapers, the fundamental principles still applies to tall buildings.
Yeang, K (2001) The Green Skyscraper: The Basis for Designing Sustainable Intensive Buildings, Prestal Verlag, Munich.
A whole new perspective on tall buildings is created here, as ecological features are shown
to be integrated into building designs, protecting the environment and enhancing the performance of skyscrapers in the process. In particular, the author highlights the use of natural
ventilation to enhance indoor air quality and reduce carbon dioxide emissions. In addition,
a very innovative method (using flowers as absorbers) to reduce VOC (volatile organic
compound) levels is suggested. The author also stresses on the importance of selecting
materials that are environmentally-friendly (e.g. formaldehyde-free carpets). In this book,
the author manages to break free from the stereotype of skyscrapers as energy-guzzling and
environmentally-unfriendly structures by introducing nature into building designs. These
ecological designs can act as effective means to solve problems of poor indoor air quality,
which are often related to mechanically-ventilated buildings, such as skyscrapers. However,
it might seem ambiguous to some people when the author is seen to substantiate his claims
using his books. However, the conclusions drawn should be reliable as his information is
derived experimentally after much extensive research. The book will provide viable alternatives and improvements to the design of skyscrapers in terms of the impact on both the
external and indoor environment.
Zelvo, C and Cousinean, P (1999) Why is architecture oblivious to the environment?
An interview with Ian McHarg from Design Outlaws of the Ecological Frontier. In
F. A. Stitt (Ed), Ecological Design Handbook: Sustainable Strategies for Architecture, Landscape Architecture, Interior Design and planning, McGraw-Hill Professional, New York, 17–22.
Zelvo and Cousinean agreed that the design of buildings should be interpreted with nature.
As we are living in a biology world, there is a need to know about the plants, animals
and microorganisms as all of them form a very complex integrating system. Disturbing this
system will bring about a great detriment not only to them but to us as well. Hence, Zelvo
and Cousinean emphasized that people or architects, should know what they are doing and
be aware of the implications of building in some environments. Different environments are
suited differently, and one needs to be able to discriminate one environment from another to
determine the most suitable environment for building. In addition, not only must one understand the biological system of building, one must also be able to identify the appropriateness
of adaptations to suit the environment. Through the understanding of nature, knowing how
the land came to be, how it works, the implications upon the land if any adaptations are
made, finding appropriate locations and forms will one then be able to invocate a grand
design with nature.
Materials
Anderson, A C and Stromvall, A M (2001) Leaching of concrete admixtures containing thiocyanate and resin acids. Environment Science Technology, 35: 788–793.
Ecological factors are gaining an increased importance in the recent years and scientists
are working hard to prevent the release of toxic chemicals into the surroundings. Thus with
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this in mind, this paper is a sobering one. Thiocyanate exhibits acute and chronic toxicity
and thus its release into the atmosphere through diffusion from concrete is of concern. It is
shown that 6 to 8% of thiocyanate is emitted over a 30 day period. Given the lifetime of a
building, it is rather worrying. While resin acid exhibit slower rates of emission at 10% over
143 days, it is still a cause for worry as it has the ability to bioaccumulate among aquatic
organisms to dangerous levels. The authors point out that this study is done in a laboratory
setting which is very different from in-situ conditions. Thus further research still needs to
be done to determine the danger from such chemicals and whether it is already a serious
problem. If it is proven to be true, work needs to be done to find alternatives to the chemicals
to build “safer” buildings.
Barthelat, F (2007) Biomimetics for next generation materials. Philosophical transactions of the Royal Society A, 365: 2907–2919.
As buildings grow taller, there is an increasing demand for stronger materials much needed
by structures near the base to withstand the weight of higher levels. This article suggests
several novel materials that exhibit impressive mechanical characteristics like lightness,
stiffness, toughness and strength, as well as explores the mechanics involved in hard biological materials like nacre and bone. Both comprise a large percentage of minerals like calcium
carbonate that correlate to material strength. Innovative methods like layer-by-layer assembly or ice-template crystallisation are described, but they consume much time and effort.
Consequently, the paper sees great potential in ‘bottom-up’ fabrication of nanomaterials
through self-assembly or biomineralisation as these methods introduce tremendous control
at the intricate level, which becomes amplified at the macroscopic level. There is a graph
relating toughness versus hardness of various biological materials. Such visual analytical
representation facilitates engineers and designers to select the most appropriate biological
material to study for a desired characteristic. Bivalves and gastropods develop hard shells
to protect themselves from predators and debris. Through evolution, nacre appears to be
the strongest and toughest shell structure (approximately 90 GPa and 1 KJ m−2 ). The shell
of a red abalone comprise two layers: an outer layer of hard but brittle calcite crystals,
and an inner layer of nacre (composed of 95% aragonite and 5% organic materials). The
outer layer prevents penetration and the inner layer, arranged like alternately-stacked tessellated tablets, dissipates mechanical energy through inelastic deformation. Nanoasperites
are structures that prevent tablet sliding. Hardening mechanisms at the periphery of tablets
enhance dissipation. Bone, on the other hand, is more dynamic. It has mechanisms that can
regulate its density based on mechanical loads. Further explorations into self-healing and
microstructural adaptations will lead to ‘next generation’ materials needed where structural
strength and resilience are highly critical. Most importantly, this paper calls for collaboration and information exchange amongst diverse practitioners.
Chang, J, Buchanan, A H, and Moss, P J (2005) Effect of insulation on the fire
behaviour of steel floor trusses. Fire and Materials, 29: 181–194.
In the wake of the World Trade Centre collapse, many researchers have focused on answering how the collapse occurred and how it can be prevented in the future. This paper focuses
on a single aspect, the forces on the trusses due to heat, whether it was sufficient to cause a
collapse and how to prevent it in the future. Though there have been other studies on it, they
fail to consider transverse floor trusses which may also bear some load. Thus the researchers
consider the effect of such trusses, the different possible types of bolting and the presence
of insulation. Though these may not be the actual conditions at the World Trade Centre,
it provides us with an understanding of how to prevent it in the future. Different types of
fire with different decay rates were also modeled. However as the researchers pointed out,
this is only considering one layer and not fire on multiple layers as was in the World Trade
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Centre thus results can be disputed. Further research may be needed to generalize it to an
actual building.
Fang, C F and Froese, T (1999) Cost estimation of high performance concrete (HPC)
high-rise commercial buildings by neural networks. Durability of Building Materials and Components, 8: 2476–2486.
HPC structures’ costs are determined by a few factors, including structure parameters,
building design specifications, and design objectives. Therefore, cost estimation techniques
involves understanding of the interrelationships between these factors and the costs. The
author suggested using neural network, a then relatively new area of research, to discover
and establish relationships between costs for HPC for tall buildings and the design parameters. Two neural network models are used and tested. Such neural networks require training
to be able to automatically predict the cost estimation of HPC. Between the two strategies,
the estimation strategy is easier to implement yet has an accuracy of only 92%, which is
lower than the hierarchical strategy. Hierarchical strategy requires more than one network
and extensive training and implementation works. The conclusion is that neural networks
are plausible methods to use in cost estimation of HPC for tall buildings from the experimental results of the two strategies.
Flint, G, Usmania, A, Lamontb, S, Toreroa, J, and Laneb, B (2006) Effect of fire on
composite long span truss floor systems. Journal of Constructional Steel Research,
62: 303–315.
Many studies have been done to understand the effect of fire on the structure of a building especially on its load bearing capabilities to facilitate escape. In many tall buildings,
steel trusses and beams composited with the concrete slabs are being utilized. This study
focuses on the behavior of such a floor system in the event of a fire. A program called
ABAQUS finite element package was used to model the behavior of the building including
thermal expansion effects. The materials used are steel and lightweight concrete conforming
to Eurocode. The results show that it is unlikely for the composite truss flooring system
to fail suddenly but rather the failure seems to take place more gradually. This seems to
contradict results in other papers but care must be taken to note the different constraints
and materials used. However the unpredictability inherent in most fires and compositing of
different materials with different heat properties may be difficult to model accurately.
Gonzales, J M and Jalali, S (1998), Smart structures using carbon fibre reinforced
concrete (CFRC). In: J. Holnicky-Szulc and J. Rodellar (Ed), Smart Structures:
Requirements and Potential Applications in Mechanical and Civil Engineering,
Kluwer Academic Publishers, Netherlands, 89–95.
This paper discussed the use of CFRC in smart buildings. CFRC has many attractive
properties, such has high flexural strength, toughness, and earthquake resistance. However,
more importantly in the context of smart buildings, it can conduct electricity with variable
conductance depending of its mechanical stress. This means that the building could selfmonitor its state of stress by simple current measurements. Despite the great potential of
this material, plenty of further research is needed to address some difficulties that prevented
its widespread use; some that is mentioned in the paper is the water content, distribution
of carbon fibres, and repeatability of electrical response of the CFRC. The authors seek
to address the last point, and presented their experimental findings in this paper. They
found that the current intensity in the CFRC remains proportional to the applied force after
repeated loadings. However, the experiment is still at a very early stage. They only examined
the effect of uniform loading in a block of concrete. The usefulness of the material in a tall
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109
building subject to wildly varying stress is unexamined. The authors state that their research
is still ongoing.
Grand, A F and Wilkie, C A (2000) Fire Retardancy of Polymeric Materials, Marcel
Dekker, New York.
The use of fire-retarded polymeric systems is highly applicable in today’s world. It could be
a matter of life and death, since unwanted fires can be prevented or at least the rate of burning can be reduced when fire-resistant materials are used. This book does a very detailed
analysis on the chemical aspects of flame retardant materials. The reaction mechanisms as
well as the thermochemistry aspects of flame-resistant materials exposed to high temperatures are examined in order to illustrate the flame-retardant efficacy of these materials.
Various types of spectroscopy such as infra-red and Raman spectroscopy have also been
conducted on these materials to determine the chemical structures of chemical components.
It is noted that a very wide range of chemicals are inspected in this book, be it organic or
inorganic compounds. The author has also used fire statistics to provide evidences of the
benefits of the use of fire-retardant materials. The findings of the analyses done will be very
useful to builders or designers selecting materials to use in the construction of any building,
especially high-rise since fire safety aspects are of utmost importance in such high-density
living areas.
Han, C S, Lee, S Y, Lee, K Y and Park, B S (2006) A multidegree-of-freedom
manipulator for curtain-wall installation. Journal of Field Robotics, 23(5): 347–360.
Recently, the trend in architectural forms has been towards larger and taller buildings.
Building materials are, therefore, also becoming larger and heavier. Typical construction
machineries are not adequate for handling such materials, and most construction works are
still managed by a human operator. Construction processes are, therefore, fraught with a
number of problems, including frequent accidents, high construction cost, and heterogeneous construction quality depending on the experience of the workers. Automation has
been introduced at various sites to address these construction problems. In this paper, the
process of a curtain-wall installation in a skyscraper is analyzed, and the prototype of a
construction robot for curtain-wall installation (CRCWI) is proposed. Use of the proposed
CRCWI can reduce the need for manpower and the construction period and cost, and can
assure safety in the curtain-wall construction site. The performance of the proposed CRCWI
was verified with a real application test in a skyscraper construction site.
Hegger, J (1996) High strength concrete for a 186 m high office building in Frankfurt, Germany. Engineering Structures, 18(11): 850–854.
Trianon was the first building in Germany to require the use of high strength concrete of
at least 85 MPa. The German standard for reinforced concrete was regulated to withstand
up to 55 MPa. For this building, special permits had to be requested. This paper looks at
how the high strength concrete was selected and tested based on the properties of such
concrete on aspects such as mix design, design assumptions, fire tests, experience on site,
quality control and economic aspects to ensure the safety and viability of using high strength
concrete. The paper was written with a specific case study thus the analysis was only specific
to one example only. The designers took into consideration the high temperatures in-situ
which may decrease the strength of concrete which contradicts a previous study. They would
have done better if they did in-situ tests to get actual results rather than extrapolate the
results. However, the rest of the paper still proves to be rather thorough with the tests being
carried out.
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Hutchinson, A R and Iglauer, S (2006) Adhesion of construction sealants to polymer
foam backer rod used in building construction. International Journal of Adhesion
and Adhesives, 26: 555–566.
Sealants are used in the construction of a building to ensure a complete and tight seal of
a building against water and temperature transfer. In a single building, we may use up to
50 km of sealants to ensure a complete seal. The sealant is an elastomeric polymer to allow
stretching and compressing due to expansion and compression of the building. A backer
rod is usually placed behind the sealant to limit the depth of the sealant. Problems usually
arise due to the poor adhesion to substrates and adhesion to backer rod. This paper studies
specifically on the adhesion of the sealant with the backer rod using tack and peel tests
and compared it with surface free energies calculated. With this information they proposed
adhesion mechanisms and recommendations for constructors on the type of backer rod to be
used. However, weather conditions were not considered during the experiment. In a tropical
climate like Singapore, the high heat may cause the polymer to melt or have increased
surface energies, which could affect the results. Thus, a study that takes into account the
local climate may be required.
Jones, W D (2007) How to build a mile-high skyscraper. Institute of Electrical and
Electronics Engineers Spectrum, 44(6): 52–53.
Behemoth buildings are becoming practical thanks to new technologies and innovations
in construction materials. This paper presents the use of different innovative technologies
in the construction of mile-high skyscrapers. These include new concrete technology such
as whisker-free steel fibres, smart fibres and carbon nanotubes; safety technology like collapsible escape pods, refuge floors and electromagnetic shafts; green technology including
windmill, photovoltaic panels and double-layer facades; as well as elevators capable of
changing lanes. However, not all of these technologies are implementable at this stage, so it
may remain some time before a mile-high skyscraper can be constructed even with financial
backing.
Kim, H S and Cho, S H (2005) Shrinkage stress analysis of concrete slab in multistorey building considering variation of restraint and stress relaxation due to creep.
The Structural Design of Tall and Special Buildings, 14: 47–58.
Concrete is known to shrink over time due to the evaporation of water content. This may
lead to cracks if the concrete slab is restrained by other structural elements which do not
allow it to shrink. Other studies have been done on the subject but they usually consider an
invariable restraint which is unrealistic as other elements may shrink or expand as well. Thus
the researchers consider a variable restraint as well as shrinkage strains, stress relaxation
due to creep to determine the shrinkage stress. These calculations are applied to a model
10 storey building to illustrate their use. Interestingly, the results show that concrete slabs
on lower floors are more restraint compared to higher floors. Thus the shrinkage stress
decreases as we go up in floors. This experiment considers a pure concrete slab with no
reinforcements. Thus a case where reinforcements are in place may give different results.
Also, the concrete is assumed to be normal concrete but even then concrete has different
grades with differing amounts of water content. Shrinkage may vary vastly dependent on
the water content.
Kim, S B, Lee, Y H, and Scanlon, A (2008) Comparative study of structural material
quantities of high-rise residential buildings. The Structural Design of Tall Buildings,
17(1): 217–229.
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111
A major factor in the selection of the structural system for a high-rise building is the initial
construction cost of candidate structural systems. In Korea, composite steel and concrete
construction, and cast-in-place concrete flat plate construction are the most commonly used
structural systems. However, there is a lack of data related to the relative construction costs
of these two structure types. This paper compares material quantities for representative
building models up to 80 stories in height using both types of structural system. Based on a
typical floor plan, six models are developed and the buildings are designed for gravity and
lateral loading. Quantities of materials for each model are calculated and compared. The
information presented can be used with appropriate cost data to compare construction costs
for the two structural system types.
Kruschwitz, B, Claus, R O, Murphy, K A, Mary, R G and Gunther, M F (1992)
Optical fiber sensor for the quantitative measurement of strain in concrete structures. In: B. Culshaw, P. T. Gardiner, A. McDonach and European Optical (Ed),
First European Conference on Smart Structures and Material, Institute of Physics
Publishing and EOS/SPIE, Bristol, 241–244.
This paper presented a method of measuring the dynamic strain in concrete using extrinsic
Fizeau fiber Interferometric (EFFI) sensors. The EFFI is embedded within the concrete
structure for new constructions or attached to it using epoxy adhesives in the case of existing buildings. The advantages of EFFI include freedom from electromagnetic interference,
physical robustness, and multiplexing capability. The paper first outlined the construction
method and the theory behind the function of an EFFI sensor, followed by an application
example with some experimental results. The method outlined in this paper seeks to use
short gage length optical fiber strain gages to quantitatively determine the localized strain
field components as well as spatially distributed multi-dimensional strain fields and temperature. This method is a cheap and efficient solution for assessing the condition of existing
structures, to determine whether to perform maintenance or even to demolish the structure.
Kwan, A K H and Au, F T K (2004) Flexural strength-ductility performance of
flanged beam sections cast of high strength concrete. The Structural Design of Tall
and Special Buildings, 13: 29–43.
Flanged beam sections of concrete tend to be considered superior to rectangular sections in
terms of their resistance to flexure. However, according to the researchers not enough study
has been done on them to differentiate between flexural strength and flexural ductility. While
most people only consider flexural strength for the safety of a building, the researchers
argue that flexural ductility is just as important. Thus the aim of this paper is to study the
flexural strength and ductility of flanged beam sections. This is done through the use of
models developed earlier by another team at the University of Hong Kong. The results they
obtained showed poorer ductility for the flanged beam for the same overall dimensions but
better ductility at the same sectional area. However, note must be taken that this study is
based on a model developed by an earlier team and not actual experiments thus results may
differ in actual situations.
Linsheng, H, Gangbing, S, Hongnan, L and Karolos, G (2008) H∞ robust control
design of active structural vibration suppression using an active mass damper. Smart
Material and Structures, 17: 015021.
This recent paper deals with an old problem (the paper cites paper dealing with the same
problem dating from the early 1990s) that is the most commonly investigated active control
system: the use of active mass damper. The paper seeks to improve the existing systems in
terms of their robustness, i.e. their ability to handle great variations in applied loading as
well as inaccuracies in the supposed model. The authors assert that in spite of erroneous
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structural modeling (which is easy to happen because of the complexity involved), a control
system should be robust enough so that it will never become unstable. They utilized a technique called linear matrix inequality to design a controller that they claim is very robust.
They then proceeded to build a scale model of a multi-story building with variable stiffness
and mass to test out their controller. The mass dampener performed consistently, giving a
nearly constant reduction ratio when subjected to the same earthquake simulation even with
great variation of stiffness and mass.
Nagashima, I (2001) Performance of hybrid mass damper system applied to a 36storey high-rise building. Earthquake Engineering and Structural Dynamics 2001,
30: 1615–1637.
This paper presented a new hybrid mass damper (HMD) system and its application to a high
rise building in Tokyo. The new system utilizes a gear type pendulum and a linear actuator.
The gear-type pendulum is employed to make the natural period of the auxiliary mass comparatively long while minimizing the height of the device, and the linear actuator realizes
smooth and noiseless operation of the system. Two of such system are employed together
to control the transverse-torsional coupled vibration of the building. A unique control algorithm called variable gain feedback, VFG, is also developed to specifically take advantage
of this system’s strengths. The experimental result showed that the system performed very
well under typhoon condition, reducing maximum acceleration experienced by the building
by 63%. This result also confirmed the accuracy of the theoretical model developed to create
the algorithm.
Nishimura, I, Yamada, T, Sakamoto, M and Kobori, T (1998) Control performance
of active–passive composite tuned mass damper. Smart Material and Structures, 7:
637–653.
This paper first described the development of tuned mass damper (TMD) into active mass
damper (AMD) through the use of actuators. The authors seek to combine the two methods,
in what could be called a hybrid system of both active and passive element. They developed
a methodology to determine the optimum parameters and to minimize the force, power,
and energy involved in controlling various types of excitations. The model is then extended
into multi-modal algorithm model, to simulate the real thing a little better. The authors
performed several simulations and field experiments to verify the developed model. This
paper is a follow-up of the above-reviewed paper by the same group.
Palmeri, A and Ricciardelli, F (2006) Fatigue analyses of buildings with viscoelastic
dampers. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics, 94: 377–395.
Behavior of viscoelastic materials are usually modeled after a Kelvin-Voigt model however
when being applied as a damper, the model may not be accurate. A more accurate model
is needed which can take into account viscoelastic memory. Thus a different model is proposed in this paper which is used to analyze the fatigue life of structural components in the
building. The damage on a building due to wind loads can be modeled by the PalmgrenMiner rule. However, the rule also fails to take into account memory effects. Through the
application of the rule on a model 15-storey building, significant inaccuracies were found.
Thus it is concluded that the effect of considering viscoelastic memory is significant and
should be considered in any fatigues analysis of buildings with viscoelastic dampers. This
is very technical paper dealing with many equations behind the different models, which is
difficult to understand but for those interested to see what goes on behind a model, this may
be a good place to start.
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113
Qu, W L and Xu, Y L (2001) Semi-active control of seismic response of tall buildings with podium structure using ER/MR dampers. In: G. C. Hart (Ed), The Structural Design of Tall Buildings, Wiley, England, 179–192.
The use of electrorheological (ER) or magnetorheological (MR) dampers, smart materials
which will change state upon application of electric and magnetic fields respectively, to
connect a podium structure to a neighboring tall building to prevent whipping effect when
they are subjected to earthquake excitation is explored in this study. A smaller building
is more resistant to a lateral motion, and due to the proximity, the tall building will also
experience increased lateral stiffness. This will result in a potentially catastrophic increase
of displacement of the top of the building. Simply applying a dampener in the tall building is
not sufficient here; the solution the authors proposed is to connect the two building and then
semi-actively controlling the structures using the ER/MR through conventional feedback
loop. A 20-storey and 5-storey pair of buildings is presented as experimental subject to
demonstrate the effects numerically.
Rao, A and Anandakumar, G (2007) Optimal placement of sensors for structural
system identification and health monitoring using a hybrid swarm intelligence technique. Smart Material and Structures, 16: 2658–2672.
This paper explores the problem of positioning the limited number of sensors in a structural
health monitoring activity in order to achieve the best result. Due to cost concern, the number of sensors that could be deployed is very limited. To ensure meaningful depiction of the
structure and accurate assessment of its condition, these sensors must be placed judiciously
at the most advantageous sites. However, for large buildings with numerous sensors and
correspondingly large possible sites, the problem is quite daunting computationally. The
authors proposed a method that could be used to evaluate the problem effectively, without
arbitrarily restricting the possible sites as what is usually done. The algorithm developed
combines several known techniques of optimization, and is experimentally found to be
superior to others in terms of suggesting the minimum number of sensors needed and their
placement. The proposed hybrid algorithm will also produce the solution faster than its
parent and will work well on larger problems. Finally, the paper also investigated that the
factors affecting the number of sensors needed, the desired level of accuracy and the noise
level.
Saito, T, Shiba, K and Tamura, K (2001) Vibration control characteristics of a hybrid
mass damper system installed in tall buildings. Earthquake Engineering and Structural Dynamics 2001, 30: 1677–1696.
This paper presented the observations data from two tall buildings (50 and 43 stories)
equipped with hybrid mass damper (HMD) system. The system used consists of a suspended
auxiliary mass (the passive element), a motorized actuator (the active element), and air brake
cylinders (safety equipment). The two buildings are outfitted with the system in the early
1990s, and thus they have had the chance to experience some typhoons and earthquakes,
and the experimenter are able to switch on and off the HMD to obtain both damped and
un-damped reaction of the building. The available data was analyzed, and the authors concluded that the system is an excellent tool of vibration suppression. It successfully damped
the vibration of both earthquake and typhoon to acceptable mode.
Song, G, Gu, H, Mo, Y L, Hsu, T T C and Dhonde, H (2007) Concrete structural
health monitoring using embedded piezoceramic transducers. Smart Material and
Structures, 16: 959–968.
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This paper investigated the feasibility of using piezoceramic transducers embedded in the
concrete for structural health monitoring. One of the three piezoelectric based methods to
determine a structure’s condition, the vibration characteristic method, is employed. The
premise is that a healthy and damaged building will have a different transfer function. Thus,
by having a transducer generate a signal and by having others analyze the resulting signal
that arrives at other locations, it is possible to identify whether any damages (i.e. cracks in
the structure) are present, and how severe they are. Judging from their experimental results,
the authors concluded that their method is superior to the traditional methods using C-scan
and X-ray in terms of ease of use, speed, accuracy, sensitivity, and cost. While it is not
possible to apply this method for existing buildings, this is a very attractive method that
should be implemented for the new ones.
Stierwalt, D D and Hamilton III, H R (2005) Creep of concrete masonry walls
strengthened with FRP (fiber-reinforced polymer) composites. Construction and
Building Materials, 19: 181–187.
Given the recent understanding and popularity in fiber-reinforced polymers, builders have
started to use FRP laminates to strengthen basement walls which are under lateral stress
due to soil and ground water. Compared to steel, FRP composites are much lighter and
cheaper in terms of raw materials. However, there is the problem of creep, where the material deforms under long term stress. This is already observed in concrete and even more
so in polymers which forms the matrix of the composite. The creep performance would
depend on the orientation and type of reinforcement used. For most applications this was
extrapolated from previous tensile tests on the materials which is not specific and may
not be accurate thus the motivation for the researchers to conduct their own tests. Their
tests showed that deflection due to creep of FRP strengthened walls were much higher
than those reinforced with steel. It was also noted that this is strongly affected by type of
polymer matrix used thus more tests has to be conducted for different systems. Although
more expensive and heavier, the steel reinforced concrete may still be the more sensible
method for now.
Swee, L M and Torii, K (1995) Strength development of high strength concretes
with and without silica fume under the influence of high hydration temperatures.
Cement and Concrete Research, 25(8): 1791–1802.
High performance concrete of high compressive strength has many practical applications in
the construction of high rise buildings such as core walls and columns. Its properties in-situ
differs from its properties under normal conditions due to the load it bears and the ambient
conditions. It is known that core temperatures in-situ can rise to about 70◦ C. This can affect
the strength and cure rate of the concrete. Knowledge of its in-situ strength is important to
ensure safe usage of these new materials. In this paper, the researchers considered Portland
Concrete with and without treatment of Silica Fumes subjected to high in-situ temperature
conditions. It is seen that under different curing regimes such as curing in water and at
standard temperature, the concrete mixtures behaved differently mainly due to the rate of
evaporation of the water content. While high temperatures may hasten early evaporation of
water, it does little to increase the strength of the concrete over a year and in some cases
even regressed compared to those cured at standard temperatures. However, it may be asked,
how the experiment may vary when conducted in a tropical climate such as Singapore?
Troitskii, B B, Troitskayal, S, Yakhnov, A S, Dmitrieva, A A, Anikinal, I, Novikova,
M A and Denisova, V N (1999) Investigation of fullerenes as high temperature
stabilizers of poly(methyl methacrylate) and polystyrene. In: G. E. Zaikov and
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115
N. A. Khalturinskii (Ed), Low Flammability Polymeric Materials, Nova Science
Publishers, New York, 199–216.
The use of polymers such as polyvinylchloride (PVC) and polystyrene in buildings is fairly
common. Applying high temperatures (e.g. in fires) on these polymers can have adverse
effects if toxic fumes such as hydrochloride gas are released. By focusing on the temperature inhibition ability of fullerenes (C60 and C70 ) on selected polymers, this paper will
be useful to building industries (e.g. materials engineers) looking at safer alternatives for
fire-retardant materials. It is pointed out that polymers with more stable chemical structures
have higher temperature limits. A further analysis on the reaction mechanisms involved
reveals that the interactions between fullerene and certain radicals influence the structural
stability of compounds. Although this paper compares between the temperature stabilizing
ability of fullerenes and anti-oxidants, it does not elaborate on anti-oxidants, which can be
confusing to readers who have no background knowledge in this field. It is also important
to note the findings of this study may not be applicable to all polymers, since different
polymers can have different thermal and thermo-oxidative degradation characteristics. As
the discovery of fullerene is fairly recent (1990s), we can expect the advancement of this
form of technology such that its applications can become more economical and efficient.
Uchino, K (1992) Piezoelectric ceramics in smart actuators and systems. In:
B. Culshaw, P. T. Gardiner, A. McDonach and European Optical (Ed), First European Conference on Smart Structures and Material, Institute of Physics Publishing
and EOS/SPIE, Bristol, 177–180.
This paper covers the many functions of piezoelectric smart materials. The author classifies
“smart” into many levels, and piezoelectric materials in its many forms fulfills all the conditions one way or the other. Firstly, it is possible to use it as a passive smart material: it can act
as a damper, absorbing electrical noise and dissipating it harmlessly as heat. An active smart
material is exemplified by the ability of the lead zicronate titanate to behave as an actuator.
Furthermore, he defines a very smart material class, which includes shape memory alloys
and monomorphs, the latter of which could be constructed from piezoelectric materials.
Finally, there are intelligent materials, which can act as a sensor, actuator, and driver or
controller, and of course piezoelectric material is a member as well. The author concluded
by saying that the piezoelectric materials have a bright future ahead of them; indeed, his
prediction has been proven true today.
Wijesundera, D A, Olomolaiye, P O, and Harris, F C (1991) Dynamic simulation
applied to materials handling in high-rise construction. Computers and Structures,
41(6): 1133–1139.
Information flow in construction company was based on crude recording and reporting
systems, hindering effective decision-making process. The authors describe a research to
develop a computer-based simulation system to aid decision-making process concerning
“materials handling during contract planning”. By integrating software produced by different software companies, the system, called Stella, avoids problems with poor coding
techniques if construction companies were to write the code themselves. Stella models
material handling process as a continuous simulation where environment under study is
assumed to be analogous to fluid flow in a pipe. This is a departure from discrete simulation
techniques common in earlier application. The system also incorporates an expert system
to assist in decision-making. The author argues that knowledge of information technology
and decision tools would be “prerequisites for business success”.
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Wilkie, C A and Nelson, G L (2006) Fire and Polymers IV: Materials and Concepts
for Hazard Prevention, American Chemical Society, Washington.
Although this book does not make a direct reference to tall buildings or skyscrapers, it does
bring in concepts that are relevant to the materials used in the construction of high-rise.
Various experimental methods such as photoelectron spectroscopy and nuclear magnetic
resonance (NMR) have been employed, and this is mentioned in the book. Laboratory
procedures involved in the analysis are included as well. Using the experimental results
obtained, the authors analyzes chemical compounds such as polymers in great details, in
particular the physical properties of the molecules. This piece of information acts as one of
the ways where details on the thermal stability of materials can be obtained. In addition,
the book provides information on flame-resistant and fire-retardant chemicals. Since fire
safety is one of the main concerns when designing tall buildings, this book can be used as
a reference for the planning of the construction of high-rise where fire-resistant materials
play a big role.
Yu, W W, Baehre, R and Toma, T (1993) Cold-formed Steel in Tall Buildings,
McGraw Hill, New York.
Cold-formed steel refers to steel that has been shaped while cold into the shape required
which are usually sheets, strips or plates. This is only possible due to the unique ability of
metals or in this case steel to deform without breaking. This property is termed ductility.
While usually weaker than hot-formed steel members, the ability to composite with other
materials and complementary use has allowed engineers to use cold-formed steel in applications such as roof and floor decks, wall panels, partitions and many more. This book takes
a more technical approach to allow designers to understand the state-of-the-art regarding
cold-formed steel, its properties and how to best apply it in design including its joints and
connections. It also discusses design standards and specifications including latest research at
that time. Many recommendations are given to the designs and proven methods are shown.
It is more useful for the designers and structural engineers but given the constant advances
in technology, the technological data may no longer be relevant, however the practices and
recommendations should still provide a good guide for designers.
Zhang, Y and Zhu, S (2007) A shape memory alloy-based reusable hysteretic
damper for seismic hazard mitigation. Smart Material and Structures, 16: 1603–
1613.
In this paper, a strategy to reduce earthquake-related damages is explored. The idea is to
direct most of the energy of the quake into sacrificial materials, which are earthquake resistant and could be easily replaced if necessary, while the main structure remains undamaged.
The use of shape memory alloys (SMA) for this role is very attractive, due to its ability to
return to its original shape after a deformation, enabling it to be used to weather multiple
earthquakes. The application of a type of SMA called nitinol to a steel-framed multi-story
building is examined in this paper. The SMA has a dampening effect during the earthquake
itself, reducing the maximum drift by about 1/3, but the main effect is in reducing significantly the permanent damage suffered by the building. In the study, where the effect of a
large earthquake was simulated, the uncontrolled building suffered 0.5% permanent drift,
while the controlled one only has 0.04%. This technique is not meant to be used individually
in the case of a tall building; a drift mitigating technique such as a tuned mass damper would
still be needed, but this technique definitely has its uses.
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Nanoscience
Beck, A, Popp, G, Emmerling, A, and Fricke, J (1994) Preparation and characterisation of SiO2 two-step aerogels. Journal of Sol-Gel Science and Technology, 2:
917–920.
Aerogels are well suited as transparent insulation materials in solar architecture and collector systems. Those with densities beyond 80 kg m−3 can be prepared at room temperature
through an easy one-step sol-gel method followed by supercritical drying. For ultra-low
density SiO2 aerogels, it can be produced through hydrolysis and condensation in a two
step process. To optimise optical properties and reduce scattering coefficient, the paper
modifies the pH-value of the initial sol-gel solution and macroscopic density, and examine
the effects of such parameters. Spectral light scattering such as small angle X-ray scattering
(SAXS) measurements were used to determine nanostructures. Silica aerogels are found to
have high transmission coefficient and low thermal conductivity, attributed to high porosity,
making them ideal materials for insulation. Ammonium hydroxide was used to catalyse the
gelation process. Increased pH levels will result in a strong decrease of scattering coefficients. It is also noted that the fractal dimension is independent of catalyst concentration.
In conclusion, this paper elaborates on the preparation of silica aerogel that can be ideal
material for insulation in high-rise buildings.
Uchino, K (1992) Piezoelectric ceramics in smart actuators and systems. In: B. Culshaw, P. T. Gardiner, A. McDonach and European Optical (Ed), First European
Conference on Smart Structures and Material, Elsevier, Amsterdam, 177–180.
Piezoelectric and electro-strictive actuators have become widely-used in micro-positioning
in precision engineering and optics. Several investigations have been done on the improvement of ceramic materials for actuators, designs of control devices and characterisation
of actuators. Interestingly, this paper evaluates piezoelectric and electro-strictive actuators
in relation to smart systems. There are four categories of smartness: “passively smart”,
“actively smart”, “very smart” and “intelligent” materials. Passive damper application of
lead magnesium niobate (PMN) based ceramics can reduce noise vibrations. It can be noted
that when piezo-electricity and semiconductor effects are superimposed, a bending deformation can be observed in a total ceramic plate. This property can be made beneficial in
which undesirable bending in certain building components, for example, can be controlled
and remediated. Latching relay and mechanical clampers can be created with very smart
materials, like monomorphs of piezoelectric materials and shape memory alloys. Piezoelectric ceramics can be designed to be intelligent materials are those which can sense, actuate,
drive and controls. This paper could have propelled research and discoveries towards piezoelectric materials, which are well abundant and relatively well understood nowadays.
Safety
Kajewski, S L and Hampson, K D (1997) Reengineering high-rise construction
for enhanced cycle times and safety. In: S. Mohamed (Ed), Proceedings International Conference on Construction Process Re-engineering, University of New
South Wales, Australia, 591–602.
Construction of high-rise concrete buildings relies extensively on multi-level formworking,
a process in which a limited number of formwork and shoring sets are cycled up the structure
as construction progresses. This multi-level formworking procedure relies on supporting a
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freshly cast slab on a number of lower level slabs, which may or may not have attained their
full strength. Currently, the multi-level formwork shoring procedure and slab construction
cycle times for buildings with post-tensioned slabs are selected based on the requirements
for conventionally reinforced slabs. As such, cycle times of 4 or 5 days are common. This
paper proposes, however, that due to the inherently different behaviour of post-tensioned
slabs, it may be possible to shorten slab cycle times, reduce formwork and shoring materials
and improve construction safety.
Santoso, D S, Ogunlana, S O, and Minato, T (2003) Assessment of risks in high
rise building construction in Jakarta. Engineering, Construction and Architectural
Management, 10(1): 43–55.
Risk is inherent in every construction project, especially complex projects like high rise
buildings. It is helpful to understand the significant risks in order to anticipate their possible
negative effects on projects. This research identifies, ranks and categorizes high potential
risks in high rise building projects in Jakarta. Questionnaire surveys and interviews were
conducted on engineers from contracting firms in the city. The result shows that risks related
to management and design are the most significant in high rise construction projects. It
is also shown that client interference should be avoided or reduced in tandem with good
communication and teamwork between contractors and consultants to minimize defects.
Contractors also need to give attention to the maintenance of equipment in order to sustain
high productivity levels.
Structure
Ahmedzade, P, Tigdemir, M and Kalyoncuoglu, S F (2007) Laboratory investigation
of the properties of asphalt concrete mixtures modified with TOP–SBS. Construction and Building Materials, 21: 626–633.
This paper investigates the properties of materials used in construction. Asphalt concrete
mixtures are examined when added with various chemicals, namely Styrene-butadienestryrene (SBS) and Tall Oil Pitch (TOP). Several mixtures were studied with varying
amounts of SBS and TOP added and evaluated based on industrial standards such as penetration, softening point, Fraass breaking point, and kinematic viscosity. Essentially, the
materials showed improved hardness and ability to withstand temperature changes. An
optimum mixture, modified with 8% TOP and 6% SBS, has been found to give the best
overall performance in all the tests. With these results, the authors make a development
in the production of reliable building materials. While current materials are sufficient for
the purposes of constructing buildings, the future is bound to present new challenges, be
it to construct taller or demanding breakthroughs in design and structure. Thus, it is vital
that research on the materials be conducted concurrently with the other forms of research,
giving the industry the basis of moving forward.
Aveni, M (2001) Tall building to use wind power for energy efficiency. Civil Engineering, 71(2): 10.
This report presents an insight into the latest technologies and ideas implemented into a
super tall building. Set to be the tallest in the world when completed, London’s Citygate
Ecotower is a fine example of the latest technologies combined with the ideology of sustainable development. The author reports that the structure, standing at 112 levels, will be
able to produce 60% of the energy it consumes. Interestingly, the ability of this building to
produce energy has another side effect – reducing its susceptibility to wind loads. Ingenious
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designing has allowed the shape of the building to direct wind into turbines which generate
electricity through a central channel built into the core of the building. Furthermore, this
building provides an insight into the implications super tall buildings may have on existing
infrastructure and networks. In order to integrate the transport system to the new building, a
subway is to be attached to the building. These and other considerations such as the depth of
the building’s foundations require either much adjustment of existing underground transport
routes, or to locate the building in a less densely populated area. Indeed, these abovementioned factors are set to be the key factors considered in future projects of this scale – energy
efficiency, the building’s strength against strong forces of nature, and the its impacts on the
existing networks in the city.
Baker, W (1990) Sizing techniques for lateral systems in multi-storey steel buildings. In: L. S. Beedle, D. B. Rice and Council on Tall Buildings and Urban Habitat
(Ed), Tall Buildings: 2000 and Beyond, Lehigh University, Bethlehem, 545–554.
This paper is on the sizing of the members of the lateral resistance system for steel buildings
so as to achieve efficient and economical buildings. The sizing technique employed in this
paper uses energy considerations for both axial and flexural members. The crux of this
investigation is to find the minimum volume structure which can effectively resist wind
load. The mathematical analysis of optimization is presented. Six different types of frame
structures are shown and each discussed to illustrate when this analysis is useful. Even as the
analysis fails, some variations are suggested to overcome the disparity. The study suggests
that the trend of high-rise is to make use of minimal resources to build buildings. However,
this study seems to be over simplified as minimizing the volume is only one segment of
reducing cost and using lesser materials. Other factors that can be considered may be the
type of framing, the type of materials used and the geometry of the building. This would
make the study more comprehensive.
Baker, W F, Korista, D S, and Novak, L C (2007) Burj Dubai: engineering the
world’s tallest building. The Structural Design of Tall and Special Buildings, 16(4):
361–375.
As with all super-tall projects, difficult structural engineering problems needed to be
addressed and resolved. This paper presents the approach to the structural system for
the Burj Dubai Tower. These include foundations and site conditions, wind engineering,
long-term and construction sequence analysis, reinforced concrete link beam analysis and
superstructure concrete technology. These information offer a valuable inside view into the
process of constructing the world’s tallest structure, which has in turn opened the way for
even taller buildings in the future.
Beck, H and König, G (1967) Restraining forces (Festhaltekräfte) in the analysis
of tall buildings. In: A. Coull and S. Smith (Ed), Tall Buildings, Pergamon Press,
London, 513–536.
This paper is targeted at finding a solution for the equilibrium based on a deflected system,
which means it has to be calculated according to the theory of the second order. The authors
believe that the usual first order analysis of the internal forces often result in uneconomic
cross sections or unsafe dimensioning. However, since the calculation of the second order
is complex, the authors came up with an alternative method to calculate the results based on
the theory of second order. The method proposed is to combine several unknowns into one
single unknown function, based on the assumption of a continuous substitute system for the
discontinuous systems. This paper is useful in presenting an alternative method to bypass
the complex calculations involved in solving the second order equation. This is important
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as it allows more accurate analysis to be made, which can improve economic efficiency as
well as safety of a building.
Beckmann, P and Dunican, P (1967) The use of shear walls in high buildings. In: A.
Coull and S. Smith (Ed), Tall Buildings, Pergamon Press, London, 101–118.
This paper is based on a few specific examples of applications of shear walls in the practical
design of structures. The ideal situation occurs when necessary shear walls not only have
the structural function of carrying loads, but also the non-structural function of dividing and
enclosing space. This leads to a system of cross-wall construction. The advantages of the
structures and the problems of some of them are highlighted. A lot of cross referencing was
done between structures to address how each problem faced could have been solved using
another building’s structure. The authors conclude by suggesting that much of the design of
structures for buildings are based on compromises and uncertainty, which actually decreases
as height of building increases. This paper is useful as it shows how each factor of building
stability is weighed and balanced. However, the authors could have made the weighing
process more prominent and give more explanation to how the compromises come into
place. There seems to be some attempts at discussing the progress of structural systems
through time but this was only dealt with briefly. More discussion on this aspect could have
also made the study more helpful.
Berman, J, Warn, G, Whittaker, A and Bruneau, M (2003) Reconnaissance and
preliminary assessment of a damaged building near Ground Zero. The Structural
Design of Tall and Special Buildings, 12: 371–391.
A research team visited Ground Zero twice in the two weeks following the attacks of
September 11, 2001, to collect perishable data related to the collapse of the two 110-storey
towers and collateral damage to buildings and infrastructure surrounding the World Trade
Center complex. The visit on September 23 involved a walk-through of one high-rise building that was badly damaged by large pieces of debris that were ejected from World Trade
Center Tower 2 as it collapsed. This paper presents information from the building-interior
reconnaissance on September 23 and the subsequent analysis of a building frame with
properties similar to those of the damaged building. Linear and non-linear analyses were
undertaken. Such analyses showed that the use of rigid beam-to-column connections in the
building frame enabled gravity loads in the frame above the segment of the building that
partially collapsed to be transferred to adjacent undamaged vertical components.
Brebbia, C A and Wilde, W P (2002) High Performance Structures and Composites,
WIT Press, Boston.
Composite materials are seeing increased use in every industry and structural engineering
is not excluded as well. This book looks at the latest in terms of composite technology and
their possible applications. While not all may be related to construction of a high-rise, many
will impact its construction either directly or indirectly. This book may be of interest to the
daring architect who might seek to include some of the new concepts and materials into his
or her next design. However it must be noted that such new materials may require much
more work to understand before it can be applied to something as large and as impactful as
a building and even more so for the skyscraper. Any gaps in understanding may lead to a
huge loss economically in terms of further repairs and tests but also potential harm to the
occupants of the buildings. Innovations always come with a set of attached risks but it is up
to the architect and the structural engineer to reduce those risks to a minimum.
Briffett, C (1991) The performance of external wall systems in tropical climates.
Energy and Buildings, 15–16: 917–924.
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High rise buildings in a tropical climate such as Singapore face a unique challenge given its
climatic conditions. The high humidity and temperatures coupled with sudden changes in
temperature due to rain and cloud cover can provide a very hostile environment. Pollutants,
albeit relatively lesser, and high salt content in the air close to the coasts of Singapore still
pose a significant problem. External repairs would incur high costs and if left unattended,
they might prove a hazard as well as an eyesore. Many methods are used to prevent rain penetration, including applied finishes, suspended cladding, curtain walling and many others.
Through the use of specific case studies, different methods are studied to determine its pros
and cons. It is found that many of these methods are still unsatisfactory though there are
methods shown to minimize its effects. The search continues to look for the ideal methods
and materials in order to build a weather-proof external wall that is serviceable and possibly
maintenance free.
Broderick, B M and Elnashai, A S (1994) Seismic resistance of composite beamcolumns in multi-storey structures. Part 2: analytical model and discussion of
results. Journal of Construction Steel Research, 30: 231–258.
Composite beam-columns are commonly used in the construction of high rise. Understanding its material properties is especially important as we continue to build higher putting
more stress and load on the beam column. This is especially important in areas of seismic
activity where a lack of understanding may lead to catastrophic collapse of the building.
This journal aims to study the properties of the beam columns and assess the analytical
models used to model their behavior. Two main analytical models are studied. While both
correspond well with experimental data, there were a few factors that distinguished between
the two proving multi-surface plasticity to be the superior analytical model. It was also
determined by in a companion paper that partially encased beam-columns may provide
superior seismic resistance. This was proven to be true again in this paper which may
provide builders and architects with a new tool to prevent catastrophic collapse due to an
earthquake.
Chai, W and Feng, M Q (1997) Vibration control of super tall buildings subjected
to wind loads. International Journal of Non-Linear Mechanics, 32(4): 657–668.
In this study, the authors model tall buildings and wind that such buildings are subjected
to. Initially, the wind was modelled as ‘white noise’ which is essentially equally distributed
random wind, and the buildings were modelled as a simple shear structure (one that could
deform laterally). However, a more realistic wind load was later used as well as a building
model that more reasonably represented real buildings. Thus, building vibrations due to
wind alone could be examined with respect to parameters of each system, for example
whether a mass damper was present and what materials were utilized in the construction of
the building. Thus, using numerical methods, the optimal values for each parameter were
obtained. Additionally, ‘mega-sub control systems’, essentially control systems integrated
into the structure of the building itself, were implemented and tested in the model in place
of conventional mass dampers and found to be more effective in reducing deformation of
the building and the lateral acceleration. Thus, it is concluded that such control systems may
well be the replacement for mass dampers in future super tall buildings. Indeed, this may
be one way to proceed for the industry if taller and taller buildings are required.
Chan, C (2001) Optimal lateral stiffness design of tall buildings of mixed steel and
concrete construction. The Structural Design of Tall Buildings, 10(3): 155–177.
This paper presents an optimal sizing technique for the lateral stiffness design of tall steel
and concrete buildings. The minimum structure cost design problem subject to lateral
drift constraints is first mathematically formulated and then solved by a rigorously derived
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Optimality Criteria (OC) method. The emphasis is particularly placed on the practical applicability of the optimization technique in engineering practice. Once the structural form of
the lateral load resisting system of a building is defined, the optimal steel and concrete
element sizes are then sought while satisfying all serviceability lateral stiffness and practical sizing requirements. The effectiveness and practicality of the optimization technique is
illustrated through an actual application to the preliminary design of an 88-storey building
in Hong Kong, which when complete, will be 420 m tall and become the tallest building in
Hong Kong.
Chew, M (2001) Construction Technology for Tall Buildings, Singapore University
Press, Singapore.
This book is divided into sections sequenced according to the process of building construction. Each section is on a particular feature of the building, such as foundation, basement
construction and roof construction. There are also two important sections on the safety
and health of construction site workers as well as the site investigation before construction building. Performance of a building is classified into six mandates, namely, building
integrity, thermal comfort, acoustic comfort, visual comfort, air quality and spatial comfort. This book is useful as it suggests advantages and disadvantages of each system used.
For example, the use of prefabricated elements in wall and floor construction reduces total
project time but poses a great problem when dealing with the joints. Therefore, the uses of
each type of construction method are outlined and a better understanding of the construction
methodology is achieved. However, a discussion on how each of the materials or methods
used may result in a more energy efficient building could have been included in addition to
the discussion on durability and stability. This would make the investigations of this book
more complete.
Chu, S and Argiris, L (1990) The application of inelastic analysis of high-rise structures. In: L. S. Beedle, D. B. Rice and Council on Tall Buildings and Urban Habitat
(Ed), Tall Buildings: 2000 and Beyond, Lehigh University, Bethlehem, 529–544.
This study presents an overview of the current state of inelastic analysis techniques for
steel structures of buildings. The inelastic analysis of high-rise structures is carried out with
five models, each with progressively more factors than the previous, with the fifth model
being a second-order inelastic analysis with provisions for accounting for local or torsional
bucking of members. This technique of incremental analysis is believed to give the designer
a better understanding of the behaviour of the structure. The authors also highlight several
issues which need to be considered when applying this technique. The codes governing
such an analysis and their relevance are also discussed. The study ends off with a case
study. However, all processes are not mapped out and shown – only a brief description
of the issues and process of analysis are given. For any detail into the analysis, including
how each of the models help to provide the designer with a better understanding of the
structural behaviour, the references may have to be used instead. Therefore, it is useful only
in providing an overview of how the analysis is carried out.
Council on Tall Buildings and Urban Habitat, Committee 3 (1995) Structural Systems for Tall Buildings, McGraw-Hill, United States of America.
This book gives a detailed description of the various systems which governs the stability
of tall buildings, with specific projects discussed for each type of system. It starts off with
describing the composite steel floor system and concrete floor system. The main section is
about the lateral load resisting systems: braced frame and moment resisting frame systems,
shear wall systems, core and outrigger systems, tubular systems and hybrid systems. Other
topics briefly discussed include fire protection of structural elements. The book ends off
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with a section on the future of high-rise. The trend, as the authors suggest, is an increased
usage of mixed systems and materials, high-strength concrete, and active and passive damping systems. This book is useful to see the progress of construction of high-rise buildings,
how the systems used have evolved and changed due to the invention of prefabrication process as well as the high-strength concrete. The good range of projects discussed provides a
better understanding for the concepts and systems raised. However, as this book is published
by a legislative body, it would be more helpful to discuss the measures taken to help ensure
safety during the construction as well, and not only on the final building structure.
Daniels, K (2002) Building systems. In: J. Eisele and E. Kloft (Ed), High-Rise Manual, Birkhäuser, Basel, 162–181.
This study begins with a description of the human perception of comfort, and describes
systems which aid in providing these comforts. Systems for ventilation, heating and cooling, as well as for lighting, energy supply and power distribution, were discussed. The term
“Sick Building Syndrome” (SBS) was defined and described together with possible ways
to prevent it. The different types of ventilation are described with respect to the changes in
season. Each of the systems was discussed and the installation space needed was provided.
Different possible systems of each of the functions of heating and cooling, lighting, etc,
were described and compared. This study is useful as it suggests different systems which
allow the building to function and for the occupants to perform their duties well. However,
the systems introduced seem to be only for point blocks. Blocks of different geometry may
require different types of systems to govern them efficiently. Therefore, a study on the influence of building shapes on these functionality systems as well as how these systems have
evolved would make this study more useful.
Eisele, J (2002) Construction and design. In: J. Eisele and E. Kloft (Ed), High-Rise
Manual, Birkhäuser, Basel, 96–105.
This is a study on the design of buildings – the form and the systems within the building.
While design is largely dependent on form, the author suggests that material used also constitutes a large part of the design. However, design is not solely attributed to the aesthetics,
it is also about the functionality of the building as well. Several load bearing systems and
structures are discussed, namely, skeleton systems, panel and shear wall systems and tube
systems. Others such as support, cantilever, and suspended systems also contributed to the
design of the building. Combination of mega structures with these essential systems makes
up the design of high-rise. Some trends were noted: that there is a race to be the tallest and
there is also a fascination with twins – Petronas Towers and Marina City Twin Towers are
examples of this trend. Another trend is the ecological design, as buildings more towards
self-sufficiency. This study is interesting as it shows how the design and functionality of
the building are inter-related. Some designs also necessitate certain structures to ensure the
building’s stability. Thus, this building is useful as it fuses the aesthetic, functionality and
the stability of the building. The use of numerous examples helps to make the concepts
easier to understand. Probably more emphasis can be placed on describing the ecological
design of buildings, and how it would be different from the previous buildings in terms of
structural requirements.
Elghazouli, A Y, Izzuddin, B A, and Richardson, A J (2000) Numerical modelling
of the structural fire behaviour of composite buildings. Fire Safety Journal, 35:
279–297.
Understanding of fire behavior of buildings would advise us on how to better evacuate
people during such a disaster. Until now, we could only understand structural fire behavior
through isolated testing of structural components or isolated incidents of fire. Two fire tests
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were carried out on a full scale multi-storey building in Cardington, UK. From the experimental results, a numerical analysis model is designed to predict the behavior of buildings
in a fire. The model agrees closely with the experimental data allowing us to extrapolate its
predictions to other buildings. The model predicts that the restraints to thermal expansion
of the floors are important to the understanding of structural failure during a fire. Knowing
this and other factors can help designers improve fire safety in buildings. Although more
tests other than the two stated in the paper may need to be carried out to test the reliability
of the model, the economic costs of such a test may make it difficult to carry out.
Ellefsen, R (2001) Mapping and measuring buildings in the canopy boundary layer
in ten U.S. Cities. Energy and Buildings, 16: 1025–1049.
This study is a compilation of categorization of characteristics of buildings with a focus on
the surface construction materials. This categorization is necessary for studying acid rain
damage on buildings and others such as meteorological studies on conditions in the urban
canopy. A variety of cities have been included in the study, including Boston, Pittsburgh,
and Houston to name a few. The items recorded in the survey of the buildings included
dimensions, height, type of roof, venting, and building surface material. Thus, this paper
can be viewed as a consolidation of necessary information, which in turn allows studies
on building materials and meteorological impacts of buildings to be done. Only with such
input can future researchers and architects effectively evaluate past designs and concepts
and improve on them. As such, there is indirect impact on the advancement of technology
and thus, the ability to improve on tall buildings. Such works should not be marginalized as
they form the foundation for other studies.
Fang, J Q, Li, Q S, Jeary, A P and Kiu, D K (1999) Damping of tall buildings: Its
evaluation and probabilistic characteristics. The Structural Design of Tall Buildings,
8(2): 145–153.
This paper describes randomness of damping and its probabilistic characteristics in buildings based on full scale measurements. Amplitude dependent behaviour of damping at different amplitude level is presented and discussed, and probabilistic characteristics of the
damping at high amplitude plateau are analysed. The obtained probability density function
(PDF) of damping shows that the PDF of damping at high amplitude can be well represented
by the normal distribution through statistical analysis using a stochastic probabilistic model.
The building used for obtaining actual measurements was only 120 m tall, however, so the
data collected may be on the conservative side. It would have been interesting to explore if
the formula could be applied to a wider range of height.
Fisk, W J, Delp, W, Diamond, R, Dickerhoff, D, Levinson, R, Modera, M,
Nematollahi, M and Wang, D (2000) Duct systems in large commercial buildings:
physical characterization, air leakage, and heat conduction gains. Energy and Buildings, 32: 109–119.
The authors investigate duct systems in large buildings in this paper, focusing on air-leakage
rates, effective leakage areas, and heat conduction. They also compared different methods of measuring leakage rates. This study is clearly important for obvious reasons. Airconditioning large spaces involves a huge amount of energy as well as cost, and leakages
commonly occur leading to undesirable outcomes such as even higher energy consumption. Furthermore, heat conduction along ducts may well affect the cooling efficiency. The
authors measure leakages of air ranging from 0% to 30%, a substantial amount. However,
large inconsistencies in measured leakages using different methods points towards a need
for precision and the general improvement of these methods. Essentially, the study reveals
the amount of energy wastage that is generated on a daily basis all around the world. Recent
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intensification of global warming concerns requires that more attention be placed on this
field, to either improve current cooling systems by eliminating undesired leakages or finding
alternative methods of cooling.
Goldberg, J (1967) Analysis of multi-storey buildings considering shear wall and
floor deformations. In: A. Coull and S. Smith (Ed), Tall Buildings, Pergamon Press,
London, 349–373.
The objective of this paper is to address the assumptions made when using the classical
formulation of wind stress problem of plane frames. One assumption is that the load is
carried entirely by the frame, excluding the shear walls and vertical trusses and shafts.
The other assumption is that the floor slabs are rigid and undergo no deformation. These
assumptions are generally met, but in instances which they fail, this method, as presented
in the paper, shall be used to analyze the wind stress problem. Equilibrium equations are
presented and solved. The author suggests that this analytical model is too simplified and
that a number of additional effects may be included. In addition, the author suggests that
such an analysis in the context of the wind stress problem can be extended to the solution
of buckling and vibration problems of buildings as well. This paper is on the methodology
of analysis and would be useful if some guidelines on how to extend this solution to other
cases were given.
Gunel, M H and Ilgin, H E (2007) A proposal for the classification of structural
systems of tall buildings. Building and Environment, 42: 2667–2675.
The old method of classifying buildings based on their structural frames is getting outdated as more skyscrapers are utilizing composites and not pure steel or concrete frames.
In the past, importance was placed on the structural members to carry gravity loads and
less on lateral loads. However, as we push higher with taller and more slender buildings,
resistance to lateral loads plays a more important role. The authors thus propose a method
of classification based on the methods of resisting lateral load. They are the rigid frame
systems, braced frame and shear-walled framed systems, outrigger systems, framed-tube
systems, braced-tube system and bundled-tube system. They give examples using current
skyscrapers to demonstrate their system with pictures and explanations of why they fall
under the classification. They expect that in the future, we might see mixed systems used
as well. The classification is nice and simple and provides a simple tool for designers to
describe their buildings to the non-designers in a clear manner.
Hart, F, Henn, W and Sontag, H (1985) Multi-Storey Buildings in Steel, Collins
Professional and Technical Books, London.
This book is divided into three main sections: the first deals with the developments and
applications of steel structures; the second discusses the examples of multi-storey steelframed buildings and; the third is a discussion on the principles of design and construction.
The first section on the development of buildings through time spans developments from
Japan to the United States, and it also shows public response towards the development. One
notable aspect of steel construction mentioned is the large number of suspended buildings
made in steel. The suspended building was popular at that period of time. For the second
section, the approach in describing the design and construction process is more qualitative
than quantitative, with simple diagrams to illustrate each point. The advantages and disadvantages of each system are also discussed. The different erection methods are outlined
together with the types of cranes which could be used. This is a useful and friendly read,
as most descriptions do not require previous knowledge of building theory. The numerous
detailed examples of buildings provided are also very informative and interesting.
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Hart, G C (2005) The structural design of tall and special buildings. The Structural
Design of Tall and Special Buildings, 14(5): 473–486.
This paper presents some of the oral discussion by the author and others at the 2005 Annual
Meeting of the Los Angeles Tall Buildings Structural Design Council. It also includes
additional opinions added by the author after the annual meeting. These opinions address
the development of a new building code for tall buildings and where the non-structural
engineering decision makers can and must make contributions. It also addresses the very
important topic of quality control. Some of the key topics covered include the design life or
exposure of buildings, the maximum load a building should be designed to subject to, and
design approaches in earthquake- and hurricane-prone areas.
Haroun, M A, Pires, J A, and Won, Y J (1996) Suppression of environmentallyinduced vibrations in tall buildings by hybrid liquid column dampers. The Structural
Design of Tall Buildings, 5(1): 45–54.
The conceptual development of hybrid liquid column dampers is presented. The system
is based fundamentally on the concept of tuned liquid column dampers and modified to
employ instantaneous optimal controls to affect the orifice damping and/or the liquid column pressure actively. Numerical modelling of the system and the development of the
control algorithms are presented. The system’s effectiveness in suppressing earthquake and
wind induced motions in tall buildings is assessed and illustrated by numerical examples.
Hotate, K (2006) Fiber sensor technology today. Japanese Journal of Applied
Physics, 45(8B): 6616–6625.
In this paper the author gives an overview of fiber sensor technologies. These technologies
were previously used only in communications, but have in more recent years been developed
to provide accurate and sensitive sensing abilities. For example, the fiber optic gyroscope
has been developed to sense rotations. A more related application is the installation of optical fiber nerves throughout building structures to identify faults and damages done, being
able to detect strain and temperature distribution along the fiber. The author then concludes
that fiber sensing technology will enjoy widespread use in future to ensure the safety of new
technological achievements, through the development of structures and materials with the
ability to sense, not unlike biological entities. Undoubtedly, this field is one where much
research will be conducted in future since the advent of these nerve-like systems are likely
to bring about revolution in the design of structures. This is certainly a field worthy of
further research.
Horr, A M and Schmidt, L C (1996) A fractional-spectral method for vibration of
damped space structures. Engineering Structures, 18(12): 947–956.
The researchers from the University of Wollongong, Australia advocate the use of the
Fractional Spectral (FS) method to model the vibrational behaviour of large structures.
Conventionally, this behaviour is modelled by considering the viscous behaviour of the
damping materials. The FS method, however, is promoted by the authors as being more
versatile, efficient, and stable than its predecessors. The paper begins by introducing the
physical motivations, namely that all materials exhibit both viscous and elastic behaviour at
differing levels. It then proceeds to give a mathematical framework, using fractional mathematical operators and applying them to ‘finite elements’. In essence, these steps enable
one to use the FS method to predict the behaviour of any type of structural shape, with
the relevant dampers used, under the influence of vibrations of varying magnitudes and
directions. Thus, the authors apply the method to two structural shapes, concluding that the
FS method outclasses the conventional methods in application to large structures since it is
able to model large uniform sections as a single element and factor in structural dampers
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as well. This has wide applications in the structural planning of tall buildings in future.
This paper is rather comprehensive and has sufficient mathematical and physical backing.
However, more examples of applications to increasingly complicated structures are desired
and may be the basis of extensive usage of the FS method in the industry.
Islam, M S (1996) Performance based seismic evaluation of concrete high-rise
buildings. In: Council on Tall Buildings and Urban Habitat (Ed), Tall Buildings and
Structures – A World View, Lehigh University, Bethlehem, 223–236.
The focus of this paper is on the seismic evaluation and retrofit consideration of the collapse limit state of buildings. The method to achieve higher performance objective is also
presented. A performance based design boils down to the following criteria: performance
limit states, probable inelastic building displacement and, element and system capacity.
Each criterion is built on the preceding one. Firstly, the author quantifies the limit states,
acknowledging that the performance limit states are dependent on the performance objectives. Next, two methods of estimating inelastic displacement are introduced. One way is to
assume that elastic and inelastic displacements are usually approximately equal; the other
way is to use an iterative analysis process which utilizes secant stiffness taken from inelastic
force-displacement relationship. Lastly, the deformation capacity of structural elements and
the system is estimated. This study is useful to illustrate how the performance of buildings
is accessed. This is intricately related to the safety of living in high-rise. However, it would
be more useful to also consider the different forces which earthquakes exert on the building,
which may cause different stresses and displacements of the structure. The types of foundation built could also have been discussed since it is highly affected by the movement of the
ground and will have a significant impact on the motion of the building.
Isyumov, N and Kilpatrick, J (1996) Full-scale experience with wind-induced
motions of tall buildings. In: Council on Tall Buildings and Urban Habitat (Ed), Tall
Buildings and Structures – A World View, Lehigh University, Bethlehem, 401–411.
This paper is on the occupant’s acceptability of movement of buildings, as well as the actual
swaying of the building. The response of humans to horizontal accelerations was obtained
from controlled experiments. These experiments served as a source of information on the
physiological response, the effects on balance, task performance and motor functions. In
this study, a survey was conducted for 47 buildings to enquire about the performance of
the building – in particular, if occupants have reported building motions. However, the
survey was done by building designers or owners. Therefore, it may not reflect the actual
performance of the buildings. This would be more helpful if survey also includes tenants’
experience of working in the buildings. This study is thus limited in its usage. An extension
of the study on the effect of building motions can be made more thorough. This can then
form the basis of survey questions for which tenants and occupants can answer if they have
encountered such situations. This will make the study more helpful.
Iyengar, H, Zils, J and Sinn, R (1993) Steel exoskeleton defines architecture. Civil
Engineering, 63(8): 42–45.
This paper gives an insight into the optimism of the building and construction industry
prior to the terror attacks on New York City, and somewhat at the earlier stages of the
steel revolution in construction methods and materials. It reports the development of exterior steel frames which are both aesthetically and structurally sound based on the fact that
fire-engineering calculations have made it possible to omit fire-proofing on these exterior
frames. Particularly, the Hotel de la Artes in Barcelona, Spain, is studied for its ability to use
an exposed frame against the exterior wall. Comparisons to the Sears Tower and the John
Hancock Centre are also made. However, the studies of the reliability of steel structures
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in the event of fires had yet to be complete and all-encompassing, although they were
sufficiently rigorous for ensuring building stability apart from unexpected events. Hence,
in effect, the paper can be seen as the record of landmark developments of that time.
Jappsen, H (2002) Elevator installations. In: J. Eisele and E. Kloft (Ed), High-Rise
Manual, Birkhäuser, Basel, 204–211.
This is a study on the elevator systems; an integral aspect of high-rise buildings. The laws
governing specifications of elevators are first mapped out and parameters describing the
efficiency of elevators are introduced, such as time lost at stop, and the five-minute handling
capacity. A major section of this work is attributed to the mechanisms of the elevator and the
structure of the elevator system. Structure of the elevator system is very important for highrise structures to efficiently transport people within the building. Short and long-distance
elevator groups reduce the number of stops for each elevator and therefore, shorten waiting
time. This will also allow upper floors to be served faster. This study of the elevator systems
is short and informative. However, it would be more useful if comfort of elevator is also
taken into consideration. The limits for human comfort with respect to speed and change
in air pressure can also be discussed, alongside the measures taken to ensure comfort and
safety, to make this study more comprehensive.
Jayasinghe, M T R and Jayasena, W M V P K (2005) Effect of relative humidity
on absolute and differential shortening of columns and walls in multistory reinforced concrete buildings. Practice Periodical on Structural Design and Construction, 10(2): 88–97.
It is known that columns will shrink due to loading over the long term however the factors
affecting the rates of shrinkage are still being understood. In a previous paper the researchers
came up with a method of using Microsoft Excel to predict column shortening, however this
paper is more focused on the effects of relative humidity on differential and absolute shortening by using a Microfeap P1. They considered the effects of relative humidity at 40%,
60% and 80%. Their results showed that relative humidity barely affected absolute shortening. However, there is a clear trend of decrease in absolute shortening is seen as humidity
increases. Since the effect of absolute shortening is reduced, the effect of relative humidity
on differential shortening may be reduced to barely noticeable. However, questions can be
raised about the model’s extrapolation with lack of real world data. An experimental study
across different regions may be the best way to obtain more accurate results.
Jenkins, W and Harrison, T (1967) Analysis of tall buildings with shear walls under
bending and torsion. In: A. Coull and S. Smith (Ed), Tall Buildings, Pergamon Press,
London, 413–449.
This paper is on the analysis of tall buildings with shear walls under bending and torsion.
The authors begin with a list of methods which have been previously used by others to
analysis shear wall behaviour and discuss their advantages and disadvantages. The authors
propose an application of the stiffness method to tall buildings with shear walls and an
energy approach to study the problem of torsion. A stiffness matrix is constructed for two
types of shear wall structure and solved using a digital computer, taking into account the
floor slab stiffness. The torsion is analyzed using polynomials. The results obtained are
tested using an experiment on two models. The stiffness matrix approach is found to be a
suitable method, but the torsion analysis proved to be unsatisfactory. Therefore, this study is
helpful as it also shows how methods proposed can be tested and proven inaccurate, which
is the spirit of experimentation. However, it could have been more useful if the authors
suggest some ways of modifying the method such that it corresponds better with the results
obtained.
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Kareem, A (1984) Wind Excited Motion of Buildings, Colorado State University,
Fort Collins.
This is a study on the crosswind response of a tall building, achieving a new approach to the
understanding and quantification of the response of tall square cross-section buildings, taking into account the urban and suburban environments. The results of these experiments are
based on scale models in a boundary-layer wind tunnel. The design of a tuned mass damper
is analyzed. The dynamic vibration absorber is found to reduce the wind induced response
by imparting extra damping to the system. This study reveals some important properties:
pressure fluctuations at neighbouring points on a building has a spatial dependence on the
side faces; the correlation between pressure fluctuations on the opposite sides of a building
is weakened when there is a high level of turbulence; low-velocity building motions does
not affect the crosswind and alongwind loading; the response of a tall building subjected
to wind loads can be expressed as a power of reduced velocity; at low reduced velocities,
the crosswind response follows the Gaussian distribution and; at higher reduced velocities,
the crosswind response tends to follow the distribution of a sinusoidal wave plus a random
noise. The simplification of this study to square cross-section buildings allows in depth
analysis into the response of the system. The use of experiment to verify the validity of
theoretical results makes this study credible.
Kareem, A and Tamura, Y (1996) Mitigation of wind-induced motions of tall buildings. In: Council on Tall Buildings and Urban Habitat (Ed), Tall Buildings and
Structures – A World View, Lehigh University, Bethlehem, 413–423.
This study is on the various methods and devices used to damp oscillations of buildings
due to wind forces. Some structural systems which can reduce the motion of buildings are
introduced, such as use of frames and increasing mass of building. Aerodynamic tailoring
of building shape can also reduce wind-induced load effects. The main focus is on damping
systems, which are categorized under three main sections, passive dampers, active control
systems and semi-active systems. Passive dampers include tuned mass dampers, tuned liquid dampers and liquid column oscillation-type dampers. Most of these dampers work by
dissipating energy away from the structure of the building. The active control systems use
an external energy source to reduce structural response. A hybrid version where both types
of dampers, active and passive ones, are used is called the semi-active systems. These systems make use of the properties of each type of damper to complement each other. Passive
dampers tend to respond slowly and this can be overcome with the active system. Thus,
this paper is useful in discussing the various uses of the damping systems to overcome
wind-induced motion of buildings. However, the study lacks a more elaborate discussion
on the factors which influence which type of damping systems to use. It would be more
helpful if the study also includes a discussion on which dampers are more responsive to
which type of forces, such as typhoon or earthquakes.
Kuang, J S and Puwala, J (1996) Continuous transfer beams supporting in-plane
loaded shear walls in tall buildings. The Structural Design of Tall Buildings, 5(4):
281–293.
The failure mechanism and structural behaviour of transfer beams supporting in-plane
loaded shear walls have received added emphasis owing to their importance in connection
with tall building construction. This paper presents an analysis of and investigation of the
structural behaviour of two-span transfer beam-shear wall systems in tall buildings. The
interaction between the transfer girders and the shear wall has been investigated considering
interior and exterior column interaction effects. The upper structural form has a significant
effect on the failure mechanism of the transfer girders, which can act as full tension members or behave as ordinary flexural beams. Stress distributions in the shear wall interactive
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zone are presented. The relevant parameters that significantly influence the force transfer
mechanism and structural behaviour, such as the span to depth ratio of the transfer beam, the
span of the shear wall and the stiffness of the support columns, are highlighted. The paper
provides a very useful reference for the design of continuous transfer girders supporting
in-plane loaded shear walls in tall buildings.
Laogan, B T and Elnashai, A S (1999) Structural performance and economics of
tall high strength RC buildings in seismic regions. The Structural Design of Tall
Buildings, 8(3): 171–204.
The increase of high-rise structures promotes the use of high strength materials to reduce
column size and construction times, but little work has been undertaken on the economics of
whole buildings and their performance under earthquake loading. In this paper, 10 buildings
of 24 storeys are designed and detailed according to modern seismic codes. The buildings
are all nominally equivalent, using a stiffness equivalence criterion and its derivatives. The
cost of construction is compared in terms of steel, concrete and formwork. The static inelastic response of the buildings is also assessed, followed by a full nonlinear dynamic analysis
of all buildings using three earthquake records at the design acceleration and twice the
design value. Comprehensive assessment of the static and dynamic results is undertaken.
It is concluded that the cost increase is mainly due to the steel, whilst significant member
reductions may be availed of by using high strength concrete. The behaviour of high strength
concrete structures is not inferior to that of normal strength materials.
Lee, Y P, Delichatsios, M A and Silcock, G W H (2007) Heat fluxes and flame
heights in facades from fires in enclosures of varying geometry. Proceedings of the
Combustion Institute, 31: 2521–2528.
This paper seeks to address the issue of fire safety in buildings, particularly focusing on
the issue of fire spreading to levels above the level of origin via tall flames. The authors
begin by stating that the efforts to study flame heights and the related effects have so far
been contradictory and confusing, since they were only poorly based on physics principles.
Hence, they conducted numerous experiments in small-scale enclosures with controlled
source fire and make detailed observations on the behaviour of the flames, and in that way
the correlation between flame height and the heat fluxes, or gradients, is found. With these
results, it is now more possible to predict the behaviour of flames, which are found on
the external façade of buildings and hence future fires can be better understood and dealt
with. This is a significant contribution to the advancement of knowledge about buildings in
general, especially to allay concerns over the fire safety of tall buildings after the collapse
of the World Trade Centre Towers in 2001.
Lew, M and Acosta, J A (2004) Impact of new advances in seismology and
geotechnical engineering on structural design since the Northridge earthquake. The
Structural Design of Tall and Special Buildings, 13(5): 347–371.
The Northridge earthquake, which brought extensive damage and economic losses to California, has brought a decade of change in the practice of engineering for all structures,
and for tall buildings in particular. In the geotechnical engineering discipline, many of the
advances involved a more consistent application of seismic risk across the United States
in dealing with strong ground motions. Initiatives were set in place to develop seismic
hazard models of the possible earthquake sources that affect the country and to use these
models in developing design criteria for seismic design in all regions of the United States.
Great advances in seismology have occurred in the 10 years since Northridge, and these
advances will be incorporated into building design and analysis with time. In the decade
since the Northridge earthquake, structural analysis has advanced with leaps and bounds
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due to advances in computer software and hardware. Complex three-dimensional analyses
in the time domain once relegated to only large mainframe computers can now be performed
on desktop computers in most structural engineering offices.
Lim, B P (1994) Environmental Design Criteria of Tall Buildings, Lehigh University, Bethlehem.
This book is a collection of lectures aimed at addressing a diverse range of subjects in tall
building design such as noise control, thermal, solar, and energy performance of buildings.
The main part of the book discusses the thermal efficiency of buildings, both in Australia
and in Singapore. Using two Brisbane buildings, it is found that light-weight construction
may lead to high transmission of heat through windows, causing discomfort. Reflective
glass, heat-absorbent glass and double glazing are used to reduce heat transmission. However, these pose many problems. Therefore, other sun-shading methods such as louvres
are used. In Singapore, the thermal comfort range is studied through surveys. The natural
ventilation and solar-induced air movement and air movement within groups of buildings
are discussed. The topics covered in this series of lectures are very broad and thus, each was
not fully developed. Despite that, it provides a good overview of high-rise living. However,
it did not particularly highlight the difference between the problems faced by high-rise
living and living in low buildings. This would have been more interesting and useful to
observe how tall buildings may have changed our living habits and comfort levels.
Limongelli, M P (2003) Optimal location of sensors for reconstruction of seismic
responses through spline function interpolation. Earthquake Engineering and Structural Dynamics, 32: 1055–1074.
The author presents an essential inquiry into an important and practical subject. Sensors are
placed on tall buildings to detect the vibrations, which the building is actually experiencing
at the moment. Since it would be impractical and costly to cover the entire building with
sensors, a question arises as to which locations are optimal for the placing of these sensors,
which will be limited in number. An optimal placing scheme will enable minimization of
error in calculation of a building’s vibration and enable the building’s vibration control
system to operate more effectively. After modelling buildings on a mathematical function,
the optimal locations are calculated and the best set of locations, based on minimum error,
is chosen. The author has verified the results on models of multi-storey frames and real
buildings. Certainly, this paper is an essential contribution to the field of study, which,
possibly when combined with the earlier study on damage rectification, will enable reliable
developments in the field, thereby allowing buildings to be built higher with reasonable
safety considerations.
Li, Q S, Yang, K, Zhang, N, Wong, C K and Jeary, A P (2002) Field measurements of amplitude-dependent damping in a 79-storey tall building and its effects
on the structural dynamic responses. The Structural Design of Tall Buildings, 11(2):
129–153.
This paper describes some results obtained from full-scale measurements of wind effects
on a super-tall building, Di-Wang Tower, located in Shenzhen, China, which has 79 storeys
with a height of about 324 m. Field measurements including wind speed, wind direction
and wind-induced acceleration responses have been made. The amplitude-dependent characteristics of damping are obtained by using the random decrement technique from the
detailed analysis of the field acceleration measurements. The main objective of this paper
is to present detailed investigations into the effects of nonlinear damping on the dynamic
responses of the tall building subjected to various types of applied loads based on the measured amplitude-dependent damping characteristics. The predicted dynamic responses of
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the building obtained by using the measured damping characteristics were compared with
those computed by using constant damping parameters assumed by the structural designers.
It is concluded from the investigations that knowledge of actual damping characteristics
are very important in the accurate prediction of the dynamic responses of a tall building
when the major harmonic components of the applied loads overlap with the lowest natural
frequencies of the building. The design damping level for tall building structures currently
used by structural engineering practitioners appears to be high and not conservative.
Li, S J, Li, G C, Tang, J and Li, Q S (2002) Shallow cylindrical tuned liquid damper
for vibration control of high-rise structures. The Structural Design of Tall Buildings,
11(4): 295–308.
A new simplified model for the application of a shallow cylindrical tuned liquid damper
(TLD) in structural vibration control is presented in this paper. The dynamic properties
of a shallow liquid in cylindrical containers subjected to forced horizontal oscillation are
analysed directly from the continuity and momentum equations of fluids. Following some
practical assumptions, the nonlinear partial differential equations describing the wave movement of a shallow liquid in cylindrical containers is established and a numerical procedure
for the solution of these equations is proposed using the finite element method. The formula
for determining the control force provided by the shallow cylindrical TLD is presented
and the effect of several parameters on the control efficiency of a shallow cylindrical TLD
controlled structure under wind action is investigated.
Lopez-Almansa, F (1998) A critical overview of the published research on control
of vibrations of civil engineering structures. In: J. Holnicky-Szulc and J. Rodellar
(Ed), Smart Structures: Requirements and Potential Applications in Mechanical and
Civil Engineering, Kluwer Academic Publishers, Netherlands, 173–182.
As the title suggests, this paper is a literature review on the control of vibrations, such
as those caused by wind or earthquake. The author looks at the issue from a rather broad
perspective, covering various ‘traditional’ passive systems (seismic isolation, energy dissipaters and mass dampers), ‘smart’ active systems (e.g. computerized mechanical actuators,
piezoelectric materials), as well as the hybrids between the two. At only 10 pages, this
paper can serve as an excellent starting point for the subject of vibration control, but it does
not provide nearly enough details for any other purposes. For example, many systems are
merely mentioned without any elaboration whatsoever. The paper concludes that the field
of vibration control “has reached an important degree of maturity.” It also questions the feasibility of purely active systems for large structures, due to power and cost considerations,
and promotes the use of semi-active or hybrid systems instead.
Los Angeles Tall Buildings Structural Design Council (2004) The impact of the
1994 Northridge earthquake on structural engineering practice. The Structural Design
of Tall and Special Buildings, 13: 337–345.
Ten years had passed since the Northridge Earthquake but the impact and lessons learnt continue among the engineering practice. This paper looks at the impacts on the understanding
of seismic activity in the area, the structural engineering practice in terms of design and the
professional aspects of engineering disciplines. For example, it taught many engineers not
to use unjustified extrapolations of results and improved design in general. The advantages
of performance based design are also seen but its application remains problematic due to
difficulty in prediction of performance. There were also many advances in terms of technology for the different materials for example pre-cast concrete was shown to have substantial
advantages in terms of structural efficiency and its ability to withstand an earthquake. High
strength concrete also gives the designers greater flexibility but the lack of understanding
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and overestimation of its properties may prove troubling. The importance of inspection during fitting and construction was also emphasized as this is much simpler and more effective
than testing after the building has finished construction.
Lynch, J P (1998) Active Structural Control Research at Kajima Corporation,
National Science Foundation (NSF), Washington.
In this paper, the author reviewed the existing active-control system literature as well as the
state of the usage of the damper system in Japan, particularly at Kajima. The corporation has
many different kinds of control damper system: active mass driver system, active tuned mass
damper, active-passive composite (hybrid) tuned mass damper, active variable stiffness and
active variable damping system. Each systems had their basic working principle reviewed,
followed by some experimentations. This paper is actually a summer program report, but
the detailed overview of each of the system makes it quite relevant and enough to justify its
place here.
Mongkol, J, Bhartia, B K and Fujino, Y (1996) On linear-saturation (LS) control of
buildings. Earthquake Engineering and Structural Dynamics, 25: 1353–1371.
This paper is an insight into research that was done to finalize the effectiveness and reliability of mass dampers. In this study, active mass dampers are paired with a control system
known as Linear-Saturation (LS). It is interesting to see that at the time of publishing, much
was still uncertain in the application of active mass dampers as compared to the papers
later, where more complex systems are explored. The authors, therefore, give an example of
slightly earlier developments of mass damper systems. After formulating the LS system, it
is verified against numerical simulations of a one-storey and a multi-storey building and is
concluded to perform better than existing systems at that time. Thus, this study can be seen
as an important step towards effectively maximizing the potential of mass damping systems,
and, looking back, we do see widespread applications all around the world. Alternative
methods at that time had not yet been required, but we shall see that they are eventually
sought after.
Motzko, C (2002) Site operation. In: J. Eisele and E. Kloft (Ed), High-Rise Manual,
Birkhäuser, Basel, 50–57.
This is a study on the construction process of high-rise buildings. With the advent of technology, construction periods have been shortened. Site facilities have to be properly planned
to ensure efficient progress of construction work. Crane use has to adhere to many considerations, such as neighbouring buildings, operating speed, downtimes and external anchorage.
Site elevators and concrete pumps also play an important role in the vertical transportation
of materials. Construction waste disposal must also be included in the planning. This is a
qualitative study on the construction process. However, it lacks the study of the safety of
workers during the construction phase. Wind loading of the crane would be an important
factor in determining the safety of the work site. One component of construction process,
prefabrication, could have been discussed in detail as it also helps to improve the efficiency
and speed of the construction process. In addition, prefabrication also helps to ensure that
the quality of each segment of the building is consistent.
Müller, H and Schmitz, H (2002) Insulation and shading. In: J. Eisele and E. Kloft
(Ed), High-Rise Manual, Birkhäuser, Basel, 152–161.
This is a study on how sun radiation influences the thermal behaviour and energy consumption of the building, as well as the effects on the surroundings. Densely-built tall buildings
may make daylighting impossible, which is detrimental to health. With adequate planning
and spacing between buildings, it is possible to allow daylight to reach ground level. Façade
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designs also affect the surroundings of a building, especially when glass is used, as it reflects
sunlight. A scale mass model is usually used to investigate shadow patterns in the surroundings. Glare is another common phenomenon, which may cause discomfort and even pose
dangers to road traffic. The use of light shelves and louvers help to deflect light and improve
luminosity. Solar energy can also be tapped and used. The major considerations of high-rise
are due to the greater temperature differential experienced and that due to the sheer size and
height, the impacts of its design and position are larger. This study could have been more
useful if there was more discussion on how to reduce glaring and make use of solar energy,
as well as the different materials and their reflectance, transmission and absorbance.
Naeim, F (2004) Impact of the 1994 Northridge earthquake on the art and practice of
structural engineering. The Structural Design of Tall and Special Buildings, 13(5):
373–389.
The 1994 Northridge earthquake has impacted structural engineering practice in several
very important ways. Since then people have learned to avoid unjustified extrapolations,
recognized to value and promote seismic instrumentation, improved codes and guidelines
and at the same time created a maze of various codes and standards which are confusing at
best, and started the long journey along the road of performance-based seismic engineering.
This paper provides an overview of the impacts of the 1994 Northridge earthquake on the
art and practice of structural engineering, and has several tie-ins with many other papers
covering similar areas on this notable natural disaster.
Narasimhan, V (1974) An Introduction to Building Physics, Kabeer Printing Works,
Madras.
The main focus of this book is on the factors which affect the interior environment of
buildings based on scientific reasoning and knowledge of sound waves, light rays and air
motion. The discussion of environment is divided into three broad areas: acoustics, lighting
and ventilation. For acoustics, terms such as reverberation, absorption and harmonics are
introduced so as to define the key factors which determine the quality of sound. The discussion of lighting started out with an introduction of the terms used in optics, such reflection,
transmission, absorption and incidence. Equal emphasis is placed on artificial lighting and
daylighting. Thermal comfort is very closely related to ventilation, the movement of air and
heat transfer. By considering the velocity of air and the position of the Sun with respect
to the building, the effect of the presence of barriers within or outside the building on
wind motion and heat transfer is determined. While the book uses physical concepts to
discuss means of optimizing the comfort level of living in buildings, it is generalized to all
buildings and not specific to high-rise buildings. However, the fundamental concepts raised
still remain relevant to high-rise buildings.
Nayeri, R D, Masri, S F, Chanem, R G and Nigbor, R L (2008) A novel approach for
the structural identification and monitoring of a full-scale 17-story building based
on ambient vibration measurements. Smart Material and Structures, 17: 025005.
In this study, the authors investigated the use of ambient vibration of a building as a measure
of its structural health. They wish to collect the statistical data needed to fully develop this
methodology, and that would necessitate the use of plenty of expensive sensors. Fortunately, a building was available that is already rigged with such instruments: a 17 storey
building which is monitored after an earthquake by the US Geological Survey Advanced
National Seismic System. Analyzing a vast data collected over 50 days using both global
(taking in all measurements and extracting a general parameter) and local (each of the 72
sensors are evaluated independently) approaches. By developing a combined method, the
study revealed that while ambient vibration is indeed useful for structural health monitoring
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purposes, we have to account for the effect of temperature first, which could affect the
value of the vibration by as much as 6%. The authors acknowledged that the need for a
more extensive study involving different seasonal temperature is needed.
Ni, Y Q, Wang, B S and Ko, J M (2002) Constructing input vectors to neural networks for structural damage identification. Institute of Physics Publishing, Smart
Materials and Structures, 11: 825–833.
The authors discuss the formation of input vectors to neural networks as tools to identify
structural damage in specific locations on large structures, such as bridges and tall buildings.
Damage will inevitably occur at times and as such it is imperative that studies also be done
to enable the location of damage, to ensure the safety of the inhabitants of any building.
Neural networks have been known to be especially efficient since they adapt themselves
constantly to give increasingly reliable results, and in applying their use to aid in damage
location and rectification, the authors pioneer a method in which further improvements can
be made to damage rectification systems by advancements on the same path. The results are
verified by applying the neural network, with the appropriate input vectors formulated by
the authors, to a steel frame. Without a doubt, these results are valuable to this field since
the developed system, being based upon neural networks, has the potential to advance and
produce faster and more accurate responses to any damage that would potentially threaten
the structural integrity of a tall building.
Park, H S and Park, C L (1997) Drift control of high-rise buildings with unit load
method. The Structural Design of Tall Buildings, 6(1): 23–25.
The use of displacement participation factors obtained by the unit load method provides
an effective drift control tool for high-rise buildings. Structural sensitivity coefficients and
displacement participation factors for members in a structure with respect to the lateral
displacement to be controlled are computed and used for identifying active members and
their corresponding displacement components. The drift control method using the displacement participation factors with a variable linking strategy is formulated into an optimization
problem to determine the amount of material to be modified. Using the drift control method,
a structural design model for a high-rise building is proposed and applied to one verifying example and two moment resisting frames. Time consuming trial-and-error processes
related to the structural design of a high-rise building is avoided by the proposed structural
design model. As demonstrated in the examples, the maximum lateral displacements of the
examples are reduced significantly without changing the total weights of the structures.
Porter, K, Mitrani-Reiser, J and Beck, J L (2006) Near-real-time loss estimation for
instrumented buildings. The Structural Design of Tall and Special Buildings, 15:
3–20.
In this paper the authors seek to develop a technique of evaluating likely locations of damage
and the degree of damage to structures immediately after earthquakes. The motivation is
partly to do with safety concerns and also partly to do with allowing quick assessment of
the warranted insurance claims. Also, the technique would allow building owners to save
costs by rapidly estimating the extent of repair required. Instead of using neural networks,
seen in the earlier paper as an alternative technique, the authors use stochastic structural
models (simulations of the actual building itself), based on equipment such as sensors in
the basement of the building, thereby hoping to achieve on site determination of the actual
damage. The technique also includes instant computation of estimated repair costs. This
technique is clearly very useful, but as the authors concede, much effort is needed in the
placement of the physical sensors, and there is a need for the availability of the building’s
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structural model, thus limiting the use to newly constructed buildings or those which already
have a structural model available.
Robertson, L and See, S (1998) The practical design of tall buildings for wind loads.
In: J. D. Riera and A. G. Davenport (Ed), Wind Effects on Buildings and Structures,
Balkema, Rotterdam, 221–226.
This paper discusses the inadequacies of the Building Codes with regards to design wind
speeds, the unreliability of wind tunnel laboratories and the unrealistic criteria for the acceptance of building sway. The economical construction of high-rise is also discussed in view
of the issues listed. The author shows concern over the reluctance of code-regulating bodies
to update the regulations of wind loading of high-rise buildings, suggesting that there will be
severe economic consequences. By dissecting the terms used in regulations, the author talks
about how the values and numbers with regards to wind loading can be unduly conservative,
resulting in excess expenditure on materials for structures. The author argues that with an
improvement in technology, more accurate knowledge of the environment can be obtained
and thus, building needs should be based on these environmental factors. Therefore, the
authors argued that the regulations be changed to accommodate these advancements in
knowledge, such that construction of buildings become more economically feasible. This
paper is useful as it investigates the loopholes in legislation, which is an important aspect
governing the construction of buildings. By dissecting the calculations of wind load and
other factors, the importance of each factor to the stability of the structure is weighed,
giving a clearer picture of the factors which matter in high-rise research.
Rodellar, J (1998) Control theory sources in active control of civil engineering structures. In: J. Holnicky-Szulc and J. Rodellar (Ed), Smart Structures: Requirements
and Potential Applications in Mechanical and Civil Engineering, Kluwer Academic
Publishers, Netherlands, 285–294.
This paper is essentially a listing of relevant references in the field of active control of
structures such as buildings and bridges (a total of 67 references; the paper consists of
4 pages of content and 5 pages of references). This paper focuses only on purely active
systems, as opposed to passive systems or hybrid systems that combine the two approaches.
The author discussed the overview of different approaches of active structural control, giving the relevant citations as he goes along. He divides the field into two broad categories:
model based approach, which seeks to model or approximate the structure mathematically,
and model-free approach, which is useful when little is known about the behavior of the
structure. The former arrives at the mathematical equations either from first principles (if
the theory is known) or from experimental results (if it is possible or feasible to obtain the
data) resulting in transfer functions. The latter uses techniques such as neural networks and
fuzzy logic to implement the control system despite the lack of theoretical model.
Rofooei, F R and Monajemi-Nezhad, S (2006) Decentralized control of tall buildings. The Structural Design of Tall and Special Buildings, 15(2): 153–170.
The response of large-scale building structures can be actively reduced using an appropriate
control algorithm and a number of actuators and sensors located within the building. This
paper presents a decentralized control approach for controlling the response of tall buildings. The proposed method aims to divide the structural model into several substructures,
each one performing on its own controller algorithm. This approach has already been used
in controlling large-scale systems such as power transmission systems and space structures.
An instantaneous optimal control scheme is used as the control algorithm with different
control feedbacks such as velocity feedback alone and displacement and velocity feedback.
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The stability issue of this method is addressed. A numerical example is used to investigate
the performance of the proposed method compared to the case with centralized control.
Ross, D (2004) HVAC Design Guide for Tall Commercial Buildings, American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers, Atlanta.
HVAC stands for heating, ventilating and air-conditioning. The invention of air-conditioning
has revolutionized architectural design and space usage of large commercial buildings.
Along with this, a series of other changes such as the evolution of energy-conserving building designs and the altered utilization of buildings also affected the design systems of the
building. Stack effect, which is the movement of air through the height of the building due
to the difference in pressure between the interior of the building and the exterior of the
building as a result of the difference in temperature, and the problems caused are discussed.
Different air-conditioning systems are compared with respect to first costs, equipment considerations, and acoustics, among other criteria. Another aspect discussed which is rather
useful is vertical transportation. Some factors which will determine the number of elevators,
their positions within the building, their capacity and their speed are number of floors in the
building, population on different floors and location of facilities. Life safety measures such
as smoke management are also discussed. Perhaps lacking in this book is how the pressure
difference between the interior and the exterior of the building may affect the material chosen for the exterior walls of the building. A discussion on how windows can be placed and
when windows become too dangerous due to the high wind speed at higher levels will also
be more helpful.
Schueller, W (1977) High-Rise Building Structures, John Wiley and Sons, New
York.
This book covers a wide range of topics involving high-rise structures. It begins by introducing the various types of loads which the building would face, such as construction and
wind loads. After which, the building structure is discussed with respect to dispersion of
vertical and lateral forces before the behaviour of the building under loading is discussed.
Additional design features which reduce building drifts are introduced. The floor structure
is also discussed and the book ends off with a chapter on other structures common in highrise buildings such as deep-beam systems and high-rise suspension systems. The section
on loading is particularly useful as it sets the basis for discussing about the stability of
buildings – without it, the stability of buildings would become a trivial matter. Thus, this is
useful for people who are not very familiar with the literature of building and construction.
The description of building response is qualitative more than quantitative which makes it a
friendly read. However, for readers which prefer a quantitative analysis, the author provides
a section where such responses are approximated with examples. Therefore, this book is
a rather comprehensive study of the high-rise building construction. However, it would be
more helpful if more attention is paid to describe the construction process, as the author
mentioned about the significance of construction loads which is usually neglected. The
inclusion of such a study would make this book more useful.
Shinozuka, M and Zhang, R (1995) Wind induced vibration of high-rise structures.
In: A. Naess and S. Krenk (Ed), Advances in Nonlinear Stochastic Mechanics,
Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht, 403–426.
This is a study of the stochastic dynamic responses of high-rise structures under turbulent wind, paying particular attention to a mega-sub building and a television tower. The
translational motion is considered to be more important than the torsional motion in this
study, and thus, the latter is not being investigated. The governing equations of motion of
the two structures mentioned and the equation of the wind loads are obtained. Instead of
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making assumptions to simplify the situation, which the authors think may often distort the
physics involved, the Monte Carlo approach is used where digital simulation of the wind
loads produced necessary response statistics in order to find the solutions to the problem.
The mega-sub building is found to effectively suppress wind-induced vibration; the demonstration of this ability may not be carried out using other available theoretical approach.
Therefore, this study is unique insofar as it managed a detailed study without reference
to a specific case study, which is the common tool used for investigation. However, the
study ended quite abruptly without explicitly explaining the Monte Carlo technique did not
use, nor actually deriving a mathematical structure to describe the general situation, which
would have made the study more complete.
Shuster, L A (2000) Keeping it together. Civil Engineering, 70(3): 44–47.
In this paper, the author reports a novel way of building design that is supposed to have
great implications on minimizing structural damage in the event of strong vibrations. Furthermore, the new design is able to utilize pre-cast concrete although present in seismic
zones, which was generally avoided prior to this, since concrete would crack under strong
vibrations, being more rigid and inflexible. The new design is actually a framing system,
used on a 39-storey building in San Francisco that is able to stretch elastically during earthquakes. Furthermore, it is able to restore the building’s columns and beams to their original
places, thereby effectively allowing rigid concrete to be used by providing the elasticity in
the frame. In fact, the system is superior to steel-framed buildings since steel structures are
able to withstand earthquakes but are inevitably damaged by deformation. In fact, it is also
economically viable as the use of pre-cast parts reportedly reduced the cost of the building
by several million dollars. This is probably a technique that can enjoy more widespread use
in future, along with other systems. Use of this technique for super tall buildings still needs
to be rigorously tested.
Smolira, M (1975) Analysis of Tall Buildings by the Force-Displacement Method,
McGraw-Hill Book Company Limited, Maidenhead.
This book focuses on the effect of instability forces due to changes of temperature, shrinkage and creep of concrete, settlement of foundations and dynamic action of loads, among
others, on stresses and deformations in structures. Mathematical formulation of the situation is difficult yet necessary. Thus, simplifying assumptions have to be made. The forcedisplacement method used here as the formulation of a matrix has clear physical meaning at
all stages, thus, avoiding much error associated with the usage of assumptions in computing
a equation. The author illustrates the formulation of the matrix through geometry for specific
cases. Much of the discussion is of the two-dimensional analysis, to simplify computation.
In order to make the study more comprehensive, the author also highlighted the principles
with will govern the three-dimensional analysis of tall buildings. There are also analyses of
the floor systems and thermal stresses and deformations. The approach used by this author
is clear and helpful inasmuch as it takes careful considerations of the assumptions used
to map out each step of the construction of the matrix used in the computation. Although
each example provided is specific, the methodology used can be generalized. The forcedisplacement method is particularly important in examining tall buildings due to its high
degree of continuity of joints critical to the buildings’ safety and stability. This book is
highly detailed and thus helpful. The author acknowledges that the book lacks rigour in
verification of the assumptions with the actual response of the structures, and that with
better understanding of the properties of the materials in actual environmental conditions,
closer solutions can be obtained. The use of experiments on specific buildings would have
helped to give this study more credibility.
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Soong, T T and Gupta, H (1998) Active structural control against wind. In: J.
Holnicky-Szulc and J. Rodellar (Ed), Smart Structures: Requirements and Potential
Applications in Mechanical and Civil Engineering, Kluwer Academic Publishers,
Netherlands, 329–336.
This paper presented a method of controlling structural vibration due to wind forces, especially for tall buildings. The method is called Aerodynamic Flap System (AFS), and consists
of two flaps placed at the top of the building. The flaps can change the aerodynamic of the
building, and it will rotate automatically to achieve minimum vibration effects based on
a closed feedback loop control algorithm. The mathematical model underlying the system
and its effect is discussed and a method of designing a system for a particular building is
presented. The strong points of AFS include the ability of handling winds from all directions
(along- and across-wind), low energy requirement, and low-force actuators. This means that
AFS is a cost-effective general purpose solution. It is also an external device, meaning an
existing building can be fitted with it with minimal modification.
Srinivasan, A V and McFarland, D M (2001) Smart Structures: Analysis and Design,
Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
This book’s earlier chapters discussed some materials that are considered “smart,” such as
piezoelectric materials, shape memory alloys (SMA), magneto rheological fluids, and fiber
optics, not all of them relevant in our case. Particularly relevant to the study of tall buildings
is the discussion of control of structures in chapter 8 of the book. Here, the authors focused
on the use of a controller and some of the materials presented before as actuators in a
closed loop, as a feedback system. The applications of two materials, SMA and PZT (a
type of piezoelectric material), are presented as examples. These systems could be applied
to buildings materials (most commonly to the steel beams and concretes) to control their
displacement and vibration response. The authors suggested the development of generic
system that could be used in many situations, as opposed to tailor made systems for a
specific building, so that the use of these smart materials could become more widespread,
which is a great idea.
Subedi, N K and Coyle, N R (2002) Improving the strength of fully composite steelconcrete-steel beam elements by increased surface roughness – an experimental
study. Engineering Structures, 24: 1349–1355.
More composite materials are being utilized to achieve properties that are impossible
through the use single material only. We have seen how concrete-filled steel columns can be
used to advantage. In this paper, they consider the use of steel-concrete-steel beam elements
and how to improve its strength by considering the interactions between the concrete and
steel. Since there are no surface bonds formed between concrete and steel, we look at either
the use of binders or surface roughness to increase the interaction between the two materials.
In this case the authors look at the surface roughness. They provide different methods to
increase the roughness of the surface which utilizes existing technology which would not
be difficult to adapt to this application. In the experiment, Expamet and Wavy Wire surfaces
provide the best solution. Thus the authors recommend the implementation of such surfaces
in construction to improve performances of the composite materials.
Subedi, N K, Marsono, A K, and Aguda, G (1999) Analysis of reinforced concrete
coupled shear wall structures. The Structural Design of Tall Buildings, 8: 117–143.
Reinforced concrete coupled shear walls are used in construction of multi-storey buildings
of about 30 to 35 storeys and they are used in conjunction with structural frames for heights
above that. Most tests have concentrated on elastic measurements. While these tests are
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important to allow the designers to design buildings within elastic limits and prevent catastrophic collapse, we would still need to understand the ultimate strength of the component
and its failure in behavior to minimize damage in case of actual failure in extreme wind
or seismic activity. This paper focuses on understanding such properties firstly by refining
a previous model that predicts the mode of failure and ultimate strength into what they
term the total moment concept. The model is then compared against experimental data to
confirm the reliability of the model. However, this model and experiment is based on normal
Portland Concrete not high strength concrete which is more commonly used in tall building
construction. Thus a separate study may be needed for high strength concrete.
Takabatake, H and Satoh, T (2006) A simplified analysis and vibration control
to super-high-rise buildings. The Structural Design of Tall and Special Buildings,
15(4): 363–390.
This paper clarifies the dynamic behaviour of super-tall buildings of 700 m high consisting
of doubly symmetric frame-tubes with or without braces. A simple and accurate analytical
method is shown to be very useful for the preliminary design of such a mega-structure.
The building is replaced by an equivalent rod which may allow the main deformation field
composed of longitudinal deformation, bending, transverse shear deformation, and shearlag. It is pointed out originally that, after the horizontal component of earthquake ground
motion fades away, noticeable swell breaks out for a long time and that phenomenon is
undamping. The serious phenomenon of swell increases remarkably in addition to the action
of the horizontal component of an earthquake wave having a long period. The effect of
soil-structure interaction on such a structure is discussed using a general analytical method
proposed here. An epochal method both to reduce the dynamic response and to leave out
the undamping swell after earthquake action is proposed and its effectiveness as a device
for vibration control is demonstrated through numerical computation.
Tao, Z and Han, L H (2006) Behaviour of concrete-filled double skin rectangular steel tubular beam–columns. Journal of Constructional Steel Research, 62:
631–646.
Composite concrete-filled steel columns have been studied and used extensively. In search
of better properties, concrete-filled double skin rectangular steel tubular beam-columns
were designed. It is hoped that its properties would be similar or superior while proving
lighter as well. The researchers studied the loading behavior and failure modes of the new
beam columns comparing them with conventional concrete filled steel columns and empty
double skin tube members. A theoretical model is also proposed which agrees reasonably
well with the experiments conducted. This will facilitate its use in construction if it can
reliably predict the composite behavior. Overall, the results look promising as the concretefilled double skin rectangular steel tubes perform equally as well or even better than normal
concrete-filled steel tubes. However, more independent studies should be done to consider
its safety under load and in-situ conditions before it can be considered a viable alternative
to concrete-filled steel tubes.
Taranath, B (1988) Structural Analysis and Design of Tall Buildings, McGraw-Hill,
Singapore.
This book aims to provide a systematic basis for conceptualizing different structural systems
and an orderly method of arriving at structural schemes. The range of topics covered by
this book is broad, including wind effects, seismic design, lateral systems, gravity systems
and overall structural analysis with other special topics such as foundations. The author
also gives a good overview of how to measure and estimate the loads and to calculate the
response of the buildings. Experimental procedures and examples are also given to illustrate
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the methodology. In addition references to building codes are also made so as to give a feel
of the quantity in discussion. Thus, this book is a comprehensive study of the structures
of tall buildings. One section which is particularly useful is chapter eleven, which deals
with certain topics that are unique to the design of tall buildings. This book would be more
helpful if safety of construction processes, as well as the procedure of construction were
discussed. Perhaps, a discussion on the trend of construction methods would also be helpful.
Thanachareonkit, A, Scartezzini, J L and Andersen, M (2005) Comparing daylighting performance assessment of buildings in scale models and test modules. Solar
Energy, 79: 168–182.
Dated roughly a decade after the previous one we have seen on optimizing daylight in
buildings, we see that this paper builds upon the existing knowledge. In it, the authors
note that scale models often used to evaluate the feasibility and performance of using natural lighting often overestimate the performance of these systems, resulting in insufficient
illumination and the need for artificial lighting again. These errors are observed to arise
from incorrect modelling of building details and surface reflecting abilities. As such, the
authors assess physical parameters individually and conclude that scale models on average,
overestimate the desired quantities by large amounts, up to double the actual effects. Hence,
it is concluded that more precise estimates of actual properties of buildings are required
when natural lighting is considered and predicted in models. This study points towards a
basic weakness in modelling. However, it remains necessary for researchers to use it, and
the solution would be to fine- tune the parameters to replicate actual conditions as much as
possible.
Thornton, C, Hungspruke, U and Joseph, L (1996) Composite high-rise construction
in Asia. In: Council on Tall Buildings and Urban Habitat (Ed), Tall Buildings and
Structures – A World View, Lehigh University, Bethlehem, 331–338.
This study, based on the Petronas Towers at Kuala Lumpur, is about the use of composite
concrete-and-steel construction to provide long span open floors, fast erection and future
adaptability. The crux to composite construction lies in determining the proper amount and
method of steel framing to accommodate the concrete elements. The advantages of using
concrete in addition to steel includes low cost per unit of load carried, increased stiffness
and, permitting flexibility in construction approach, among others. The advantages of using
steel in addition to concrete include greater erection speed, straightforward fabrication and
erection, among others. This method provides the greatest benefit to overall speed. The
study gives a good discussion on how the composite construction helps in speeding up
the construction process while lowering cost without compromising on the stability of the
structure. The use of the case study helps to illustrate the uses. However, this study can be
further improved with an inclusion of the discussion of how the height of the building would
have affected the balance between the use of concrete and steel. Insufficient reference was
made to how this study is specific to high-rise, and not to all buildings despite the fact that
the building process of high-rise tends to be more costly and time-consuming.
Toussi, S and Yao, J (1981) Hysteresis Identification of Multi-Story Buildings, Purdue University, West Lafayette.
This book is on the behaviour of multi-degree-of-freedom (MDOF) structural systems. This
is an extension from a previous report by the same authors on the behaviour of singledegree-of-freedom (SDOF) structural systems. By using a lump mass model, a MDOF
structure is described with different independent responses, each of which can be considered a SDOF structure and analyzed using the hysteresis identification method. This will be
an estimation of the inter-story behaviour. In addition, the effect of damping on high-rise
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buildings, the role which the damping force plays and its mathematical form are investigated. The mathematical form used in this analysis is reversible, non-linear and symmetrical
with respect to the origin. The advantage of this method is that the time-variant properties
for the structure are considered, unlike other methods which tend to treat coefficients within
a series as constant. This report would have been more useful if read together with the
preceding one, as much of the details of the method was left out, resulting in an incomplete understanding of the hysteresis method. In addition, there was too little reference to
the high-rise building and its state and governing conditions such as geometry, height and
structures used in the construction.
Traum, E (1967) Multi-storey pierced shear walls of variable cross-section. In:
A. Coull and S. Smith (Ed), Tall Buildings, Pergamon Press, London, 181–204.
The objective of this paper is to present an analysis of abrupt changes in the cross-section
of shear walls, as opposed to a uniform or continuous cross-section, with respect to loading.
When dealing with such abrupt changes, appropriate boundary conditions are used and the
wall is sectioned such that each section of the wall can be considered either uniform or
continuous, so as to make use of previous research to analyze walls separately. The author
first analyzes the effect of horizontal loading on the shear wall and then of the concentrated
axial loads and concentrated moment acting at top of the wall. Various equations dependent
on the type of loading is formulated and a numerical example is used to illustrate how to
measure the response of such a shear wall. The presentation of the methodology is concise
and straightforward and is thus useful in understanding how to analysis the response of
shear wall.
Uy, B (1998) Ductility, strength and stability of concrete-filled fabricated steel box
columns for tall buildings. The Structural Design of Tall Buildings, 7: 113–133.
Concrete Filled Box Columns have been used in the construction of tall buildings but without further research and understanding of its properties in a building, architects and designers are unable to optimize their designs, often over engineering to prevent failure. This
paper studies the properties of the concrete filled steel box columns in detail to understand
its properties for the benefit of future engineers and architects. The author considers two
different types of steel namely mild structural steel and high strength steel and two different
types of concrete, normal concrete and high strength concrete. Each of these materials has
different stress-strain behaviors and when combined in composites the four different composites would have drastically different performances and behavior. The author recognizes
that this is just a study using numerical analysis which may be meaningless if not backed
with actual data. Thus, research is underway to provide an accurate understanding of the
properties of concrete filled fabricated steel box columns.
Uy, B (2001) Strength of short concrete filled high strength steel box columns. Journal of Constructional Steel Research, 57: 113–134.
The author has published many papers advocating the use of concrete filled high strength
steel box columns and many numerical models that would predict their behavior and maximize the usefulness. In this paper, he presents experimental data of short concrete filled high
strength steel box columns which he utilizes to calibrate his model. Two different models
are presented. While the numerical model is more accurate at predicting the results, it cannot
cater for design unless a more complicated program is developed. The other approach, the
Eurocode 4, was more amenable for hand calculations for design but shown to be inconsistent with the test results. The author then presents a compromise, a mixed analysis approach
which is amenable for design and more consistent with results. However, given the improvements in technology and with better programmers, a more robust model may be developed
in the future which may not need to compromise accuracy for design.
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Uy, B and Das, S (1997) Time effects in concrete-filled steel box columns in tall
buildings. The Structural Design of Tall Buildings, 6: 1–22.
Use of concrete-filled steel columns had been steadily increasing possibly due to the cost
and material savings. In the construction of tall buildings, the high stress may lead to effects
such as creep and shrinkage leading to the shortening of columns of the building which
increases stresses on other structures within the building. On a short term, this may not be
easily observed and data needs to be obtained over a long period of time. Thus this study
utilizes numerical analysis and models to simulate the behavior of the these materials over
time. These calculations are simple and yet rigorous taking into account different stress and
strain rates across different levels. Their simplicity allows them to be applied to a multitude
of situations. However, the author believes more work needs to be done to gather actual
data without which these models may prove to be inaccurate. We must also consider that
concrete and steel have vastly different properties. Although they may be composited, the
difference in properties may cause complexities when they are put through strain.
Uy, B and Das, S (1997) Wet concrete loading of thin-walled steel box columns
during the construction of a tall building. Journal of Construction Steel Research,
42(2): 95–119.
Steel Box Columns filled with concrete are used in the construction of many tall buildings.
The advantages have been discussed in many papers before this one. This paper focuses
on the behavior the steel box columns while concrete is being pumped into them. In view
of efficiency it is best that we build the thin steel columns and pump in the concrete all
at once. However this is impossible especially for tall buildings as the thin steel cannot
hold the weight of the frame and hydrostatic pressure due to the wed concrete may cause
lateral deflections of the thin walls. Towards maximizing efficiency, the authors tried to
understand the loading on the thin steel walls on pumping of concrete to minimize the
number of pumping required but also maintain structural integrity with minimal steel wall
thickness. This is accomplished through the use of mathematical models such as the linear
folded plate finite element method under two different boundary conditions thus optimizing
the slenderness limit for the number of levels of concrete pumped. However, though the
models may have been rather reliable in other cases, an actual experiment may be needed
for verification.
Uy, B and Das, S (1999) Bracing of thin walled steel box columns during pumping
of wet concrete in tall buildings. Thin-Walled Structures, 33: 127–154.
It is known that thin walled steel box columns have to be able to withstand both the axial
loads of the frames above as well as hydrostatic pressures during the wet loading of concrete. This may lead to excessive lateral deflections and affect the safety and performance
of the building. It is ideal to minimize the thickness of the steel plates as they only have
to withstand minimal axial loads upon finish. Thus braces are used to minimize the lateral
deflections in the early stages and during pumping of concrete. In this study, box columns
are studied as they are the most susceptible to lateral deflections. The methods used are
similar to those used before, namely the folded plate finite element method with boundary
conditions. The authors considered different parameters such as wall thickness and height
of concrete pumped and number of braces used to determine the amount of lateral deflection
and recommended the optimal thickness of steel wall and amount of braces to use. However,
it must be remembered that this is still a numerical model and experiments need to be done
to verify the results.
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Uy, B and Patil, S B (1996) Concrete filled high strength steel box columns for
tall buildings: behaviour and design. The Structural Design of Tall Buildings, 5(2):
75–94.
This paper presents a study of the behaviour and design of concrete filled high strength
steel fabricated box columns for use in tall buildings. The many advantages that can be
attributed to the use of high strength steel in concrete filled steel box column constructions
are presented and discussed. A proposed design model is developed to calculate the strength
of short columns in bending and compression. A method for constructing the strength interaction diagram is presented. Furthermore, to study the ductility of this form of column
construction a cross-sectional analysis computer program was developed to consider the
moment-thrust-curvature response of such members. This has been undertaken using mild
structural steel and high strength steel. The study also shows that, by the use of the method
considered, savings can be made in the base column design of a tall building with a negligible penalty in ductility. Finally, recommendations are given for further research into this
new method of column construction, which focuses on future experimental work.
Vallenilla, C R and Bjorhovde, R (1990) Behavior of composite frames during construction. Journal of Construction Steel Research, 15: 3–21.
Composite materials have been used in many industries such as aerospace and biomedical applications to achieve material properties that are superior to the individual materials
themselves. In terms of construction, we value properties such as load bearing strength and
stiffness while trying to minimize weight and cost. The high strength-to-weight ratio of
steel combined with the economies and stiffness of concrete composited together provides
us with the ideal construction material especially for high rise buildings. While composites
have been used in construction for individual components its use in the entire frame was
rather novel at that time. In this journal, the authors investigate the different methods of
utilizing concrete and steel to achieve a complete composite frame. The different types
of composite frames studied include composite tubular systems, composite core-braced
systems and frames with composite cladding. The authors considered the behavior of the
frames during construction to optimize building of the steel frame ahead of the concrete
casting to maximize construction efficiency. The results obtained advised construction companies on an optimal method of construction. However, it is noted that above 50 storeys, the
efficiency may be reduced thus requiring other methods possible a pure steel framework.
Ventura, C E and Ding, Y (2000) Linear and nonlinear seismic response of a 52storey steel frame building. The Structural Design of Tall Buildings, 9(1): 25–45.
This paper presents the results of a study on the seismic behaviour of a 52-storey steel frame
building in Los Angeles, California, which has been subjected to ground motions from
several earthquakes, including the 1991 Sierra Madre earthquake and the 1994 Northridge
earthquake. Detailed time and frequency domain analyses of the recorded motions from
these two earthquakes were conducted to determine the dynamic characteristics of the
structure, while nonlinear dynamic computer analyses were then employed to investigate
the response of the structure during severe ground shaking. The results showed that by
performing a linear three-dimensional analysis, the response of the building during past
earthquakes can be reproduced with confidence. By further performing a nonlinear analysis,
the state and sequence of damage could also be predicted. These findings can help to analyse
the performance of existing buildings in potential earthquakes as well as to construct more
stable buildings in seismically active regions.
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Vrcelj, Z and Uy, B (2002) Strength of slender concrete-filled steel box columns
incorporating local buckling. Journal of Constructional Steel Research, 58:
275–300.
Buckling effects of concrete-filled steel box columns are of particular concern in the construction of buildings especially before the concrete has been pumped in to increase the
stiffness of the steel box columns. In this study, the author considers local buckling effects
and how to predict and prevent them using numerical models. The model is calibrated
against independent tests and tests by other researchers to ensure reliability. It is then put
through parametric tests to understand the behavior of the composite sections under stress.
The results are compared against the specifications of Eurocode 4 and AS4100. The author
makes recommendations based on his models that the specifications be modified for slender
composite sections. High strength concrete is also considered as a solution to even more
slender steel walls. Both mild steel and high strength structural steel are taken into consideration. Lastly, he provides an example for designers to understand how to incorporate his
model into the different design codes.
Whalen, T M, Archer, G C and Bhatia, K M (2004) Implications of vertical mass
modeling errors on 2d dynamic structural analysis. The Structural Design of Tall
and Special Buildings, 13: 305–314.
This paper points out a possible oversimplification in the use of the finite element method
previously mentioned above. The authors show that while in many dynamic analyses of
buildings the building is modelled as several discrete masses, this may affect the accuracy
of the dynamic properties obtained. As such, real buildings may react differently to vibrations as compared to predictions based on the finite element models. Thus, they proceed to
illustrate the implications of such discrepancies. One of the major concerns is the failure to
sufficiently predict vertical vibrations as opposed to horizontal vibrations. Furthermore, the
behaviour of buildings with non-typical features such as the removal of some columns will
be inadequately predicted by such models. Undeniably, the authors point out a weakness of
using models to predict large, complicated, and often unique structures based on simplified
models. While modelling offers simple and efficient methods to aid in designing and implementing safety measures, structural integrity and resilience of buildings against vibrations
has to be weighed against economic factors such as selecting suitable methods to predict
the possible structural problems. As such, it is necessary that a compromise be reached in
the industry.
Whittaker, A, Gilani, A, and Bertero, V (1998) Evaluation of pre-northridge steel
moment-resisting frame joints. The Structural Design of Tall Buildings, 7: 263–283.
The Northridge Earthquake of 1994 had a huge impact on construction industry in Los
Angeles and United States in general due to the widespread and unexpected damage seen
in buildings around the city. Studies were undertaken on pre-Northridge joints to determine
a possible cause of the damage. This paper considered the results of other papers as well
as conducted its own experiments to determine the problem and how it may be avoided
in the future. It was determined that the joints were all unsatisfactory and way below the
standards that were adopted after the earthquake. The researchers also tested some of the
connections to failure and attempted to repair them by welding to determine the viability
of repair instead of replacement. However, it is seen that even with repair, the connections
remain unsatisfactory and broke before achieving the results required. Thus, the researchers
advised replacing the joints entirely with new ones that conform to the current safety
standards.
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Wilde, W P, Blain, W R, and Brebbia, C A (2000) Advances in Composite Materials
and Structures VII, WIT Press, Boston.
This is a book in pursuit of the understanding and application of composite materials and
their unique properties. The book is largely grouped into Composite structures, Material
characterization, Optimal Design, Analysis and Testing, Damage and Fracture Mechanics,
Process Simulation, Modeling Fabrics and lastly Joining and Bonding. These aspects are
keys towards developing our knowledge of composites. Each aspect is highly technical and
detailed which may be difficult to understand for the laymen but contain a wealth of info
for the interested scientist. However, as with any technical book, as time progresses, new
technologies develop and old information may be rendered obsolete. Some of the information found in these aspects could be considered outdated in the near future especially in a
new field such as composites where we are always building new understanding. However,
we can still try to understand the methodology of testing and understanding the composite
materials, which should remain the same for a longer time.
Wörner, J and Nordhues, H (2002) Structural dynamics. In: J. Eisele and E. Kloft
(Ed), High-Rise Manual, Birkhäuser, Basel, 106–115.
This is a study on how dynamic forces such as earthquakes, wind and other forms of vibration affect high-rise construction and design. As compared to standard buildings, high-rise
buildings may require other principles such as plan and elevation, material selection and
reinforcing systems. Regularity in elevation is a key feature in high-rise with regards to
dynamic loads. Some design features to ensure stability under dynamic forces include detuning of the building to prevent resonance, inserting elements to damp oscillations. These
changes are made with occupants’ comfort in view. This study is helpful as it gives an
overview of how dynamic forces influence the design of the building, as well as certain
factors which are influenced by being a high-rise building. However, it does not provide
details on how to counter these forces, nor does it describe the elements used to stabilize
the buildings. Including a discussion on the practical systems which can be used would
make this study more useful and relevant.
Yu, J K and Kim, S D (2005) Behavior of RC column to iTECH composite beam
joint. Structures and Building, 158: 97–107.
The number of high-rise buildings has been steadily increasing in Korea. Technology also
has to improve to keep up with it. In order to reduce storey height which was a problem of using conventional Steel composite beams, an alternate composite beam named
iTECH (innovative, Technical, Economical and Convenient Hybrid) was proposed. The
paper touched briefly on the advantages of using the iTECH beam. However the application
of the iTECH beams saw problems due to the joining with reinforced concrete columns
commonly used in Korea. Therefore the research team proposed a method for joining as
well as design equations for the joint. Many clear pictures were provided in the paper to
provide the reader with a clear understanding of how the joint was designed and tested. The
researchers were comprehensive in their testing of the joint, utilizing both models and actual
experiments under different parameters. The joint looks promising but more tests may need
to be done by independent groups in order to ascertain its safety for use. We could also
consider the use of high-strength structural steel and high strength concrete which may
improve its performance.
Yut, M B (1984) High-Rise, High-Density Living, Singapore Professional Centre,
Singapore.
This book is a compilation of papers which highlight several aspects of high-rise, including environmental planning, high-rise materials and safety. These different elements of tall
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buildings are elaborated by analyzing the case studies of countries with high-density living
such as Hong Kong and Singapore. Some papers emphasized on the importance of environmental planning in the physical landscape of high-rise, and this can be seen in the case study
of Singapore when the idea of protecting the environment from the damages of construction is inherent in the process of designing tall buildings. In addition, the structural safety
of materials in events such as earthquakes is explained in detail as well. Fire-protection
materials such as gypsum and mineral fibre were elaborated in terms of the structure and
the properties which allowed them to display high levels of security during fires. In view
of rapid technological advancements, the authors have also displayed great confidence in
the future trends of high-rise. It is expected that the development of tall buildings would be
pushed to greater heights. In the book, the continued existence of high-rise is accredited to
the advancement of technology, which has allowed materials to be cheaper but of a better
quality.
Zhong, S T and Goode, C D (2001) Composite construction for columns in high-rise
buildings in China. Proceedings in the Institution of Civil Engineers Structures and
Buildings, 146(4): 333–340.
The speed of construction and economic benefits have persuaded China to adopt Concrete
Filled Steel Tube Columns in their construction of high-rise buildings. The major code
for construction in China is DL/T5085-1999 which is in contrast to the more widely used
Eurocode 4. In this study, the two codes gave similar designs for the columns. The paper
uses case studies to provide a clear overview of the construction process for Concrete Filled
Steel Tube Columns and how it conforms to the Chinese code or the Eurocode 4. The paper
also clearly states the advantages of using Concrete Filled Steel Tube Columns over the
Reinforced Concrete used in the past. This paper provides us with an insight into the design
and construction of Tall Buildings in China which has its own set of codes though methods
remain similar. However, in light of high-strength concrete and newer high performance
steels it is unknown if these codes may be revised towards a more efficient one.
Technology
Adeli, H and Saleh, A (1999) Control, Optimization, and Smart Structures: High
Performance Bridges and Buildings of the Future, John Wiley and Sons, New York.
In this book the authors explored the application of multiple computer-controlled electricactuators to improve the stability of structures in the face of externally applied forces. The
first half of the book focused on explaining the computer algorithm used to process the data
generated from using hundreds of sensors simultaneously, while the latter half discussed
some experimental results of applying the technique. Of particular interest here is chapter 7
and 8, which deal with multi-storey buildings (though not very tall – only up to 12-storey).
Actuators are installed along the beams of several floors to actively control the displacement of each beam. Impacts of earthquake, wind loading, and bomb blast are considered,
with encouraging results. For example, using data recorded from a previous earthquake to
simulate the scenario, it was found that it is possible to reduce the maximum displacement
of the top of the building from the potentially dangerous value of 50 cm by 85%. Clearly,
this method can save lives and property by preventing collapse. However, the feasibility of
extending this method to taller buildings still needs to be explored.
Blismas, N G and Dainty, A R J (2003) Computer-aided qualitative data analysis:
panacea or paradox? Building Research and Information, 31(6): 455–463.
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While quantitative data analysis was the norms in construction industries, pluralistic methodology that involves qualitative data analysis has become more popular in recent years.
Many researchers now adopt computer-aided qualitative data analysis software (CAQDAS).
However, there was little literature that are critical on the usage of CAQDAS. The authors
attempt to set this straight by providing critical viewpoints on CAQDAS. The paper explores
a CAQDAS software called NVivo and suggested many critical issues involved, including
the lack of advantage in automation (it still requires continuous input from researchers),
capability to store more data invites researchers to increase the amount of data and may
compromise deep analysis with “superficial studies” using large amount of data, and the narrow functionality available and imposed on the researchers provide little avenue for broader
analytical approach. The author was concerned that usage of CAQDAS is portrayed as providing rigour while the converse might be true. Computer-aided analysis force researchers
towards a particular analytical approach instead of providing rigour and transparency. The
author hopes that such criticisms will benefit the maturity and further development in this
field.
Chen, G D, Sun, S S, Pommerenke, D, Drewniak, J L, Greene, G G, McDaniel, R D,
Belarbi, A and Mu, H M (2005) Crack detection of a full-scale reinforced concrete
girder with a distributed cable sensor. Smart Material and Structures, 14: S88–S97.
This paper develops the method of detecting cracks using cable sensors for health monitoring of large-scale concrete-based civil infrastructure. The method presented here is based
on the change in topology, or electrical structure, of a coaxial cable. It has been successfully
implemented in a full-scale reinforced concrete girder, approximately 15 m, under cyclically
increasing and decreasing load tension to induce the cracks. The authors concluded that this
method outperforms the current commercially available sensors in terms of sensitivity and
cost-effectiveness. However, there remains some challenges that must be overcome before
the use of coaxial cable sensor can become more widespread, which are signal loss issue due
to length of cable, non-uniformity leading to inability to detect some obvious cracks, and
deformation of the sensor due to repeated loading leading to inaccuracies. If more research
is done and these problems could be overcome, industrial production of cable sensors could
become a reality.
Chun, M and Fellows, R (2000) Intelligent building systems in Hong Kong offices.
Facilities, 18(5/6): 225–234.
The authors reviewed the intelligent buildings among some samples of high-rise offices
in Hong Kong. Concept of intelligent building includes “sophisticated telecommunications
facilities”, “building management” and “data networking services”. The development is
closely linked to information technology (IT). There has been a shift from being an innovative technology to standard, traditional facilities management in recent years. Such intelligent facilities have also increased in complexity as occupants require more advanced
yet more flexible technologies. They argue that appropriate provision during development
period will be an effective mechanism to keep intelligence systems flexible, thus increasing
the price of the buildings. The survey results of the Hong Kong’s office buildings indicate
wide diversity in “design and provision” of intelligent features as there is no mandatory rules
or criteria. There is also a problem of diverging requirements with multiple ownership and
occupation that is common in Hong Kong. The authors argue that availability in advance of
primary cabling and generous space for current and anticipated needs are important. They
argue that, contrary to popular perspective, intelligent buildings need not contain cuttingedge technology, but rather must have provisions for adaptability to future IT needs of the
buildings.
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149
Ewing, S, Hayward, D, Hopkins, L, and Thomas, J (2003) The new social policy
and the digital age: a case study of a wired high rise public housing estate. Just
Policy, 29: 36–45.
A problem of ‘digital divide’ has risen in the past few years as a growing gap between those
with access to electronic information (in the form of Internet and the like) and those who
do not. The paper studies a social partnership called ‘Reach for the Clouds’ that provided
personal computers for tenants and connect it to the intranet, with potential to access the
Internet. This project represents a shift in social policy to that led by non-profit organization
and one that put an expectation in providing free technology to raise the level of social
networking and economic participation. This social partnership tries to bridge the digital
divide. This social partnership model proved to be successful as ‘Reach for the Clouds’
gains focus from other non-profit agencies and also support from politicians. Even so, this
effort is not without its problems. The agency needed to persevere through the early part of
the programme.
Finch, E (1998) Remote building control using the Internet. Facilities, 16(12/13):
356–360.
Modern buildings incorporate a vast array of complex devices (like pumps and fans). These
devices may come from different manufacturers and expertise is required to properly manage these devices. With the usage of Internet, this problem may be exacerbated by tying the
manufacturers to help in fixing problems that occur with the devices. Clients benefit from
expertise provided and manufacturers benefit as they can obtain value-added elements from
this service while getting useful feedback. The author introduced the importance of embedded system in intelligent building. Many devices are equipped with some sort of embedded
chips. Such computer processing unit may provide information about the devices. At the
time of writing, such information is less useful because the information from each device
is not compatible with one another. This standardization is required in building automation. Open standards are required to clean up the vast array of data production and collection methods employed by different manufacturers. Once open standards become norms,
it would be easier to provide remote building control over the Internet. Security issues
in remote controlling may be reduced by using newer techniques such as virtual private
networks.
Finch, E (2001) Is IP everywhere the way ahead for building automation? Facilities,
19(11/12): 396–403.
Traditionally, building automation system was narrowly defined to become an efficient solution to energy management, environment control, and security. Currently, such tools have
become a lot more expansive as demands for it grow from facilities managers. As such,
an “open” system is required for data communication. The author suggests the potential
of Internet Protocols (IP) as integration solution for the wide arrays of automation systems. While concerns on reliability and quality of service abound, the author attempts to
redress the issue and consider whether it is possible to have IP-based embedded system
to be harnessed in building automation. Using IP allows for web-based remote access to
automation devices. Enabling both monitoring and management of such devices. While
introducing cable networks to support IP may be cost-prohibitive, recent advances allow
usage of wireless network, among others, to provide connectivity. Such usage of IP in intelligent buildings opens up a lot of unexplored possibilities, while maintaining openness in
integrating intelligent systems.
Foley, C M and Vinnakota, S (1994) Parallel processing in the elastic nonlinear
analysis of high-rise frameworks. Computer and Structures, 52(6): 1169–1179.
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The authors start by introducing the then new, powerful supercomputers, such as Cray,
Sequent, and Convex. As analysis becomes increasingly complex, such supercomputers will
offer significant improvements when parallel processing is utilized. The author provides a
discussion on finite element formulation and how such analysis may utilize parallel processing to increase its performance. Such analysis was then tested on 16-processor supercomputers with complex high-rise frameworks to be analyzed. As expected, significant speed
increase is observed, especially during vectorization (the Cray’s processors are very powerful vector processor). As a conclusion, Cray’s parallel processing, termed microtasking and
vectorization, speeds up in parallel code is observed, suggesting that future use of parallel
process may become a powerful tool in similar analysis.
Fritzen, C and Bohle, K (2001) Application of model-based damage identification
to a seismically loaded structure. Smart Material and Structures, 10: 452–458.
The authors presented a model-based algorithm to identify cracks in the structure using
the data from vibration characteristic measurement. In this model, a simplification of the
problem is necessary as it is not possible to obtain data sets to solve all the unknowns.
Thus, some parameters will have to be ignored, and this selection of parameters is vital to
the success of the model. With appropriate selection of parameters, the authors managed
to identify all the cracks in the structure used in the experiment. However, due to noise,
they also obtained a false negative, a healthy region identified as problematic. Using more
sensors and placing them at strategic locations will improve the predictive power of the
model. If they could refine the parameter selection process to make the model more robust,
this system could be very useful in the field of structural health monitoring and even selfhealing material in the future.
Grosan, C and Abraham, A (2006) Stigmergic optimization: inspiration, technologies and perspectives. Studies in Computational Intelligence, 31: 1–24.
This paper elaborated on several familiar stigmergic computational methods inspired by
nature for optimization problems developed by imitating the behavioural patterns of social
insects. In addition, this paper delves into the manner these social insects, namely, termites,
bees and ants organise themselves and interact to solve daily problems. Eugène Marais
(1872 – 1936) was a South African scientist who first studied the behaviour of social insects
and made stunning discoveries. He established a radically different perspective on what a
termite colony is and how it works, and he detailed down his observations. He was puzzled
on the mechanics of termite communication. How can tiny, short-sighted, simple animals
construct grand termite mounds, some as tall as six metres? In 1959, a French biologist
called Pierre-Paul Grassé noted that termites followed simple rules during nest construction.
First, termites move around at random, dropping pellets of chewed earth and saliva on any
elevated ground patches near the construction site. Then, the heaps of salivated earth further
concentrate pellet-dropping activity, in which the bigger heaps are further developed into
columns. Finally, once big and tall columns are constructed in close proximity, the termites
began to build diagonally towards neighbouring columns. Interestingly, the termites do not
rely on a fixed purposive plan from start to end but instead rely on how the termite world
develops at any given moment. The termite does not need to know the master plan to construct but instead relied upon the state of its immediate environment. Grassé termed this
behaviour coordination as stigmergy, meaning ‘incitation to work’, which is also noticed in
other social insects like bees, ants and wasps. He defined stigmergy as “the stimulation of
workers by the very performance they have achieved”. This biological observation could
shed light on how construction planning of skyscrapers can be made more efficient, creative
and stable. It also elaborates on ant traffic induced by pheromone trails. The paper also
elaborates on biologically inspired algorithms such as ant colony optimisation algorithm,
bee behaviour algorithm, particle swarm optimisation algorithm and bacteria foraging
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algorithm. In Biomimetics, Butler recommends research into spiders’ spin silk that proves
to be stronger than artificial synthetic substances, diatoms (microscopic phytoplankton)
responsible for 25% of the world’s photosynthetic activity makes glass from silicon derived
in seawater without smelting, abalone’s crack-resistant shells, derived from biomineralisation, that are tougher than ceramics, cellulose (a natural composite with a higher bending
power and stiffness that concrete or steel) produced by trees from sunlight, water and air,
and plant compounds that prevents fungal infection and pest infestation. Indeed, we have
much to learn from nature on solving our technological problems.
He, Y and Vaughan, B (1996) Smoke spread experiment in a multi-storey building
and computer modelling. Fire Safety Journal, 28: 139–164.
The spreading of smoke from a fire within enclosed and beyond open spaces of multi-storey
buildings has not been well understood. This paper elaborates on a modelling based on the
Cesare-Smoke model that helps facilitate the prediction of spread patterns in a multi-storey
building. The mathematical formulation of this model is explained in the paper, alongside
the prediction and experimental results of temperature and smoke levels at distances away
from the fire source. The comparison between the predicted simulation model and the measured results from the full-scale experiment help verify and validate the accuracy of the
Cesare-Smoke model. Parameters such as smoke density, flow velocity, temperature and
pressure are measured in different building areas. It is observed that the model only manages
to provide a qualitative prediction of smoke flow, but not numerical values as such a model
does not take into account air leakages in buildings. Such simulation, nevertheless, enables
planners to predict danger zones that may inform them to take necessary precautions at those
areas. The Cesare-Smoke model may be problematic for calculations on tall buildings, and
a more efficient algorithm and higher computational processing power would be required.
Hinks, J (1998) A conceptual model for the interrelationship between information technology and facilities management process capability. Facilities, 16(9/10):
233–245.
The paper presents conceptual framework for describing the relationship between frequency
modulator (FM) process and the specialist information technology used in FM (FM IT).
The issue of capability and maturity in specialist FM IT boils down to whether the FM
IT provides sufficient enhancement to the FM process. It was hypothesized that there is
a capability level below which IT does not provide sufficient enhancement. Thus, the IT
capability must be specific to FM to provide greatest benefits, such as “planned preventive
maintenance” and “space planning packages”. The author proceeds to model the capability
and maturity in the FM process. The lowest one being “ad hoc or chaotic process capability”
that lacks much control over the FM process, followed by repeatable process where individual operations become more repeatable, followed by “defined process capability” where
repeatable process is captured, documented, and standardized into management “protocols”.
At this level, IT becomes more useful and enabling. The next level will be managed process,
followed by optimized process. While IT’s usefulness is unquestionable at these levels, to
assess co-maturity in FM IT and IT, there are 3 possible state it could be in: stable, decline,
and maturity. The author provides further model to define the 3 states. The author finally
argues that the defined and manageable FM process seems to be “contingent on the growth
of FM IT capability”.
Hopkins, L (2005) Making a community network sustainable: the future of the wired
high rise. The Information Society, 21(5): 379–384.
Governments, private sectors, and other parties have put up efforts to establish opportunities
for the “underserved” to overcome the digital divide. The author studies the introduction
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of sustainable computer network infrastructure to high-rise living. Such sustainability is
important as network technologies and population of the high-rise are ever-changing. The
first concern is the issue of providing suitable physical environment for cabling and equipments. Supply of new technology is another concern. Goal-setting is deemed important
in making sure that such network becomes socially sustainable. The main issue will be to
ensure that the “massive” amount of financial support does not dry out after the grant period
(usually from agencies external to the community). The author discusses possible funding
methods for the project. In conclusion, to sustain such community network in high-rise, we
must accept “change and flexibility” and “stability and continuity”.
Ikeda, M, Sekihara, Y, and Itoh, N (1996) Construction planning system for highrise buildings using and object-based model. In: Z. Turk (Ed), Construction on the
Information Highway, University of Ljublijana, Ljubljana.
Computer Integrated Construction (CIC) has gained recognition in the Japanese construction industry as a “highly effective tool in increasing productivity”. Its primary objectives
are “information sharing” and “cooperative work”. The authors followed up by describing position of CIC in Japan and steps that should be taken to adapt CIC. The paper
presents a case study on CIC framework in Fujita Corporation, a leading general contractor
in Japan. The paper further describes necessary software infrastructure in-house developments and their usage. The paper shows how integrated methods by using such softwares
have increased efficiency of high-rise building development. The authors concluded that
to propel future CIC, simply advancing integration of technologies and information within
the framework is not sufficient. There is also a need to reform building production systems
themselves to adopt a very systematized construction process from procurement, transportation to prefabrication of building components.
Katzenbach, R, Schmitt, A, and Turek, J (2005) Assessing settlement of high-rise
structures by 3D simulations. Computer-Aided Civil and Infrastructure Engineering, 20: 221–229.
Frankfurt is building a substantial amount of high-rise buildings in the coming years. As
the buildings are going to be built with combined piled-raft foundations (CPRFs), the
complex interaction in such process resulted in high complexity and difficult designs. The
author discusses the use of 3-dimensional numerical simulations for assessing the settlement
behaviour of high-rise structures. He discusses the usage of finite-element mesh in such simulation. Material models such as constitutive model is shown to be verifiable through numerical simulation. Improvements on such models may be done by back-analyzing already built
tall building. As a future direction, with more and more sensitive traffic routes and supply
networks located underground near the planned tall buildings, a more detailed simulation
mesh would be required. As such simulation takes a long time to complete (18 hours in the
case of the authors’ simulation process), a more detailed simulation would only be possible
with increase in computational power.
Keogh, P M (1996) Understanding the options for cabling and networking. Facilities, 14(3/4): 33–37.
In intelligent building, the needs of the organization/occupants must drive the building
design in every aspect; this includes business management, space management, and building management needs. The implementation of facilities to satisfy this need often requires
networks and extensive cabling. Such systems must address problems such as integration,
security system, and access rights for occupants (and removal of such access to previous
occupants). In intelligent building, networking between systems is necessary to enable systems to work with one another efficiently and intelligently (feedback from one system may
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affect how other systems behave). Thus, facilities managers must understand how cabling
for such networks will affect the buildings. Some important cabling aspects are feeds to controlled devices and sensors and feeds to desks. In the future, systems would be addressable
at low cost and provide structured cabling with easy integration between modules.
Kirkwood, J S (1995) Network technology: potential applications within facilities
management. Facilities, 13(11): 8–12.
Facilities management practice requires coordination and effective use of resources and to
be able to do so, managers require accurate information. The author discusses the impact
of network communication, in particular wide area networks (WANs, more commonly
known as the Internet) to help in FM practice. The WANs technology has enabled facilities
managers to perform similar tasks more effectively than before. Information placed in the
Internet remains permanently in the Internet and can be retrieved easily and effectively.
Electronic mail (e-mail) has benefited FM by reducing the needs to travel and long wait or
costs of traditional communication medium. Usage of discussion list provides a venue for
easy discussion where face-to-face meeting is not important. The world wide web allows
information to be placed on the internet easily. The author concludes that network technology has the potential to consolidate fragmented paper data into “the same digital form” with
cheap and quick access from anywhere.
Lee, U K, Kang, K I, and Kim, G H (2006) Improving tower crane productivity
using wireless technology. Computer-Aided Civil and Infrastructure Engineering,
21: 594–604.
With large-scale construction projects, especially that of high-rise buildings, the tower crane
becomes a very important machine. While mechanical performance for tower crane has seen
improvements in leaps and bounds, communication system to assist tower crane operators
to exchange real-time information on the lifted materials, installation location, and site environments have not improved much. There are still many misunderstandings caused by lack
of communications. The authors studied advanced tower crane (ATC) installed with video
camera feedback, wireless control technology, and RFID (radio frequency identification).
These technologies enable operators to receive real-time updates. Due to ability to provide
real-time feedback to workers and crane operators, work efficiency will improve. While the
idea and prototype is novel, widespread implementations are still far because of problems
such as inaccurate RFID read mechanisms. Future works may include automatic driving
modules integrated with GPS to provide real-time tracking of materials. Wireless controllers
and liquid crystal display monitors provided in the crane operating room can be used for
other advanced features.
Leung, A W T and Tam, C M (2003) Scheduling for high-rise building construction using simulation techniques. In: R. Amor (Ed), Proceedings of the CIB W78’s
20th International Conference on Construction IT, Construction IT Bridging the
Distance, Waiheke Island, New Zealand, 186–193.
Construction of high-rise buildings is usually undertaken in densely-populated area. Planning for floor construction cycle, which may consist of minimally-changing, often manual,
scheduling for simpler buildings, become highly complex. Due to the dynamics of the site
and its location, such schedule needs to be reviewed and modified accordingly from time
to time. While others have used genetic algorithms and artificial intelligence to produce
such plan, many planners were skeptical in applying techniques that are not familiar to
them. The author suggested a solution using network based simulation techniques, which
was claimed to be a “more practical and easily apprehensible” approach. The simulation
algorithm requires planners to enter duration of each activity, the effect of working hours,
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and critical paths of flow between each activity. The simulation uses these constraints to
work out the schedules and differences in durations of a cycle depending on working hours
entered. Planners could then review whether the conditions in the worksite (such as delays)
will demand the time savings from applying the more aggressive working hours scenario.
While scheduling and simulation of the schedule is generally compiled separately, the
authors saw that combining the two into one friendly process can be pursued as interesting
further study.
Li, H (1997) Determinants of knowledge-based expert system success in construction engineering. Building Research and Information, 25(2): 101–106.
In construction industry, knowledge-based expert systems (KBEs) are being applied to
solve various tasks, including many problem solving tasks. KBEs focused more on knowledge representation and knowledge-based reasoning rather than data processing. While
the importance of KBEs is increasing rapidly, little studies have been done on the success determinant factors of KBEs implementations. The paper investigates this problem.
Based on the author’s own studies, five factors determine a good KBE implementation. User
involvement, between end users, system designers and developers, is crucial in identifying
goals of the KBE systems. Selection of proper problem task is also important; selecting
wrong domain or domain with fast-changing knowledge will introduce more problems than
it solves. Developer skill is very important for knowledge extraction process. Flexible representation of knowledge should be assessed for desirable characteristics (KBEs may be
implemented with several ’shell’ schemes. Lastly, management support is definitely a key
factor for success of the KBE systems. Such results provide an important way for KBE
developers to evaluate and improve the success of the KBE projects.
Liu, D K, Yang, Y L, and Li, Q S (2003) Optimum positioning of actuators in tall
buildings using genetic algorithm. Computer and Structures, 81: 2823–2827.
Various optimization techniques have been used to find optimum placement of actuators in
buildings, such as simulated annealing method. The authors specifically studied the usage
of genetic algorithms (GA) and its effectiveness in placement of actuators. To use GA,
the authors have to formulate the optimization problem to be solved by GA. After that,
GA is used to find optimized solution based on the process of natural selections. To test
the algorithm, the authors used data from existing buildings and earthquake records. Before
usage, GA needs to have some parameters, such as the number of generation of the evolution
process, crossover rate (the rate of crossovers between two solutions to produce subsequent
generation), mutation rate (the rate of random errors introduced to the generations), and initial population generator. The authors conclude that while the problem of optimum actuators
placement is non-linear, discrete, and non-continuous complex problem, the GA solution
provided in the paper could be used to solve this optimization problem.
Lo, S M, Fang, Z, Zhi, G S and Yuen, K K (2002) A computer simulation model of
emergency egress for space planners. Facilities, 20(7/8): 262–270.
While building fire codes dictate the capacity of each component of the buildings in even of
fire, in highly populated buildings, fire codes do not guarantee a smooth egress during emergency. Furthermore, full-scale exercise may be overly costly or impossible if the building
has yet to be constructed. Thus, the authors proposed using computer simulation to simulate
the exit movement under emergency. The authors discussed modeling using “coarse network” where people’s movement is sees as a “mass” and stop short of attempting to model
each individual movement, and using “fine network” that uses grids to trace each individual
movement, whose speed and trajectory depends on the density of the surrounding crowd
and certain random “behavioral reaction” assign to the person. Both methods are suited for
different purposes. The authors also wrote about changing space plan over a building’s
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lifetime and suggested using layout analysis egress model that utilizes computer-aided
design plans for the building. As a conclusion, the usage of computer modeling could sufficiently model an accurate mass movement for highly-populated building (while sparselypopulated building depends more heavily on each individual’s movements and resulted in
less accurate prediction.
Mammoser III, J H and Battaglia, F (2004) A computational study on the use of
balconies to reduce flame spread in high-rise apartment fires. Fire Safety Journal,
39: 277–296.
Previous studies have indicated that one of the fastest ways a fire can spread to other floors
is due to open windows. Preventing fire from reaching the exterior of the building is also
important to help fire-fighter evacuate occupants. The authors attempt to study computationally, the effect of balconies on this spread. The authors attempt to vary the depth of the
balconies and its effect on fire spread in the numerical simulation. The authors use simple
balcony geometry in the simulation. The results indicate that as balcony depth increases
from 0 to 20 cm, the wall temperatures in the floor above and two floors above are significantly reduced. The results also indicate that increasing depth from 15 cm onwards result in
greatest decrease in temperature. The authors also discuss the use of more complex balcony
geometry.
Masri, S F, Sheng, H, Caffrey, J P, Nigbor, R L, Wahbeh, M and Abdel-Ghaffar, A M
(2004) Application of a web-enabled real-time structural health monitoring system
for civil infrastructure systems. Smart Material and Structures, 13: 1269–1283.
The authors presented a way to monitor the health of a structure in real-time over the internet. Although the system presented is intended for public infrastructure such as a bridge, it is
easily extendable to high rises. The monitoring system is based on a multi-threaded software
design that allows the system to obtain massive amount of data from multiple channels,
monitor and condition this data, and distribute it, in real time, over the Internet to multiple
remote locations. Bandwidth and latency issues are discussed. The authors commented that
since the prices of sensors are going down, the widespread application of this system, with
many more sensors per structure could become possible in the near future. Furthermore,
they stressed the importance of having heterogeneous sensors including sensors to measure
acceleration, displacement, strain, wind strength, and temperature to anticipate all kinds
of possible structural failures. If the price of sensors and computers become low enough,
this feature could become a standard for all public infrastructure and some private ones,
including high rises.
Mawson, A (2003) A fresh look at intelligent buildings. Facilities, 21(11/12):
260–264.
Learning Building Group (LBG) involves 9 Anglo-Scandinavian companies that came
together to develop intelligent workspace solution for future needs of user organization. The
paper describes its new approach to viewing intelligent building needs. Instead of focusing
mainly on forms, structures, and systems, a good approach to intelligent building should
consider “pressures, behaviour and needs of the modern business”. Building design process
should begin by inquiring the would-be occupants on their needs. In LBG views, design
process should first and foremost considers business needs, quality of life, environmental
impact, malleability to changes, good IT-based management system, and ability to partake
in future technological advancement. LBG took a fresh look at buildings by treating them
as business tool with “capability to sustain the business and technological challenges of an
uncertain future”. This will involve radical departures from traditional approach to “investment, design, and delivery” of buildings.
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Mita, A and Takhira, S (2003) A smart sensor using a mechanical memory for
structural health monitoring of a damage-controlled building. Smart Material and
Structures, 12: 204–209.
The authors set out by explaining the need for easy to use and practical sensor to survey
the damage caused by, say, an earthquake. Most traditional methods are slow, costly, or
troublesome. They developed a smart sensor that could record the maximum strain (or other
damage indicators) the location has experienced. The sensor requires no power source to
record the data; it is done by a purely physical phenomenon of elastic buckling of a thin
wire. The data could be read using a small power source that is only activated when needed,
and it could even be transmitted wirelessly, removing the need to dismantle the wall panel.
Despite the obvious drawback of only able to give a single data (the maximum value), there
could be some use for this system. For a building that is not too high or complicated so as
to require real-time tracking of the strain, this could provide a cheap and convenient way of
assessing damage after a disaster struck.
Ofori, G (2002) Singapore’s construction: moving toward a knowledge-based industry. Building Research and Information, 30(6): 401–412.
This paper aims to examine the “appropriateness” and “completeness” of Singapore’s initiatives to prepare her construction industry to cope with knowledge-based economy. After
discussing Singapore’s general direction on knowledge-based economy, the author goes
on to discuss the ‘Construction Manpower 21’ initiative, which was further revised into
C21. C21 was a recommendation to prepare Singapore’s construction industries for the
knowledge economy. C21 also put emphasis on Information Technology, among others.
Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development considered IT as a ‘pillar of
knowledge-based economy’. This emphasis, though only one among the many, has affirmed
the position of IT in the construction industry.
Ovaska, S J (1992) Electronics and Information Technology in high-range elevator
systems. Mechatronics, 2(1): 89–99.
Elevator control has developed rapidly since the advent of microprocessors in mid 70s. It is
worthy to note that introduction of new technology into elevator system usually take years
due to the long lifetime of elevator system (15 to 25 years). The author analyses many of the
advanced technology being used in high-end elevators. Individual elevator controls already
contain complex technologies, such as linking to car call service. Techniques in artificial
intelligence and fuzzy control offer possibilities in traffic prediction and optimal elevator
allocation. Motor drive control provides for overall ride comfort and traffic handling capacity. Elevators also contain system monitoring computer that collects varied statistics and
fault logs and communicate with building’s management control center. Future research in
this direction would be to further improve communication network, compact applicationspecific integrated circuit, and application of artificial intelligence and fuzzy logic. Elevators
are no longer low-technology but instead it is moving towards “sophisticated hi-tech”.
Papamichael, K (1999) Application of information technologies in building design
decisions. Building Research and Information, 27(1): 20–34.
Demands for better buildings resulted in development of a number of strategies and technologies to be used to improve buildings against a variety of performance indicators. The
author saw advancement and decrease in cost for IT infrastructure as a promising field for
development of tools that may facilitate and improve decision-making process in building designs. The author discussed the design and modeling theory and techniques used
in the development of Building Design Advisor (BDA), a software to facilitate integrated
use of “multiple simulation tools and databases”. The author writes that we can use IT to
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facilitate performance prediction for each indicator. However, evaluating of these prediction
to choose the best design needs human involvements. The paper goes on to discuss the
development process of BDA and its features. While, at the time of writing, the software
was targeted for research and teaching aids, the author hopes that this tool will be used in
professional practice in the future. This includes plans such as expanding the BDA working
environment to include additional simulation tools, user interface elements, among others.
Park, H S, Sohn, H G, Kim, I S, and Park, J H (2008) Application of GPS to monitoring of wind-induced responses of high-rise buildings. The Structural Design of
Tall and Special Buildings, 17: 117–132.
The paper addresses the problem of wind-induced displacement in tall buildings. Such displacement consists of static component and dynamic fluctuating component. Accelerator
method encountered some problems with measurement of static component, encouraging
researchers to attempt direct measurement of horizontal displacement using GPS system.
While usage of GPS to measure building displacement has been documented by other
researchers, the authors affirmed the feasibility of GPS to be used for monitoring horizontal
acceleration level as well. The authors documented their experiments to measure GPS accuracy for buildings with varying distance from the GPS base station. They then compared it
with readings from a laser meter and found that the readings are accurate for displacement
amplitude greater than 1 cm. Further experiment was conducted on a 66-storey high-rise
building over the course of 1 year. In addition to horizontal acceleration, the study also
includes measurement for torsional displacement. The conclusions from these experiments
are that GPS measurements are accurate for all three measurements for vibration amplitude
of more than 1 cm. This will be useful to verify the building’s serviceability under wind
load.
Pelechano, N and Malkawi, A (2008) Evacuation simulation models: challenges in
modeling high-rise building evacuation with cellular automata approaches. Automation in Construction, 17: 377–385.
The paper addresses evacuation simulation using computer models. In particular it deals
with grid-based simulation. These simulations relies on cellular automata (CA) model,
dividing space in uniform grids where each agent may occupy a particular grid and moves to
other position depending on the simulation model used. Any evacuation model must incorporate some extent of human psychological behaviour. Both tested systems were evaluated
against data gathered from drill and real evacuation. The authors also discussed several limitations of the software. The usage of discrete grid resulted in unrealistic flow rates through
portals and the problem of fixed densities. Fatigue is not considered by either simulation.
The evacuation route selected by the simulation is not always realistic. The authors finally
discussed how research from computer graphics may be used to make the simulation more
realistic. While grid-based approach such as CA uses potential field to move a person from
one grid to another, computer graphics model focus more on autonomous agents that may
navigate and avoid other agents and obstacles. While both models are still short of performing realistic simulation, CA is also prone to introduce errors in the simulation results. There
is still a need to develop models that will more closely resemble human behaviour.
Pines, D J and Lovell, P A (1998) Conceptual framework of a remote wireless
health monitoring system for large civil structures. Smart Material and Structures, 7:
627–636.
The authors argued for the need of obtaining data about the health of large civil structures before, during, and after an emergency, not just after. They contended that this would
enable better assessment of the damage sustained, and perhaps to make the correct decision
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whether to close down a bridge or evacuate a building. However, to gather data during the
event itself, a wireless technology is needed. At the point of writing (early 1997), the sensor
technology is not so well developed, so in the first part of the paper they lamented how
the choices available to them was limited. That is followed by a description of a complete
remote sensing system, which is constructed using only commercially available components
and is low cost. They mentioned that future works will involve completely automating the
system. Considering the many future researches that deal with precisely this idea, they are
right on the mark.
Pourzeynali, S, Lavasani, H H, and Modarayi, A H (2007) Active control of high
rise building structures using fuzzy logic and genetic algorithms. Engineering Structures, 29: 346–357.
The paper assesses the active tuned mass damper (ATMD) systems. Unlike its passive counterpart, ATMD systems have controlled motion (with external power supply). The authors
discuss the usage of fuzzy controller to control such ATMD system. A few main advantages of fuzzy controller are the system is easier to design since the mathematical model
need not be extremely accurate, high tolerance to uncertainties of input data (from wind or
earthquake data), ability to handle non-linear behaviour, and adaptiveness possibility. As
optimization method, generic algorithms can effectively find optimal solution for complex
problems. The authors study the combined genetic algorithms and fuzzy logic controller
(GFLC). Genetic algorithms are used to optimize the fuzzy logic controller. Genetic algorithms are based on the study of genes. It contains of chromosomes that reproduce to form
successive generations of chromosomes. In each generation, the effectiveness of the population is tested (using fitness function). This forms a natural selection mechanism that
leads to more optimized solution with successive generation. In the follow-up numerical
studies, they found that GFLC is more effective than traditional system. Genetic algorithms
successfully provide powerful tools to optimize the fuzzy logic controller system.
Rao, A and Anandakumar, G (2007) Optimal placement of sensors for structural
system identification and health monitoring using a hybrid swarm intelligence technique. Smart Material and Structures, 16: 2658–2672.
Structural health monitoring systems often face questions on the most optimum positioning
of their limited quantity of sensors to obtain the best possible sense of the condition of
the building. As sensors do not come by cheap, optimisation on the positioning of sensors
make economic sense. In order to gain accurate information and assessment of the building’s health, sensors must be positioned wisely at special sites. As buildings get larger,
the optimal placement calculations for many sensors can become a long and tedious task
even computationally. Consequently, this paper recommends the hybrid swarm intelligence
algorithm that fuses previous known optimisation techniques. Experiments were conducted
and it is found to perform much better (with regards to minimum amount of sensors required
for proper health assessment) than previous methods. This algorithm also generates solution
more effectively and quickly too. Apart from the algorithm, the paper also discusses the
various factors influencing quantity of sensors, signal noise levels and precision-accuracy
needed for health monitoring.
Sato, T and Toki, K (1992) Predictive control of seismic response of structure taking into account the soil-structure interaction. In: B. Culshaw, P. T. Gardiner, A.
McDonach and European Optical (Ed), First European Conference on Smart Structures and Material, Institute of Physics Publishing and EOS/SPIE, Bristol, 245–250.
This paper aims to improve the existing algorithm for active control of a structure in
the event of an earthquake by considering the unique interaction between the structure
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foundation and the soil. They first develop the continuous-time mathematical model of the
situation and subsequently digitizing it to form the discrete-time formulation that could be
applied. By adjusting the parameters, the feedback and feedforward levels, control efficiencies can be maximized. This paper has a good balance of theoretical (highly mathematical)
and experimental (simulation) result. Unfortunately, the simulation they performed only
involved a three-storey building, so further investigations on the applicability of their results
to high-rise buildings are needed, especially since tall buildings probably has different foundation design and thus, different soil-structure interaction.
Schlemmer, M and Agrawal, S K (2002) A computational approach for time-optimal
planning of high-rise elevators. Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers
Transactions on Control Systems Technology, 10(1): 105–111.
In high-rise elevators system, two opposing constraints are in motion. The systems should
be able to transport passengers in minimum time while still satisfying the elevator’s physical and comfort constraints, such as allowable hoist power and acceleration/deceleration
rate. The authors established a computational method to calculate time-optimal planning for
high-rise elevators. Simulation results are provided as follow up to the method. This method
may be applied to elevators by implementing a general purpose program to be used by the
elevator system. The simulation clearly demonstrates the applicability of the computational
method in addressing the constraints described earlier. Furthermore, the model may be more
readily applied to more complex model of elevators.
Skibniewski, M J, and Wooldridge, S C (1992) Robotic materials handling for automated building construction technology. Automation in Construction, 1: 251–266.
While single-task robotic functions already exist in construction, it did not offer much
improvement in efficiency of the construction process. Industry researchers are trying to
solve this discrepancy by focusing on comprehensive Automated Building Construction
(ABC) systems designed to “handle major structural assemblies with self-elevating automated platform”. Such systems include automation from the production cycle in the factory
to storage in site’s facility to the construction machinery itself. All robots are fully programmable and autonomous. The authors then discussed some of the presently available
ABC systems used by Japanese construction firms. Further research in ABC system is
expected to have great impact in high-rise construction. The paper then focused on automated materials handling to connect material handling operations to the automated system
proposed for ABC. This process will increase the automation and efficiency of building
construction process as material handling can be fully automated.
So, A T P, Chan, W L, and Tse, W L (1997) Building automation systems on the
internet. Facilities, 15(5/6): 125–133.
Intelligent buildings rely on “integrated building systems and building services”. There are
two kinds of such services, building and tenant services. Building services include HVAC,
lighting and elevators, while tenant service is service brought in by the tenants, such as
projectors and photocopiers. The authors described the effort to place building automation
services on the Internet with little additional hardware on top of the already existing hardware. The additional hardwares include an additional internet card, router’s connection, and
gateway access to the Internet. Information gathered from the building systems may be
presented on the Internet while control may be provided over the Internet. The concern of
security is addressed by proper security and authentication measure. The authors expected
that such a system will become more commonplace as costs of getting Internet gateway
is going down while more people will have Internet access in the future. The system also
did not depend on a particular platform as it piggyback on the Internet model. Usage of
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Internet also means utilization of open standards, minimizing development costs in the
future. The authors hoped that building systems will standardize its wide array of communication technologies and Internet protocol could certainly help the manufacturers.
So, A T P, Wong, A C W, and Wong, K (1999) A new definition of intelligent
buildings for Asia. Facilities, 17(12/13): 485–491.
Intelligent buildings, the authors argued, is the future of the building industry. However,
there is different viewpoints on what an intelligent building should be in different countries;
some, like the United States of America emphasized on building structure, system, services,
and management, others, like Europe, emphasize IT and users’ needs, yet others, like Singapore and China, emphasize on automation. The authors emphasized the importance of
Japan’s definition of intelligent building, based on the four foci, namely serving as a node
in information transfer and improve management efficiency, ensure “satisfaction and convenience” for occupants, providing more “attentive” administrative service with lower cost,
and providing “fast, flexible and economical” responses to changing needs. This emphasis
is made because the authors believe that such model is more suitable in defining a formal
definition for intelligent building in Asia. The authors proposed eight “quality environment
modules” to define intelligent building, namely health and energy conservation, space utilization and flexibility, life cycle costing, human comfort, working efficiency, safety, culture,
and image of high-tech. These form fundamentals for the building of facilities to support
these modules. In the world where intelligent building’s definitions can be broadly split
into two: emphasis on technologies or on user’s requirement, the authors described user’s
requirement as more valuable, especially in Asia.
Swift, J (2000) IT: useful tool or nemesis for facilities management? Facilities,
18(10/11/12): 456–458.
The paper provides viewpoint on IT and facilities management (FM). The article discussed
IT as an enabling technology, both in term of computational speed and connectivity. The
author discussed how IT has been used by commercial institution to improve their efficiency
and how other businesses that fail to embrace IT as swiftly has suffered and lagged behind
(think bookshops versus amazon.com). The author argues that facilities managers should
change to reflect the new demands of IT. They have to increase their competency and keep
in pace in the fast-changing world of IT or risk lagging behind in a sort of Darwinian
selection process.
Then, D S (1995) Computer-aided building condition survey. Facilities, 13(7):
23–27.
Building maintenance is a complex effort. There was evidence of substantial waste in the
maintenance efforts as a result of “knowledge gap of the assets”. There was a need for more
responsive information management that is also more efficient in term of maintenance of
built assets. Accurate information is needed to establish the “level of maintenance demand”,
prioritize appropriate maintenance actions, control the maintenance, and ensure high value
for money. Computer-aided building condition survey will be able to provide more accurate
information. Together with a decision support system, such survey will be very useful in
formulating “realistic and practical maintenance policy” that considers accurate asset maintenance requirements.
Tseng, K K and Wang, L (2004) Smart piezoelectric transducers for in situ health
monitoring of concrete. Smart Material and Structures, 16: 1603–1613.
The authors explained the need for in situ structure health monitoring system for large
concrete structures (such as high rises) as other methods of inspection (manual, machine
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assisted, or machine automated) will be far too tedious, expensive, and often unreliable
given the scale involved. They also criticized the other method, the vibration method, as
being unable to detect small damages in the structure and as hard to apply without detailed
data of the building. In contrast, the method of electromechanical impedance utilizing the
coupling property of piezoelectric materials (PZT in this case) promises a cheap, sensitive,
and robust (even when the building is characterized wrongly, it would still work) health
monitoring system, with the ability to point out the location and extent of the damage accurately. Their experimental results indeed validated their claims that this system is superior
in those aspects.
Wagstaff, T (1996) Productive use of IT in support of FM solutions. Facilities,
14(1/2): 43–46.
The usage of IT opens up possibilities in area of decision-making process. The author argues
that this is still unfulfilled largely because of questionable basis data for the process. The
author further argues that a good system should integrate policy, strategy, and operational
management areas by building upon available operational data. Thus, to make good use of
IT, collection of information is necessary. The collection process must begin with determination of needed information so as not to introduce inefficiency in the process. An option to
collect such data is through benchmarking based on users’ satisfactions and requirements.
Once we have sufficient data, decision-making process should also take into consideration cost of the components. One problem in using IT is the software solution available.
Untested commercial solution may prove to be incompatible with the needs of FM, while
custom applications are usually more expensive and inflexible to future changes. The author
concludes that FM IT managers should be more discriminate in collection of data and that
data sharing with other management information is essential so that the decisions made
support management rather than being an obstacle.
Yiu, C Y and Yau, Y (2006) A learning model of intelligent home. Facilities,
24(9/10): 365–375.
While previous studies, both in the US and in Singapore, on intelligent buildings were
geared towards a hard-wired, top-down approach, the authors argued that for intelligent
homes, a bottom-up approach would be more sustainable. A bottom-up approach stresses
on the “learning capability” and adaptive mechanisms of the system. The author argues that
intelligence is intrinsically tied to learning. However, most studies on intelligent system for
homes totally ignore this learning component. The many current specification for intelligent
homes were said to be unsustainable due to the missing adaptive component. Urging a move
towards more adaptive behavior, the authors argues that the most crucial step would be
goal settings, in this case “comfort, health, safety, and security” of occupants. The authors
propose that for real learning algorithms to be feasible, the systems must have sufficiently
large memories to hold previous knowledge and some sort of trial-and-error algorithms.
The authors borrowed a lot of concepts from artificial intelligent to apply to buildings.
Yu, S M and Han, S S (2001) Information systems in public housing management:
case study of a town council in Singapore. Facilities, 19(5/6): 233–239.
Information systems (IS) provide way to improve efficiency of public housing management
by skills upgrade and improving processing efficiency in daily operations. The authors
studies Tanjong Pagar – West Coast Town Council, a town council managing over 800
residential high-rise with 90,000 households. In 1994, HDB stopped the provision of computerized information services to the town councils and in 1996, majority of town councils
jointly commissioned development of IS capability of each town council. The IS systems
are used in all areas of works, including resource management, physical environment maintenance, managing residents’ needs, and achieving performance measures. The IT systems
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being developed are mostly used to increase efficiency in administrative duties of the town
council. Such systems must also be able to cope with the amount of information available
in a high-rise estate consisting of many households. While not directly related to high-rise
development, the development of IS system in the town council level provides a crucial
link between the intelligent high-rise buildings built in Singapore and the administrative
measures of the town councils.
Unpublished Works
Abdul Rahman, R (2006) Significant usage of slab and wall form technique in
industrialised building systems (IBS) for low cost high-rise apartments construction.
Unpublished Masters thesis, University Teknologi Malaysia.
The Industrialised Building Systems (IBS) concept was adopted and applied during early
1960s in Malaysia to enhance the development of low cost housing project for the lower
income group. This Masters project studied the basic concept, application and the significant usage of slab and wall form technique and assessed its benefit in high-rise low cost
apartment construction. Methods adopted for the study include literature review, interviews
and surveys, evaluation of ongoing and completed projects and elemental cost analysis and
simulation. The study concluded that the slab and wall form technique is a feasible alternative construction method of the low cost high-rise apartments that can greatly benefit the
building industry in various aspects such as reducing the construction cost, better planning
and design coordination, speed of construction, minimising manpower on site, better quality
construction, environmentally friendliness, and improved site safety.
Boellaard, B and Lootens, A (2007) An application of the massive timber structure in a multi-storey housing design: an integrated architectural and engineering
approach for the Dutch building market. Unpublished Masters thesis, Luleå University of Technology.
In the Netherlands, there has been much debate over timber being used in structural multistorey residential buildings. Timber frame system is gaining popularity due to paradigm
shifts towards sustainable construction. Hence, the timber market is increasingly becoming
competitive especially due to innovations in timber building systems. The Massive Timber
System has been successful in Sweden, especially with recent completion of an eight-storey
residential building in Växjö, Sweden. The paper aims to thoroughly research on the aforementioned system and apply such technologies to Netherlands. It studied two developments
namely Inre Hamnen in Sundsvall, Sweden and Two Rowhouses in Ijburg, the Netherlands.
It lays out an iterative decision-making plan for architects, structural and building engineers.
Also, timber systems can be categorised into two: balloon (constructed from external façade
inwards) and platform structures (constructed from bottom upwards). Prefabricated frames
and walls are common in timber building construction. The paper elaborates on construction details related to wall construction with ground floor, wall-wall connections, slab-floor
connections and cassette floor connections. Suspended ceilings are used to provide acoustic
insulation. Wood has the ability of absorbing and releasing moisture to environment. Low
thermal conduction makes energy consumption more efficient. These parameters provide
occupants with a comfortable indoor climate. During construction, tents are constructed.
Structure stability is provided by diaphragm action (takes up horizontal forces), as well
as horizontal and vertical anchoring. Interesting concepts are applied in the design such
as ‘sighting’, pilotes, open corridors and central common green. An appropriate combination of massive timber wall elements and timber frame walls can lead to cheap and strong
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buildings. Negative aspects include limitation of number of storeys to three to five and
fire risks. The paper suggests future research into fire resistance, assembly and construction
time, costs, damp-open wall construction and reduction of total floor weakness. It concludes
that the Massive Timber System provides good structural integrity while guaranteeing comfort for its occupants.
Boey, C P (2000/2001) Correlation of indoor air quality (iaq) and energy consumption in buildings. Unpublished Bachelor dissertation, National University of
Singapore.
Through the experimental data obtained, the fact that more energy is expended in cooling
the environment when ventilation rates are raised is highlighted in the paper. This is justified
experimentally by the author, who shows that there is a less than proportional decrease in
energy required to cool the surroundings with respect to a drop in the provision of fresh air
into the room. In addition, the author establishes and elaborates on the positive relationship
between ventilation rates and indoor air quality (i.e. larger ventilation rates leads to better
indoor air quality) with the help of several literatures. However, it is observed that only
one building was selected for further analysis, out of the 5 buildings that was involved in
previous research papers. The small sampling size used may lead to inaccurate conclusions
since the findings do not reflect the entire population. Although the author did attempt to
create a link between indoor air quality and energy consumption for cooling of a building
via ventilation rates, the idea was not clear enough. Nevertheless, information provided in
this paper will help those interested in optimizing the use of energy to enhance indoor air
quality to a certain extent.
Chan, L Y, Kwok, W S, and Chan, C Y (1998) Study of particulate at roadside
microenvironments in selected heavily trafficked districts in Hong Kong. Unpublished research, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University.
In this research, field study data obtained from November 1996 to February 1997 was used
to evaluate the particulate air pollution in selected roadside microenvironments near or
within the vincity of high-rise buildings in Hong Kong. The study was conducted using
microenvironment monitoring techniques to “access the exposure of pedestrians to respirable suspended particulate (RSP) and airborne lead”. 62 roadside sites in 14 districts
consisting of high-rise buildings that were most urbanized and densely populated in Hong
Kong were selected for the study. The results obtained was compared with the data of
Environmental Protection Department which has measurements of low-rise areas and street
level monitoring stations showed that pedestrians in the areas under study were exposed
to a greater volume of airborne lead and RSP. This indicated that districts that were more
densely populated due to high-rise buildings and the surrounding roadside microenvironments created an unhealthy environment for the residents that are staying in the district
compared to those staying in low-rise districts. As such, future measures should be taken
to reduce pedestrian exposure to both airborne lead and RSP in high-rise districts in Hong
Kong.
Choo, C F (2007) Use of wireless technology (WiFi) in building and construction
processes. Unpublished Honours dissertation, National University of Singapore.
Implementation of IT in the construction industry has been slow. This is contrary to the need
of construction industry where rapid information dissemination at the construction site is of
utmost importance; failure to do so may cause loss of lives and financial implications. The
author explores the usage of wireless technology, WiFi WLAN (wireless local area network)
system in particular, to improve productivity and efficiency of construction. The author
conducted experiments on the wireless router to gather primary data to aid in formulating
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suitable approaches to implement such system. Two approaches were proposed, the inside
out and the perimeter reinforcement approach. Costs considerations are also discussed in
the dissertation. Process mapping is used to highlight how WiFi WLAN system can aid
in improving these processes. The study concludes that WiFi WLAN system is capable of
integrating and emulating other forms of individual IT systems. WiFi WLAN system also
proved to be much cheaper to implement.
Deakin University (2007) Nature key to high rise residents’ health. Unpublished
article, ScienceAlert.
Deakin University has found that health of the occupants living in high-rise buildings is
connected to nature. With the growth of apartment living since 1996 compared to detached
houses with backyards in the past, residents of high-rise living now have limited opportunity
to access natural environments. “This could result in a diminished quality of life as exposure
to nature has been found to enhance psychological wellbeing, increase immunity to disease
and improve productivity”. In the study that was conducted, 221 high-rise residents in the
inner city of Melbourne, Sydney and Parramatta were surveyed. Participants surveyed varied in gender, age, socio-economic status and included owners, private and public housing
tenants. The study found that a range of factors have impacts on inner city high-rise residents’ health and well-being both indirectly and directly. Hence, this study agrees that the
availability of greenery and nature for public housing tenants enhance residents’ health and
quality of life significantly.
Ee, C K (1997) Indoor air quality in commercial buildings in Singapore – a case
study approach. Unpublished Masters dissertation, National University of Singapore.
This paper investigates the relationship between indoor air quality and the occupants’
responses to their working environment using a case study approach by selecting different
levels of a targeted building. The author points out that occupants tended to be more dissatisfied when the temperature or relative humidity of the air is high. He observes that there are
times when symptoms rates are high and prevalent among occupants as well, but concludes
that such findings do not necessarily imply sick building syndrome since some symptoms
may be a result of the thermal environment (e.g. extremely low air-conditioning temperature). However, the author also stresses the importance of treating complaints regarding eye,
nose and throat symptoms seriously as they could represent a widespread health problem.
One of the important findings of the study indicates that symptom rates are not dependent
on ambient measurements. Instead, it is associated with perceptions of the environment,
which may result in difficulty in proving the status of the building (i.e. whether it is sick
or not). This study would be significant to those interested in looking at the psychological
factors in this aspect, since there is a possibility of certain sick building syndromes being
purely psychological.
Eggermont, M (2007) Biomimetics as problem-solving, creativity and innovation
tool. Unpublished paper, University of Calgary.
This paper assesses the methodology of applying biomimetics in engineering design and
sketching. Engineering sketching is a great tool for formulating ideas; it is an intermediate between writing and formal drawing. This tool becomes later complemented by three
other components: [1] visualization of engineering concepts, [2] sustainable product design,
and [3] biomimetics. Biomimetics is by itself a “multidisciplinary subject involving a
wide diversity of other domains like electronics, informatics, medicine, biology, chemistry,
physics, mathematics, art and many others. The process of biomimetics itself is interesting,
relying on the fact that living organisms and engineers have a similar goal: to create a
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structure in the cheapest way possible – either in terms of energy or money”. According
to the paper, biomimetics have been used in the design of the Victorian Crystal Palace and
the Eiffel Tower. In 1851, botanist Joseph Paxton incorporated ribbed iron support in his
construction inspired by the underside of a water lily’s leaves, Victoria amazonica. Gustave
Eiffel based his design on femur research done by an anatomist, Hermann Von Meyer, and
an engineer, Karl Cullman. It was discovered that ridged lattices coupled with the head
of the femur made the shape ideal for supporting off-centre loads. The Beijing Olympics
stadium, shaped like a bird’s nest, has cultural significance. Biomimetic ideas proposed
include shovel inspired by moles, bioluminescent lighting, windows based on compound
apposition insect eyes, taproots inspired by carrots, air filtration from cells and domestic
counter current heat exchange by learning arteries.
Ellis, P, Frechette III, R E and Suchomel, J L (2007) Learning from Pearl River
Tower: high performance energy strategies for healthcare facilities. Unpublished
white paper, International Conference and Exhibition on Health Facility Planning.
To be completed by fall 2009, the Pearl River Tower (309.6 m with 71 floors) designed
by Skidmore, Owings and Merrill (SOM) in Guangzhou, China, would be the world’s
first net zero-energy supertall office building. This paper recommends the application of
energy-saving concepts in healthcare design. According to the US Department of Energy,
US residential and commercial buildings account for 40% of total energy use, 71% total
electricity consumption, 50% of sulphur emissions, 25% of nitrogen emissions, 35% of
carbon dioxide emissions, 40% of processed materials, 55% of virgin wood consumption,
25% of landfill content. The colour of a butterfly’s wings is due to nanostructures that refract
light instead of dye or pigment. Temperature fluctuations inside African termite mounds are
kept to minimal even when surrounding temperatures fluctuate drastically from day to night.
Eastgate building in Harare, Zimbabwe uses natural ventilation inspired by termite mounds.
Many SOM high performance buildings apply “sponge philosophy”. A sponge absorbs
light, captures the current, absorbs and uses solar energy, captures and uses rainwater, treats
and reuses wastewater. In order to achieve optimal performance, the paper recommends four
strategies: reduction, reclamation, absorption and generation. Radiant slab and displacement
ventilations using underfloor chilled air can lead to financial payback within one year and
significantly reduce operation and maintenance cost. High performance glazing and shading
systems comprise 450 mm wide systems with a 300 mm cavity in between two layers of
glazing. Other systems include “low flow or no flow” fixtures, demand-based ventilation
(DVC), high efficiency heating/cooling plant, high efficiency lighting, daylight responsive
lighting controls and occupancy sensors, integrated photovoltaics and wind turbine generators. The building also has an aerodynamic design. Advanced modelling simulations like
Ecotect (building physics, daylight), eQuest (energy), Fluent CFD (wind flow and radiant
heat) and Virtual Environment (sun cast) are used. Throughout the design and construction
process, the planners have been committed to the “path of zero energy”. Ultimately, this
paper elaborates various specifics to achieve “zero energy” buildings.
Español, E (1993) Actions you can take to reduce lead in drinking water. Unpublished article, Environmental Protection Agency.
Lead contamination in drinking water can lead to serious health problems. Having too much
lead in the human body can cause serious damage to the brain, kidneys, nervous system and
red blood cells. Hence, it is important that precautions are taken by residents living in highrise buildings to reduce and prevent lead contamination in drinking water. Some precautions
include using only water from the cold-water tap as hot water is likely to contain higher
levels of lead. It is important to have the household water supply tested by a competent
laboratory for the amount of lead present in the water supply, especially for residents living
in high-rise buildings as flushing, which is one of the precautions that can be taken by
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low-rise residents, “may not be effective in high-rise buildings with lead-soldered central
piping”. Since lead contamination of household water supply may lead to serious health
problems among residents living in both high-rise and low-rise housing, it is crucial for
other suitable materials to be used for plumbing instead of lead in the two types of housing.
Gan, M O (2005) Lateral stability of high-rise building. Unpublished Masters thesis,
University Teknologi Malaysia.
Structural systems for tall buildings have undergone a dramatic evolution throughout the
1990s and into the 2000s. Traditionally, the primary concern of the structural engineer
designing a building has been the provision of a structurally safe and adequate system to
support the vertical loads. However, increasingly, it is essential to take into account the
lateral forces such as wind loads, seismic inertia-forces, blast loads, etc. to ensure the stability of buildings. The author studied the behaviour of various building structures under
lateral load, including rigid frame, wall frame, combined rigid-wall frame and torsional
effect. By using analytical models, it was discovered that a common assumption that all
horizontal loads are carried by the shear walls is not entirely correct over the entire height
of the structure. The study concludes that serious attention should be given in the outmost
periphery elements of the structure, and recommends all tall buildings have as much lateral
resistance as feasible for support.
Ger, J F (1990) Inelastic response and collapse behavior of steel tall buildings
subjected to 3-D earthquake excitations. Unpublished PhD thesis, University of
Missouri.
The thesis examines the behavior of steel tall buildings in an earthquake through the observation of real world data from five steel buildings of the Pino Suarex Complex at the site of
the 1985 Mexico earthquake and uses this data to compare with hysteresis models to determine the behavior of the building during the earthquake. The author was very thorough,
considering ground conditions of the area and obtaining real world data via observation,
literature review of other studies on the buildings and going to the original designer for
the engineering design data of the buildings. The thesis is rich in information for anyone
who wishes to replicate the model and results. Where applicable, graphs, equations and
pictures were provided to aid in understanding of the thesis. It provides a good method for
researchers to understand how to go about investigating the cause of collapse of a building.
Goode, M G (2004) Fire protection of structural steel in high rise buildings. Unpublished article, National Institute of Standards and Technology.
This is a comprehensive report produced by the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) summarizing its findings, recommendations based on its study on fire protection
of steel in high rise possibly due to the blame on fire for the collapse of the World Trade
Centre. It has a few objectives. Firstly, it provides a clear overview of state-of-the-art in
fire protection as well as potential materials for use in the future, giving both pros and cons
to allow designers to make their own decisions. Then, they also educate on what is the
requirements and standards currently and the rationale behind these performance requirements. Lastly, they defined how any tests should be conducted to ensure reliability and
conformance to the performance requirements. Each of these objectives is carefully dealt
with in full consideration of the possible implications of cost which is paramount to most
developers. While the entire report may not always be relevant to all studies, the information
inside serves as a good guide regarding fire safety for any building.
Greater Dallas Chamber (2005) The chamber salutes environmentally friendly
“azure” high-rise residences. Unpublished article, The Chamber Report.
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In the construction of high-rise buildings, several steps should be taken to develop an
energy-efficient high-rise residential development to reduce the harmful emissions that
destroy the environment and deplete the ozone layer. Some of the steps that have been
taken to protect the environment include the use of exterior windows and doors that meet
energy efficiency requirements with units that feature portable windows and doors to allow
fresh air circulation through the building. In addition, deep terraces and highly efficient
air conditioning systems are used to further reduce the high-rise building’s energy needs
to produce highest level of efficiency, and guaranteeing optimal utility and maintenance
costs. Recyclable materials are used in the construction and waste materials are recycled.
The location of the building is important to conserve energy and reduce pollution. Location
of the building should be within walking distance of commercial and shopping centres,
to encourage a “walk to life cosmopolitan lifestyle” which is not only beneficial for the
residents, but also for the environment.
Greig, L (1980) Toward an estimate of wind induced dynamic torque on tall buildings. Unpublished Masters thesis, University of Western Ontario.
This paper aims to propose some tentative guidelines for the estimation of dynamic torque
by reviewing available aeroelastic torque data. As the focus on buildings is shifting to
being aesthetically pleasing, the shapes of buildings become increasingly asymmetrical and
complex. This makes the buildings aerodynamically more susceptible to torsional loading.
This can cause discomfort for occupants. The three factors found contributing to dynamic
torque are building geometry, asymmetrical wind caused by upstream structures and coupled vibrations due to asymmetrical distribution of mass and stiffness within the building.
When investigating building geometry, it is usually assumed that wind flow is homogeneous.
The result found shows that sharp corners get the largest mean torque values. The upstream
structures are found to increase turbulent flow, resulting in increased torque. The effect of
coupled vibrations is found to be minimal and thus, is treated as negligible. The author came
up with a quantifiable methodology to estimate the dynamic torque on tall buildings. Equations with which to estimate wind speed and building dynamics such as shape factor and
radius of gyration are formulated. This paper is useful as it takes into account much of the
building dynamics in the investigation, including a method of quantizing such properties.
The methodology of measuring torque is helpful for engineers who need such information
to ensure building stability.
Hakonen, H (2003) Simulation of building traffic and evacuation by elevators.
Unpublished Licentiate thesis, Helsinki University of Technology.
The evacuation standards for high-rise buildings have been a subject of primary concern,
especially with regards to the fire safety of elevators. This paper recommends elevator planning as a solution to address evacuation problems. Hence, it explores the functionality,
structure and application of Building Traffic Simulator (BTS) in elevator planning. There
are four key components in the BTS: the database components for storing the data, building
parameter editor, simulator executable and group control components. The simulator executable constitutes the main simulation loop and all simulation models, especially passenger
and elevator models. Simulation results can provide approximations on performance measures for passengers and elevator groups. An important parameter to understand is round
trip time. During peak periods, round trip time is the time required for an elevator to serve
car calls from the entrance floor and then return back to the lobby. The lift allocation outcome, from the proposed algorithm, is delivered to the elevator control, which ultimately
plans the drive and door commands. The optimisation objective of a control algorithm
can be modified accordingly to reduce call times, waiting and journey times or a mixed
function. Interestingly, despite being static, stair shaft dimensions and passenger queues
must be accounted for during the modelling. In a scenario where all elevators resemble
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firefighting lifts with enhanced fire and water protection, evacuation by elevators is safer.
The evacuation scenario is equivalent to heavy down-peak traffic. Consider a typical office
building, being designed to have 13% up-peak handling capacity and down-peak of 20 to
34%, and assume a hypothetical 100% down-peak takes five minutes to clear. A typical
office will be fully evacuated in 17 to 24 minutes. The paper suggests that an effective
down-peak call allocation algorithm would be able to handle an evacuation well. In addition,
a combination of stairs and elevators can improve egress time. An observation worth noting
from the simulation is that a bottleneck is formed at the shuttle group operating between the
sky-lobby and ground floor.
Hart, G (1999) Job demand analysis. Unpublished analysis, Human Effort Evolutionary Health.
The tasks that fire fighters are involved in putting out fires that occur in high-rise buildings
are physically demanding. In a high-rise fire, fire fighters are required to move equipment
such as rescue gear, axes and high-rise packs to the fire floor. As the lift cannot be used in
a high-rise fire, fire fighters will have to carry the heavy load and climb up the stairs all the
way to the fire floor. This lifting, carrying and climbing of stairs in full turn out gear with
equipment will in turn place metabolic stresses on the energy system of the fire fighters.
Structural stresses will also be placed on the musculoskeletal system of the fire fighters,
leading to injuries which include burns, blunt and sharp trauma on parts of the body. As
a result, if a fire occurs in a high-rise building, fire fighting will place extreme stresses
on nearly every element of human function. To reduce these stresses, muscle strengthening exercises could be implemented to lessen the risk of injury as it looks like high-rise
buildings are here and will be here to stay.
Hess, J E (2002) Urban green spaces and social well-being methods, findings and
recommendations from a Danish pilot study. Unpublished study, The Danish Town
Planning Institute.
Urban green spaces bring about many benefits to not only the social well-being of the
residents, but have positive effects on their health too. For many years, researches have
shown that urban green spaces like parks, trees, gardens and flowers in and surrounding
high-rise buildings are not just for decoration purposes. Not only are these green areas
pleasing to the eyes, they contribute to the fulfilment of fundamental needs like the need
for daylight “which is a precondition for our health and social well-being” as green spaces
inspire people to spend time outdoors. Daylight helps in the adjustment of our biological
clocks, “which controls many of our hormones in relation to the time of the day and the
season”. People who spend more time outdoors usually sleep better as well. On the other
hand, the absence of urban green spaces will lead to a lack of daylight which will disturb
our biological clocks and may result in depressions. Getting enough daylight is of special
importance to the elderly as the ultraviolet light present in daylight stimulates the production
of vitamin D, an important element in the prevention of osteoporosis. Thus, it is important
to include green spaces in urban planning of high-rise buildings which has a positive impact
on the health and social well-being of the residents.
Huang, R J B (2001/2002) Indoor air quality of residential flats in Singapore.
Unpublished Bachelor dissertation, National University of Singapore.
Through the various field studies conducted, this paper demonstrates that occupants of airconditioned rooms tend to display more severe symptoms of the sick building syndrome.
Yet, there are certain aspects in which air-conditioned rooms fared better than rooms with
natural ventilation, such as the higher level of aerosols in naturally-ventilated rooms as
compared to that of air-condition rooms. However, it is observed that the sampling done in
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the survey is not random as there is a large proportion of the respondents in the age group 21
to 30. This may lead to inaccurate representation on the number of people who display sickbuilding syndrome symptoms. The sampling style of the surveys may not reflect people’s
concept of sick building syndromes accurately as well, which is one of the objectives of the
survey. Perhaps due to constraints on time and resources, only a limited range of indoor air
pollutants were analyzed. Common pollutants like benzene and ozone were not considered,
which is significant because there may be other indoor air pollutants which play a greater
role with respect to the sick building syndrome. Hence, there are certain findings that are
unable to reflect the relation between ventilation and indoor air quality accurately.
Jayachandran, R (1993) Application of information technology in building maintenance. Unpublished Honours dissertation, National University of Singapore.
Administration of building repairs and maintenance were becoming increasingly more
important as buildings age. The author attempts to capitalize on the rapid development of
information technology (IT), coupled with increasingly cheaper costs for IT infrastructure,
to introduce computerization in management activities. He advised that repetitive building maintenance activities where management relies on effective planning and resources
deployment are a good place to begin with computer-aided features. As the Housing and
Development Board (HDB) decentralized its information handling and maintenance operations systems, it offers conducive opportunities to introduce more extensive computer-aided
system. The author emphasized on ability to provide logical ordering to data collection
and information storage as of prime importance to aid in computer-aided applications.
The author discussed methods of data capture, analysis and presentation of the captured
data with the objective of obtaining useful information to support maintenance staffs. He
encourages further research on extensive data manipulation on basic data and user interface
enhancements through graphical user interface.
Jones, W D (2007) How to build a mile-high skyscraper. Unpublished article, Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers Spectrum.
This is a short and colourful article of how it is possible to build a mile-high skyscraper,
which would be the world’s tallest building by far. Surprisingly, this was proposed in 1956
but the architect never had the technology to build it. Although one is not built even till
today, the technologies are improving by leaps and bounds such that one can be built in the
near future. The article outlines the different technologies that would go into building such
a marvel such as advances in concrete to carry more load while resisting fire and blasts,
elevator technology, which can transport more people in a shorter amount of time while
using less space, energy producers to make the building self sufficient and last but not least,
escape methods in case of emergencies. All these are based on developing technologies that
we will see in the coming years, thus it is not that far off. However, the short length of the
article did not cover things such as wind and seismic resistance, which are often the most
important things when designing a tall skyscraper.
Kiremidjian, A S, Straser, E G, Meng T, Law, K and Sohn, H (1997) Structural
damage monitoring for civil structures. Unpublished paper, Stanford University.
This paper provided an overview of the state of the structural damage monitoring systems
available at that time. It started by giving the benefits of the system, some which are the
ability to make accurate decision whether to evacuate a damaged building and the ability
to know instantly of a collapsed building and thus to allocate resources for rescue effort
accordingly. Then, the authors went on to describe the general from of a monitoring system,
which typically includes the sensors and a central processing unit, connected wirelessly. It is
interesting to note that apparently at this point fully decentralized system is not considered
at all. The discussion of each items are fairly in depth. For the sensors, the main concern is
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the battery life, so they suggested powering the sensor only for a certain interval. The central
processor should be highly reliable. The transmission of signals through wireless network
need to be adjusted so that it is as efficient as possible, as it is very power consuming.
Koh, J P S (2003/2004) Indoor environmental studies on perceived air quality, Sick
Buildings Syndrome (SBS) symptoms and performance of 2 office buildings in the
tropics. Unpublished Bachelor dissertation, National University of Singapore.
By building on previous research conducted on tropical buildings, the author analyzes the
impact of ventilation on the indoor air quality and the removal of indoor air pollutants
such as formaldehyde. This paper will be helpful in allowing researchers to know more
about the indoor air quality of tropical buildings, since most of the books and research
conducted on indoor air quality are with respect to countries with a temperate climate.
By selecting two buildings at different locations, the author demonstrates the dependency
of indoor air quality on the outdoor environment. Findings of this study also show that the
performance of workers is enhanced when ventilation rates in buildings are increased. Since
most companies tend to avoid improving indoor air quality (because it seems to involve high
energy costs, this evidence provides an incentive for companies to enhance indoor air quality
as it increases the productivity of the employees. However, it is observed that most of the
subjects in the field study were insensitive to ventilation rate changes when temperatures
were low. Since temperature of the indoor climate is hard to control, there may be slight
discrepancies in the findings obtained at low temperatures.
Kok, P J (1996) Architectural responses to the impact of information technology in
intelligent office buildings. Unpublished Masters Dissertation, National University
of Singapore.
Advances in IT has brought together office automation and building automation into a single
system, called “intelligent building”. The author argued that architecture of intelligent building should assume greater importance. He re-examined the definition of intelligent building
and explored recent emerging trends. He identified failures in intelligent building design
and associated them with the impact of IT. Thus, he proposed an architectural response
approach at the level of the building shells to tackle the needs of automation in both building and office setup. He also presented the case study of how Republic Plaza attempts to
respond to the impact of IT while identifying further possible efforts. The author identified
three concerns, including concern for flexibility (due to dynamic and fast-changing nature
of IT), concern for user environment (refraining from “pure technical outlook” and plan for
“humane” environment for users), and concert for energy efficiency (electronic equipment
consumes electricity and contributes to the bulk of heat load in the office environment).
Future intelligent building designs should identify this concern and adapt accordingly.
Lau, C H (2006) Construction technology for high rise buildings in Hong Kong.
Unpublished project paper, University of Southern Queensland.
This paper covers the common difficulties and irregularities facing technologies in Hong
Kong’s construction industry. Discussion involved the procedure of construction works,
site formation works, foundation works, excavation and lateral support works as well as
superstructure works. It was mentioned that the Hong Kong government produces a lot
of code of practice (COP) and guidelines to control the construction. In order to have a
better control, many regulations and ordinances have been set up to ensure the construction
works run smoothly. Specification, practical notes, guidelines and drawing were produced
to ensure works are completed safely and at high standard. Owing to misconduct and
mistake produced by workers, however, many tests were used to ensure good quality and
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workmanship. A general procedure of construction works and main point of COP was also
introduced in this report, and common irregularities highlighted for reader’s attention.
Law, K H, Kiremidjian, A S, Kenny, T W, Carryer, E and Partridge, A (2001) The
design of a wireless sensing unit for structural health monitoring. Unpublished article, Proceedings of the 3rd International Workshop on Structural Health Monitoring.
Cabled structural health monitoring systems are costly as well as vulnerable to noise corruption along the length of the cable. One solution is to forget about cables entirely: adopt
wireless technology. This is what the authors attempt to do in this paper. The benefits
include lower operating and installation costs, while ensuring smooth relatively noiseless
communication between units. In this study, a proof-of-concept was built and tested; it
demonstrated the feasibility of using wireless technology in this field. In particular, adding
processor capability to the sensing unit (distributed system) proved to be a great idea. Other
proof-of-concept components will be built in the future to complete the whole wireless
system.
Lee, W S (1993) Energy conservation and building design – computer simulation
approach. Unpublished Masters dissertation, National University of Singapore.
With advancement in science and technology, energy conservation in building design can be
tested in term of effectiveness by a way of computer simulation. Such computer simulation
may be used to analyze the energy performance of the various energy conservation measures. The author paid special emphasis on measures in the design of commercial buildings
in “a hot and humid climate”. His simulation results indicate a possible savings of up to
40% in term of energy from a combination of design improvements. In high-rise buildings,
as big energy guzzlers, 40% savings would imply a huge savings, in term of monetary costs
and environment impact. While the simulation approach is quite technical, the author chose
to present the results in terms of cost savings to the client. Hopefully, by doing so, building
owners, architects, and facilities managers will be motivated and will assist in the “quest for
conserving energy”. The simulations attempt to test different design approaches to things
such as windows and roofs designs to estimate the amount of energy saved.
Lim, S M K (2002) Comparing VOCs in Singapore and California offices. Unpublished Bachelor dissertation, National University of Singapore.
Background information on volatile organic compounds (VOC) is provided by the author,
including common sources of these indoor air pollutants and their associated chemical characteristics. Ways to improve air quality are mentioned in the paper as well. In addition, a
comparison between the levels of volatile organic compounds (VOC) between offices in
Singapore and California is done made. It is observed that the levels of VOCs in offices
of Singapore were significantly much higher than that of offices in California. However,
the author did not discuss the reasons behind the observations, which would be very useful
when proposing models to enhance indoor air quality. Due to many constraints (e.g. unable
to carry out the research in California personally), the analyses of this paper can be rather
unreliable. For example, 12 buildings were chosen in the analysis of air quality in California offices, which is more than twice the number of buildings selected in Singapore. This
difference in sampling size would result in a misrepresentation of VOC levels, thus leading
to an inaccurate comparison. The climate of both California and Singapore are different as
well, which may affect off-gassing rates of VOCs in buildings as a result of kinetic effects.
Lim, T T (2001/2002) Effects of indoor air pollutants, thermal comfort conditions, and ventilation parameters on SBS symptoms and environmental perceptions.
Unpublished Bachelor dissertation, National University of Singapore.
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A rather different field study is conducted in this paper with its objectives distinct from other
research papers. Generally, researchers tend to investigate the influence of environmental
changes (e.g. decline in indoor air quality) on people. In this case, the author analyzes the
effect of different indoor air pollutant levels on people’s awareness of their environment.
Through the experimental data obtained, it is noted that people’s perception of the environment they are in depends significantly on their exposure levels of their surroundings. For
example, a larger proportion of people are able to feel hot at higher carbon monoxide levels,
which leads to them feeling as if they are experiencing unacceptable indoor air quality. It is
also observed that higher concentrations of indoor air contaminants worsen the symptoms
of the sick building syndrome experienced by people. Although the ideas presented in this
paper are unique, people in building industries should not rely too much on it as it would be
disastrous if they were to assume that poor indoor air quality can be ignored by adjusting
the environmental parameters (e.g. temperature of the room) to “alter” people’s perception
of their surroundings.
Loh, W S (1993) Development of algal resistant surface coating for external wall of
buildings in the tropics with particular reference to the buildings and environmental
conditions in Singapore. Unpublished PhD thesis, National University of Singapore.
This thesis focuses on the deteriorating external facade of high-rise buildings in Singapore,
in particular, the paint on walls. Factors leading to the degradation of the paint on walls,
including paint quality, climate, detailing of buildings and microbial growth on painted
surface, are identified. In order to come up with a feasible solution to tackle the declining
conditions of painted buildings, chemical contents of paints are analyzed with the help of
various literatures. For example, functional groups of polymers and chemical properties of
compounds such as alkali metal salts are studied in detail. Laboratory methods that were
used to conduct certain tests are illustrated clearly in the thesis as well. Results of the field
tests conducted on paints (both old and newly-formulated) on buildings such as HDB flats
are shown in the thesis. In addition, several photos are used as evidence to display the
decline of building facades. Photos are also used to demonstrate the effectiveness of the new
prototypes of paints on maintaining the external features of high-rise. Through his thesis,
the author managed to formulate a new type of paint that displays minimal degradation,
which is significant for high-rise buildings, in particular to Singapore.
Lu, K C, Wang, H, Lynch, J P, Lin, P Y, Loh, C and Law, K H (2005) Application
of wireless sensors for structural health monitoring and control. Unpublished paper,
Proceedings of the 18th KKCNN Symposium on Civil Engineering.
The paper presented the preliminary result of the application of wireless modulus monitoring system (WiMMS). Using modular system has the advantage of being cheap and
relatively hassles free. This system is essentially the same as a normal active control system, consisting of sensors, actuators, and a computing core (where the control algorithm
is applied). The major difference is that each of the modules communicates with each
other wirelessly. The system was put through the standard earthquake test, and its seismic
response control capability was ascertained. The authors also claim that we should be able
to embed the control algorithm inside the sensor itself, thus turning it into a fully distributed
system that is very flexible. Wireless technology is a necessity in a damage mitigation system, as there is no guarantee that the wiring works would survive intact in a disaster, and
protecting meters of wire is not cost effective.
Lynch, J P (2002) Decentralization of wireless monitoring and control technologies
for smart civil structures. Unpublished PhD Thesis, Stanford University.
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This thesis explores different ways of implementing decentralised wireless monitoring
for structural health monitoring and control technologies in smart buildings or structures.
Unlike a centralised system where information is sent to a central processing unit (CPU)
each sensor or actuator unit will be able to process and treat data locally. A typical design
would include three components: sensing interface, computational core and wireless communication. Central processing requires immense processing and computational power that
may be too exorbitant. Software design remains the core of decentralised systems. The
thesis proposes the adaptation of concepts from market-based control (MBC) and energy
market-based control (EMBC) from econometrics to model complex interactions within
numerous decentralised units. Active truss elements on solar panels can help nullify vibrations upon receiving data from sensors and detectors. Simulations and field experiments
were conducted. The adaptation yielded better optimisation results than traditional centralised algorithms despite being decentralised. In addition, it observes that the EMBC
would be able to make the system more robust, since such a control facilitates the handling
of damaged actuators. Assembly programming remains a challenging task of programming
microcontrollers, especially for large-scale projects. Overall, this paper serves to challenge
the common precept by suggesting that structural health can be monitored and remediated
more effectively with decentralisation.
Lynch, J P and Law, K H (2000) A market-based control solution for semi-active
structural control. Unpublished paper, Proceedings of the Eight International Conference on Computing in Civil and Building Engineering.
A decentralized control algorithm for structural control system design has been developed.
This novel approach is termed market-based control. As a potential alternative to the classical Linear Quadratic Regulator (LQR), this method decentralizes the decision process
of the control system and allows for independent and autonomous control formulation to
occur directly upon the control device. It is evident that the LQR method provides the best
overall control of the system. However, market-based control is not far behind in terms of
performance. Market-based control was more successful at the lower floors of the structure
with maximum floor displacement and inter-story drift lower than those obtained from the
LQR technique, while at the upper two stories, the LQR solution was better. Since there
is no rigid formulation of the market-based control method, different demand and supply
functions can be considered on a more problem specific level, leading to a more case specific
solutions.
Lynch, J P, Wang, Y, Sundararajan, A, Law, K H and Kiremidjian, A S (2004) Wireless sensing for structural health monitoring of civil structures. Unpublished paper,
Proceedings of International Workshop on Integrated Life-Cycle Management of
Infrastructures.
This paper describes the design of a wireless sensor and actuator that is intended to be
used for structural health monitoring. The main advantage of the wireless system over the
tethered one is the cost effectiveness: eliminating the need for wiring of coaxial cables
results in significant saving. The wireless sensor is also designed to be as power efficient as
possible, by executing most tasks locally and only sending the most important data, using
lossless compression, over the wireless network. In the field experiment performed, using
Huffman coding to compress the data is found to result in power saving of close to 80%,
while locally assessing the collected data can result in power saving of over 98% for data
intensive operation like Fast Fourier Transform. While those power savings are certainly
significant, we will not know how useful the system is unless it has battery life that is
measured in years. After all, embedding the system inside the wall will make it rather hard
to recharge.
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Lynch, J P, Lu, K C, Hou, T C and Loh, C H (2006) Post-seismic damage assessment
of steel structures instrumented with self-interrogating wireless sensors. Unpublished paper, Proceedings of the 8th National Conference on Earthquake
Engineering.
This paper explores the use of decentralized wireless sensors for structural health monitoring system. The processing capability of each of the sensors could be polled together
to quickly asses the ambient response of the building after an earthquake. This process
could be automated by embedding the relevant software in the sensors, so that the sensors
could compare the response to a database and hence judge the condition of the building,
thereby making the process of post-seismic damage assessment completely hassle free. The
authors validated the wireless sensors network built by testing it on a half-scale model of
a three-story building, and the system was found to be up to standard. The authors stated
that future works will involve examining the data to determine the relationship between
the damage and the location, which could be used to develop a fully embedded damage
monitoring system.
Maibritt, P Z (2007) Biomimetic approaches to architectural design for increased
sustainability. Unpublished paper, Victoria University.
The author identifies an intellectual gap in the clear definition of biomimetic approaches
that can be initially applied by architects and engineers. There is potential in applying biomimicry to achieve sustainable and regenerative built environments but there are
challenges. It is noted that biomimetic designs have evolved and diverged into different
approaches and focus. There are two main approaches: design looking to biology, and
biology influencing design. The former begins with a human problem and solutions are
derived from how nature addresses a similar problem. The latter involves observing and
analysing nature and then, translating beneficial designs for human applications. Daimler
Chrsyler’s Bionic Car was inspired by the box fish and tree growth patterns. In order to
fully mimic a biological system, there must be multidisciplinary scientific collaboration.
In order to regenerate ecosystems, architectural designs must be fundamentally rethought.
Tall buildings are expensive to maintain. Products such as the lotus-inspired Lotusan paint
enable buildings to be self-cleaned. Three levels of biomimicry are identified: the organism,
behaviour and ecosystem levels. Each level is being subdivided into five dimensions: form,
material, construction, process and function. This paper is valuable as it provides a vivid
framework that aims to facilitate practitioners categorise their design problems and identify
possible key biological features that can help address those problems. As much as the engineering and architectural solutions are paramount, the design methodology plays an integral
role in stronger engagement between the biological inspiration and the final product, usually
resulting in better solutions. As standalone sustainable towers are believed to not regenerate
ecosystems, recommendations are being made to integrate the built environment constructively with natural ecosystems, and such incorporation will regenerate both building and
Nature. Even if the frameworks appear theoretical now, the author believes that any solution
that mimics ecosystems can positively transform environmental capacity and performance.
Mead, S P (2008) Biomimetics: Biologically inspired ideas for construction. Unpublished PhD thesis, Northern Arizona University.
This paper correlates biomimetics with the design and construction process of buildings and
infrastructure projects. Otto Schmitt coined the term biomimetics in his 1969 article “Some
interesting and useful Biomimetic Transforms”. To him, nature has undergone epochs of
experimentation and adaptation removing weak systems and eternalising the fittest through
evolution. Increasingly, scientists and engineers are seeking inspiration from nature to
replace our homes with structures that “grow, breathe and adapt to changing conditions”.
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Designers at the Human Ecology Design team at Massachusetts Institute of Technology
(MIT) are using an ancient gardening technique called pleaching to weave branches around
homes and using plants as coolants, filters and treatment machines. Drawbacks include
time and efficiency. A novel development more pertinent to skyscrapers is foundational
strength provided by bacteria called Bacillus pasteurii. Introduced into granular soil and
mixed with urea, these bacteria release calcium carbonate that amalgamates particles into a
concrete-like mass. This bio-engineering solution enhances the strength provided by drilled
pier foundations and spread footings. Dr. John Todd engineered Living Machines, making use of biological processes to treat residential and industrial wastewater in a building:
water from the roof and sinks is routed through sand filters into underground cisterns to
be recycled. Estimates show 90% decrease of water consumption compared to traditional
homes. Researchers in Europe developed MemBran, a building vapour barrier that breathes
by emulating the leaf and in so doing, regulates microclimates inside home spaces. Architect Mick Pearce integrates bioclimatic layout and fan installations into his design of the
Eastgate Building in Harare, Zimbabwe, based on ventilation patterns in termite mounds.
Completed in 1995, the building makes use of 10% of usual air conditioning required for
its size. Greensulate is a building envelope insulation developed by Rennselear Polytechnic
Institute derived from mushroom spores, starch and hydrogen peroxide. It is biodegradable
and has a higher insulation value than traditional petroleum based products. Lain Couzin, a
mathematical biologist at the University of Washington, studied army ant movements and
has applied his findings on traffic in dense locations. Implications include optimisation for
vertical transportation, queues and repetitive constructive procedures in high-rise construction and roads. “Originality is nothing but judicious imitation,” Voltaire mentions.
Menon, R (1997) Tuned liquid column damper for vibration control of tall structures. Unpublished thesis, National University of Singapore.
The objectives of this paper are, firstly, to determine the effect of non-linear term in governing the equation of motion of the tuned liquid column damper (TLCD); secondly, to
compare the results from the time domain approach and the frequency domain approach;
thirdly, to determine the effectiveness of TLCD when equipped on different structural forms
for uniform and non-uniform buildings and; lastly, to determine the sensitivity of TLCD’s
performance due to variations in structural period, damping ratio, and the number and corresponding positions of dampers. The results obtained showed that the non-linear damping
term is negligible in most cases; the effectiveness of buildings with regards to acceleration
and displacement reduction when damping ratio of building is increased is decreased; the
TLCD’s performance is highly sensitive to its position for purely flexural building and rather
insensitive for a shear building and; when higher modes of vibration are signification, the
use of more than one damper effectively stabilizes the building. This study is important as
the optimal position and number of dampers used is discussed and is of importance to the
construction of buildings.
Milko, R (1985) Indoor air quality. Unpublished article, Ministry of Supply and
Services.
This is a research paper written to discover more about the sick building syndrome, since
any information available on this subject then tend to be rather vague. In this research,
sources of indoor air pollutants such as formaldehyde and radon are uncovered. Further analytical tests which are done on the indoor contaminants provide more information on these
chemical compounds. For example, the composition of tobacco smoke and their impacts on
the heath of people are illustrated. The author has also used several case studies to draw
inferences and illustrate the severity of the sick building syndrome through these examples.
Ways to control the sources of indoor air contaminants and alleviate the problem are suggested in this paper. It is interesting to note that the solutions are targeted at the commercial
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sector (e.g. selecting good fan locations to allow better ventilation) as well as the lifestyle
of people (e.g. removing footwear at doors since it brings in street dirt, which is a mixture
of chemical and biological wastes). This paper will be beneficial in allowing people to have
a better control over indoor air quality, thereby improving the environment of buildings.
Mu, H M (2002) Development and validation of coaxial cable sensors for damage
detection of reinforced concrete structure. Unpublished PhD Thesis, The University
of Missouri-Rolla.
This thesis addressed the possibility of using coaxial cables as a sensor for a structural health
monitoring purposes. The coaxial cable is embedded in the reinforced concrete column,
and the resulting variation of the reading for healthy and damaged structure can be read
to ascertain the damaged location. This method is more sensitive compared to commercially available sensors under applied loads. However, the design is based on the change in
geometry, which can only achieve incremental improvement in sensitivity unless a special
design of cable cross section is introduced. The author did validate his theories with the
experimental results.
Neil, M A (1979) The effect of natural aggregates on the physical and chemical
properties of cement mortars. Unpublished PhD thesis, University of London.
Cement is a common material used in many different buildings, including high-rise and
skyscrapers. This paper analyzes the materials used in concrete with the aim of obtaining
the best performance for cement from natural sand by optimizing its functions. To review
the chemical properties and reactivity of the aggregates, literature reviews are used to provide information to allow readers to understand concepts better. The author investigates the
physical and chemical properties of these aggregates of cement using experimental methods
such as electron probe micro analytical techniques. Chemical reactivity of the aggregates of
cement such as oxidation and solubility is studied as well. For example, reactions between
alkali and silica, as well as between alkali and carbonate are highlighted to show possible
chemical weaknesses of the aggregates of concrete. Attempts to ensure the reliability of
results obtained can be seen in this paper. For example, experiments are conducted in a
way that only the variable of interest will change while other variables are made to be held
constant (as much as possible at least).
Olawale, F M (2005) Secondary organic aerosols generated by indoor chemistry:
effects of conditioned air recirculation rates. Unpublished Masters thesis, National
University of Singapore.
Rather than investigating primary indoor air pollutants as what most books tend to do, the
author focuses on the formation of secondary organic aerosols (SOA) resulting from reactions between indoor air pollutants. The scope of discussion in this paper is narrowed down
to the role of indoor chemistry in the generation of particles, in particular products of ozoneinitiated reactions, under the effect of recirculation rates. Physical aspects of Chemistry
such as kinetic effects and reaction rates are integrated into the research process. Concepts
on surface Chemistry are applied as well. The fact that particle deposition due to chemical
reactions between indoor air pollutants is possible with the influence of other contributing
factors (e.g. humidity level) is highlighted in this paper. The implications of human health
(e.g. particle deposition in lungs) due to such indoor reactions are mentioned in the paper
as well. Since it is not the aim of the paper to evaluate or propose ways to reduce indoor air
pollution, information related to this aspect is not provided. However, this thesis will still
be very helpful to people analyzing indoor air chemistry as it goes into a very different but
interesting aspect of indoor air chemistry.
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177
Pham, L D H (2007) Developing a model using information technology to improve
construction safety performance. Unpublished Honours dissertation, National University of Singapore.
Statistics shows that past efforts to improve construction safety in recent years were not
having its desired effect. Incorporating information technology (IT) into safety management
system (SMS) is shown to be able to raise safety performance level. While current practices
show that safety audit is oftentimes done manually, the author pushes for further usage
of IT to develop safety audit model that is able to objectively and accurately measure the
effectiveness of the construction firm’s SMS. To do this, the author improves on existing
3P + I model. While testing using secondary data on the improvements made on top of
this model has shown promising improvements, the study is limited by the fact that it uses
secondary data instead of primary data. The author suggested that further improvements to
the model can be implemented by adding features and enlargement of database to make
the model applicable to other countries other than Singapore. Future research could also
develop web-based version of the model to substitute the offline version.
Phua, B L (1999) Effectiveness in use of existing office air conditioning system
with air purging system to replace indoor air to enhance IAQ. Unpublished Masters
dissertation, National University of Singapore.
The effectiveness of air purging systems in air-conditioned offices is analyzed in this paper,
with emphasis placed on a selected few indoor air pollutants such as formaldehyde and
carbon monoxide. Findings of the study reveal that air-purging would effectively reduce
carbon dioxide and formaldehyde levels. In addition, it is noted that air purging enhanced
the emission rates for VOCs due to the increased rates of ventilation. It is also discovered
that air-purging should be conducted as early in the morning as possible, since it is during
the early hours that carbon monoxide levels are the lowest and thus most suitable for aircleaning to take place. This finding will benefit occupants of buildings trying to enhance the
indoor air quality, as it is observed that most air-purging processes carried out in buildings
are done at timings which would have rendered air-purging ineffective. However, there are a
few limitations present that can affect the reliability of the analyses. Only a single building
was selected for the study, which implied that the small sampling size would not be indicative of the general scenario. Also, the analysis on VOC levels is targeted only at toluene,
which meant that the conclusions drawn will not reflect other VOCs.
Poh, C K (1999) Information technology in construction in Singapore. Unpublished
Masters dissertation, National University of Singapore.
Information technology is used to provide low-cost, high quality exchange of information between end users, building owners, and all participants engaged in building design,
development, and maintenance process. Such exchanges are possible due to the availability of state-of-the-art IT infrastructure and changes in business process in the construction
industry that has includes extensive usage of IT in its design and construction process. The
author describes the history of such movement towards IT-oriented approach in Singapore’s
construction industry. The author focused on the integration plan to achieve greater customer satisfaction and minimal duplication of works. The author brought together the many
aspects of building lifecycle and enables “accumulation of knowledge and information” to
manage building expectations from all involved parties. The author argues, correctly, that
the IT organizational structure will continue to evolve to response to changes in technology,
business perception and utilization of IT, and increasing global competitiveness.
Quek, S T (1983) Core-frame interaction in tall buildings. Unpublished Masters
thesis, National University of Singapore.
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The aim of this study is to derive a simple method to solve the lateral load and free
vibrational analyses of general shear wall-frame multi-story structures on rigid or flexible
foundations. This study is on the static loading of the structures. The continuum approach
is adopted in the idealization of shear wall-frame structures as a shear-flexure beam. The
resulting governing equations are then solved using Galerkin’s method involving displacement shape functions. Galerkin’s method is found to be accurate, economical, versatile and
efficient. This method is also useful for foundations with translational, rocking and torsional
degrees of freedom. The interaction effect of the core and the frame is found to be highly
dependent on factors such as relative stiffness and height of building, and is compounded
by effects of soil-structure interaction. However, despite the numerous parameters involved,
the method can still provide a simplified solution to the situation. This study would have
been more helpful if more reference to the eventual stability of the building could be made,
and how lateral load could be minimized.
Rutgers (2006) Project summary. Unpublished project, The State University of New
Jersey.
Rutgers concluded that the “design and construction of ‘sustainable buildings’ has dramatically increased over the last decade” as the purpose for the construction of sustainable buildings is to “reduce resource consumption, energy consumption, and release of pollutants and
waste”, leading to better human productivity and health. Sustainable buildings should not
just focus on using energy and materials more efficiently, but it should be ‘self-sustaining’
as well to produce own and all energy in the building. As such, the implementation of
self-sustainability is suitable for high-rise buildings. However, a question remains: whether
this type of buildings can provide what they have promised and whether the other needs of
the owners are met. Thus, in this project, a preliminary framework will be developed for the
analysis of a self-sustaining high-rise building and to educate the public of the emergence of
this type of high-rise building. With the construction of self-sustaining high-rise buildings,
the impact that high-rise buildings have on the environment will thus be reduced.
Sekhar, C and Tham, K W (2001) Detailed characterization of indoor Volatile
Organic Compounds (VOCs) in commercial buildings in Singapore. Unpublished
report of research project, National University of Singapore.
The objective of this paper is to propose an appropriate model for the measurement of
volatile organic compounds (VOC) with respect to gauge indoor air quality of tropical
buildings. The research methodology and experimental techniques (e.g. flame-ionization
detector; photo-ionization detector) are listed in the paper. Detailed characterization indoor
VOCs are done by analyzing the indoor air of 5 different buildings at various levels. Gas
chromatography – mass spectroscopy (GCMS) is used to analyze the different types of
VOCs in indoor air, while photo-ionization detectors and sensors are used to measure total
VOCs. Environmental conditions (e.g. percentage humidity and air velocity) at the time
of carrying out the measurements are provided and taken into consideration, which allows
reliable results to be obtained. It is concluded that GCMS method is very effective for VOC
quantification and that it allows better control strategies to be adopted since the nature of
the indoor air contaminant can be known. One limitation of the findings of this study is that
certain results are location dependent and may only be applicable to Singapore, such as the
response factors of the 7 compounds used to measure total VOCs.
Shotwell, H P and Sheriff, R E (1978) Mold testing and remediation. Unpublished
article, Atlantic Environmental Incorporated.
Among high-rise buildings, mold is the greatest problem in indoor air quality. This is so as
certain diseases like the “Sick building Syndrome and Building Related Disease are most
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179
often due to mold” that is found in the indoor air quality of high-rise buildings. Other factors
found in the indoor environment of high-rise buildings which include water intrusion and
elevated temperatures create an environment for molds to grow rapidly. Sewer back-ups
found in the surroundings of high-rise buildings and the presence of bird droppings also
increase the possibility that bacteria are involved in contributing to the growth of molds.
As a result, there is a need to identify and correct any mold related problems to restore
the indoor air quality of high-rise buildings and reduce the health effects from molds such
as “Stachybotrys, Actinomycetes, Aspergillus, Cladosporium, Penicillium, Alternaria, and
many more”. The approach to correct mold-related problems includes an initial investigation, actions for clean-up control, remediation and litigation support. Likewise, this
approach can be applied to similar situations in other housing types other than high-rise.
Shu, K K (2005) High rise building movement monitoring using RTK-GPS (case
study: Menara Sarawak Enterprise). Unpublished Masters thesis, University
Teknologi Malaysia.
With the great number of high buildings nowadays, it has become very important to monitor
them to ensure they are still under stable condition. Recently, the Global Positioning System
(GPS) especially Real Time Kinematics (RTK-GPS) has emerged as a survey tool for many
deformation applications. This study highlights the concept and methodology of the continuous RTK-GPS and its potential application for high rise building monitoring surveys by
studying the ability and efficiency of this method in high rise buildings’ deformation detection. A MATLAB program was developed to perform the movement monitoring analysis
on the observed data to classify the stability of the building, and results indicate it was able
to provide 1 cm and 2 cm accuracy for horizontal and vertical respectively. This method
was used successfully to show that the Menara Sarawak Enterprise building in Malaysia is
stable, with displacement distance around 0.5 cm and 1 cm detected respectively.
Sohn, H and Law, K H (1999) Flexibility based extraction of ritz vectors and their
application to damage diagnosis. Unpublished article, Proceedings of the Second
International Workshop on Structural Health Monitoring.
Ritz Vectors is a useful method that can be used in the mathematical modeling of structures
to predict the health status of buildings. However, despite its superiority in damage detection
to other methods, it is rarely used, as it is difficult to extract the relevant values from the
experimental data (vibration response of the structure). In this paper the authors showed a
procedure to extract load-dependent Ritz vectors using a flexibility matrix constructed from
measured vibration test data (this uses high level mathematics). The authors successfully
tested their technique experimentally, using a small scale bridge model. The fact that Ritz
Vectors method can now be utilized means that a computationally more efficient model,
with better predictive power, is now available for structural health diagnosis.
Sohn, H, Dzwonczyk, M, Straser, E G, Law, K H, Meng, T and Kiremidjian, A S
(1998) Adaptive modeling of environmental effects on modal parameters for damage detection in civil structures. Unpublished article, Proceedings of the SPIE’s 5th
Annual International Symposium on Smart Structures and Materials.
This paper described the method to take into account the effects of temperature in evaluating
structural health using the modal parameter method. While the modal parameter method
has been relatively successful in identifying defects, the authors believe that it could be
improved by taking into account the environmental effects such as temperature and humidity. This claim is supported by the experimental data from real bridges, which shows that
such effects can impact the result significantly. In this paper, they devised a mathematical
treatment involving adaptive filters that could discriminate the modal changes due to the
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temperature change and due to defects. The model is then tested on a real bridge, the Alamosa Canyon Bridge. While it is successful, the authors are careful to state that it was only
one environmental condition. Tests should be carried out at different locations throughout
the year to fully validate the model. Furthermore, other environmental parameters also have
to be investigated.
Su, N Y (2006) Coptotermes formosanus (insect). Unpublished research, University
of Florida.
C. formosanus is a “subterranean termite with an affinity for damp places” and has been
found to reside in high-rise buildings. As long as there is the presence of wood and moisture, this species of insect may inhabit the location, building nests on structures where the
temperature is just nice and will permanently nest within a building’s walls if the conditions
for optimal living are met. The problem with this insect building its nest among high-rise
buildings is that their presence can easily go unnoticed for long periods of time. As such,
infestations may not be noticed by the occupants until structures like floorboards within the
units of the high-rise building become “squishy or visible signs of the colony burrowing
out through plaster walls become apparent”. C. formosanus is known as one of the most
destructive pests in the USA (United Sates of America) as damage caused by this insect will
cost consumers a lot of money to repair the damage done. Hence, regular preventative and
remedial treatments should be conducted among high-rise buildings to destroy this insect
and their colonies if any.
Tan, H M (1992/1993) Indoor air quality and sick building syndrome in commercial
offices. Unpublished Bachelor dissertation, National University of Singapore.
The author focuses his research in the context of air-conditioned office buildings in Singapore. Background details on the related health effects arising from the various indoor air
contaminants such as carbon monoxide are given in the paper. This allows people to understand the significance and importance of maintaining suitable indoor air quality. It might
seem mediocre that such background information is provided here. However, it is quite
significant if we take into account the year that this paper was written, since information on
this field is extremely limited then. Findings of the study conducted reveals that occupants
in the air-conditioned buildings generally are contented with their working environment,
even though there was some forms of dissatisfaction raised (e.g. odour issues). It would
be important not to ignore such seemingly small complaints as it may translate into bigger
problems for the company (e.g. higher absence rates and lower productivity). The author
also points out that sick building syndrome has many contributing factors other than indoor
air pollutants, such as ergonomics and lighting control. Hence, it would be more accurate if
researchers were to investigate on the sick building syndrome based on several parameters
rather than solely on indoor air contaminants.
Tan, S L (2005) The disappearing image of concrete a study of the image and the
limits of the use of a material. Unpublished Masters thesis, University of Singapore.
Concrete has always been an important material to construction. However, it has increasingly seen use on the façade of buildings, gradually changing its image from one of structural support to one of exterior design. The author looks deeply into the preconceptions
people have about concrete in comparison with its actual properties to observe how concrete has transcended traditional views to become a hyper-material. Through the use of
many interesting examples and photos, the author shows us how concrete has exhibited
certain characteristics and brought it with them into a building like the strong nature of
concrete, its plasticity and even its texture. He also looks to the future, which challenges
the traditional qualities of concrete with examples such as ductal which is stronger yet
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much lighter than conventional concrete, challenging its character of weight and litra-con a
translucent concrete which challenges its character of opaqueness.
Terence, T C T (2002) Glass as a building material – an ecological view. Unpublished Masters thesis, University of Singapore.
Buildings have traditionally been defined by the materials that built it such as stone masonry,
steel trusses, concrete walls and glass towers. The author looks specifically at a single type,
namely glass. With new advances, glass can be laminated, tinted and coated to provide
different optical properties and it can be strengthened through treatment with heat and addition of other additives. The theses gives a clear overview, firstly familiarizing the reader
with the history of glass and its modern incarnation, then introducing the technical terms
that will enable the reader to understand how to rate the performance of glass. He goes on
to introduce the different types of high-performance glass and how we control effect of the
sun in glass buildings. There is a focus on the climatic conditions in the tropics and how
we can adapt glass façades to our use. Lastly, he uses case studies to demonstrate how glass
is currently used. The presentation is clear. However, it could benefit from the use of more
pictures to illustrate his point and make the thesis more interesting.
Trask, R S, Williams, H R, and Bond, I P (2006) Self-healing polymer composites:
mimicking nature to enhance performance. Unpublished research report, University
of Bristol.
Skyscraper maintenance is expensive, and therefore, there is increasing research into materials and systems that can self-repair. Such research aims to reduce cost incurred when maintaining and repairing cracks or damages. This paper outlines several biological inspirations
for secondary functional materials that counteract service degradation, as well as numerous existing self-healing technologies for fibre reinforced polymeric composite materials.
By imitating the integrated microscopic structures through nanotechnology, engineers can
potentially enhance material quality and performance. Several approaches are evaluated.
The report briefly outlines several mechanisms that repairs under the action of heat, which
is prevalent in skyscrapers at the Equator and the Tropics: polymers with selective crosslinks that reform on heating, and polymers incorporating a second solid-state polymer that
transfers to damage sites based on diffusion and thermodynamics. Materials get restored
to 57% of undamaged material strength. Another solution emulates the blood clotting process in which nanoparticles on polymer films are deposited into nanocracks. Computational
simulations and numerical methods indicate that the composites repaired achieved 75% to
100% of the undamaged material strength. However, this method is not viable for large
structures. The most viable and tested solution is based on biological bleeding approach in
which microcapsules or hollow fibres containing a monomer, dicyclopentadiane (DCPD)
are interspersed in bulk concrete. When a crack penetrates the microcapsules, the monomer
is being released into the crack and hardens upon contact with catalyst. Materials with these
microcapsules have their fatigue life extended by 113%. Another method worth considering is compartmentalisation or systems that limit further damage like how trees develop
impervious boundary walls on wounded sites. It also recommends that more detailed and
systematic studies on natural processes especially on vascular-bone repair and compartmentalisation in trees, apart from simple observations, have to be done to generate better
self-healing solutions.
Wan, R (2002) Advanced dry mortar technology for construction industry. Unpublished article, Hong Kong Productivity Council.
Lime-based and gypsum-based mortars have been in use in construction for many years.
However with the ease of availability of Portland cement, cement gradually replaced the
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use of such mortars in many worksites. Cement, sand and water are mixed at the worksite
in the appropriate ratios for applications. However this simple cement was not sufficient
for many high quality constructions. Liquid dispersions and plasticizers were added for
better properties but the lack of skilled workers made it difficult to ensure the quality and
proportion of the mixture. Thus dry mortar which just needed addition of water was created
to solve the problem. While much of the world has been using this technology, Hong Kong
has been slow on catching on. Thus, this paper aims to explain the processes and advantages
of dry mortar to encourage its use. New dry mortar includes many different chemicals other
than cement, sand and water which drastically improve its properties. This paper clearly
demonstrates how through the use of better material knowledge, we can achieve better
results in a more effective manner.
Wang, Y (2007) Wireless sensing and decentralized control for civil structures: Theory and implementation. Unpublished PhD thesis, Stanford University.
This thesis covers the implementation of wireless sensors, and then going one step further
by going completely decentralized. Hardware and software interfaces are designed so that
the wireless sensing units are capable of processing real-time sensor data, making control
decisions, and commanding structural actuators. In the decentralized model, each unit will
make a decision based on the result of its neighbours. This frees up the need for a central
nervous system, and could lower the cost for structural health monitoring systems significantly. Interestingly, the author investigated the use of the system in tall building (up to 20
storeys) and noted that the distributed system might perform much better than a centralized
one due to not having a delayed transmission.
Wong, W S (2007) Analysis and design of curtain wall systems for high rise buildings. Unpublished project paper, University of Southern Queensland.
Curtain wall system technology has developed over the years into a proliferation of highly
engineered design. More than just an assembly of glass, aluminium, steel, screw and sealant,
curtain wall system functions as an external enclosure to protect the building from weather
and to achieve pressure-equalization between the outdoor and indoor environment. It is
now commonly used for new high-rise buildings, and has become a major investment in
both construction and long-term success of the building. This dissertation focused on the
design and analysis of unitized curtain wall for high-rise building, using finite element and
structural analysis programme. Design considerations such as structural integrity, weather
tightness, thermal insulation and sound transmission were given major attention, and several
case studies on wind pressure calculation and glass design were also provided. The author
believed that curtain wall is one of architecture’s most provocative metaphors, but attention
had to be given to ensure its structural integrity.
Wu, W (1998) The application of computational simulation software to daylighting design in Singapore. Unpublished Masters dissertation, National University of
Singapore.
The use of daylighting creates pleasing and productive atmosphere and offers significant
savings in term of energy. The dissertation studies RADIANCE, a powerful simulation software, to assist in daylighting design. The author then evaluates the software’s usefulness,
accuracy, and applicability in Singapore. The case study done at Asian Civilisation Museum
(ACM) showed that RADIANCE predicted to high accuracy the internal illuminance under
overcast sky conditions. The author also used RADIANCE to study 2 daylighting approach,
curtains and louvers, and found that louvers are more effective. Such studies proved again
the usefulness of computer simulation in building and construction fields.
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183
Zhou, H C and Spelling, D (2001) Traffic emission pollution sampling and analysis
on urban streets with high-rising buildings. Unpublished study, Institute of Transportation Studies.
In this study, data was collected on traffic flows, second-by-second carbon dioxide and nitric
oxide ambient concentrations from urban streets surrounding high-rise buildings to characterize the extent of air pollution in Shanghai, China. The data was sampled and compared
with CAL3QHC modelling results as the state-of-the-practice models do not accurately
characterize the extent of air pollution at the many types of intersections and other roadside
‘hot spots’ of urban streets. The results found that the intersection hot spot emission concentrations were primarily caused by the queuing activities of motor vehicles. Due to complex
dispersion processes near high-rise buildings, the air quality concentrations were difficult to
predict. In addition, screening models that were used such as the CAL3QHC were prone to
large errors in dense cities with mixed traffic and high-rise buildings. As such, suggestions
were made for better improved models that are relevant and can screen accurately the air
quality concentration in dense high-rise developing cities, allowing one to better access the
air quality concentration found among high-rise living.
Zhou, Q (1994) Dynamic response of frame-core wall tall buildings to wind load.
Unpublished Masters thesis, National University of Singapore.
This is a study on the response of tall buildings to wind. The author starts with providing
the governing equations for the frame shear wall building by idealizing the whole structure as a shear-flexural cantilever. After which, the effect of axial deformation in frame is
incorporated and solved by Galerkin’s technique. With the equations formulated, the alongwind, cross-wind and torsional response are discussed based on the free vibrational analysis
and the results are compared with other conventional methods. This proposed method has
proved to be accurate enough for practical purposes and it is more efficient and simple to
use. The author acknowledges that the study lacks the investigation of the effects of axial
forces on the overall stability of the structure. Overall this study is useful in suggesting
a new method to analysis building stability, which in turn helps to simplify and reduce
unnecessarily tedious computations for building analyses. However, the study would be
more useful if it suggests how this technique holds even as the assumptions made within
this study are changed, and how it is affected by the unavoidable simplifying assumptions.
Zuraimi, B M S (2002) VOC emissions from buildings, occupants and their activities, and ventilation systems. Unpublished Masters thesis, National University of
Singapore.
The concept of the sick building syndrome is of interest here. The author centers his research
on volatile organic compounds (VOC), which has been hypothesized to be a contributing
factor to the sick building syndrome. It is observed that the mass balance model is of great
focus in this paper. In addition, the author illustrates an alternative method to assess sources
of such pollutants. An evaluation of the emission rates conducted through the mass balance
model method is carried out as well. Using results from this evaluation, the author looks at
the sources of VOCs in 3 particular buildings and analyzes its relationship with different
aspects such as the building materials used, ventilation system and activities carried out
in the building. The research methodology such as analytical procedures and instruments
like gas chromatograph-mass spectrometer follows closely to the different specializations of
Chemistry. This paper will be useful for researchers interested in the chemical environment
in high-rise, in particular the indoor air quality. It is important to note that this study is conducted in Singapore and certain results as well as findings are only applicable to Singapore,
or countries with tropical climate.