An IPA Planning Services Report
Delaware Transportation
Lighting Inventory
& Assessment
February 2016
written by
Martin Wollaston, Evan Horgan,
Alexa Scoglietti, Nicole Seymour, and Gemma Tierney
funded by the
Delaware Department of Transportation
as part of the
Delaware Center for Transportation
FY14 Research Program
Institute for Public Administration
School of Public Policy & Administration
College of Arts & Sciences
University of Delaware
www.ipa.udel.edu
An IPA Planning Services Report
Delaware Transportation
Lighting Inventory
& Assessment
February 2016
written by
Martin Wollaston, Evan Horgan,
Alexa Scoglietti, Nicole Seymour, and Gemma Tierney
funded by the
Delaware Department of Transportation
as part of the
Delaware Center for Transportation
FY14 Research Program
Institute for Public Administration
School of Public Policy & Administration
College of Arts & Sciences
University of Delaware
www.ipa.udel.edu
Delaware Transportation Lighting Inventory & Assessment
February 2016
Preface
As Director of the University of Delaware’s Institute for Public Administration (IPA), I am
pleased to provide our Delaware Center for Transportation FY14 Research Program: Delaware
Transportation Lighting Inventory & Assessment report. Its development was supported by the
Delaware Department of Transportation (DelDOT). Policy Scientist Martin Wollaston was the
Principal Investigator for this work. Additional IPA project team members included B.J.
DeCoursey, Andrew Homsey, Nicole Minni, Lisa Moreland, Sarah Pragg, Evan Horgan, Alexa
Scoglietti, Nicole Seymour, and Gemma Tierney.
In December 2011, IPA completed Pedestrian-Lighting Options and Roles of Responsibility
within Unincorporated Delaware Communities, which serves as the foundational research for
this project. In the 2011 document, a number of critical issues related to pedestrian-lighting
facilities in unincorporated areas were discussed including new lighting technologies, lighting
fixture design, funding mechanisms, the Delaware Code, and existing best practices for
implementation of pedestrian lighting. Local electricity providers, DelDOT officials, and a crosssection of relevant Delaware stakeholders were engaged in a roundtable discussion to solicit
various perspectives on this important transportation issue.
The current project builds on prior research by focusing on lighting in cities and towns in
Delaware. Lighting in several local Delaware communities was inventoried and assessed using a
methodological framework developed as part of this project. The framework and
recommendations developed in this paper begin to set the stage for enhancing the planning for
lighting on roadways, sidewalks, and trails in Delaware. In addition, the IPA project team met or
had conference calls with a number of stakeholders to gain their insight into this policy issue.
The research discussed in this report is intended to broaden the foundation for working with
communities across Delaware to develop ways to enhance the lighting network within those
areas, particularly as it relates to pedestrian lighting.
As Delaware continues to promote walkable and bikeable communities, emphasis on pedestrianlighting infrastructure will not only increase the use of multimodal facilities, but enhance basic
community mobility in towns and neighborhoods across our state.
Jerome R. Lewis, Ph.D.
Director, Institute for Public Administration
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Delaware Transportation Lighting Inventory & Assessment
February 2016
Institute for Public Administration
Institute for Public Administration (IPA) staff prepared this report. A unit within the College of
Arts and Sciences’ School of Public Policy & Administration at the University of Delaware, IPA
links the research and resources of the University with the management and information needs of
local, state, and regional governments in Delaware. IPA provides assistance to agencies and local
governments through direct staff support and research projects as well as training programs and
policy forums.
Institute Director
Jerome R. Lewis, Ph.D.
Project Team
Martin Wollaston, Policy Scientist and Principal Investigator
B.J. DeCoursey, AICP, Assistant Policy Scientist
Alexa Scoglietti, Graduate Research Assistant
Evan Horgan, Graduate Research Assistant
Nicole Seymour, Graduate Research Assistant
Gemma Tierney, Graduate Research Assistant
GIS Mapping Team
Andrew Homsey, Associate Policy Scientist
Nicole Minni, GISP, Associate Policy Scientist
Editorial Review
Lisa Moreland, Policy Scientist
Sarah Pragg, Policy Specialist
Acknowledgments
Funding from the Delaware Department of Transportation made this research possible. A special
thank you is extended to DelDOT Planning Division staff member Ralph Reeb, the original
project sponsor, and to Michael DuRoss, who took over this work when Mr. Reeb retired, for
their guidance in the development of this project. IPA Graduate Research Assistants Evan
Horgan, Alexa Scoglietti, and Nicole Seymour performed the literature review and fieldwork
research vital for the completion of this report, and Graduate Research Assistant Gemma Tierney
helped with the final production of the report. Finally, IPA recognizes the work contributed by
former staffer Ted Patterson at the start of this project.
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Delaware Transportation Lighting Inventory & Assessment
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Table of Contents
Executive Summary ........................................................................................................................ 1
1. Introduction .............................................................................................................................. 3
1.1.
1.2.
1.3.
2.
The Project Proposal ......................................................................................................... 3
What Is Pedestrian Lighting? ............................................................................................ 4
The Benefits of Improving Pedestrian Lighting................................................................ 4
New Technology for Pedestrian Lighting Infrastructure ......................................................... 6
2.1.
Safety................................................................................................................................. 6
2.1.1.
2.1.2.
2.1.3.
2.1.4.
2.1.5.
2.1.6.
Sidewalk Zones........................................................................................................... 7
Light-Pole Spacing ..................................................................................................... 8
Consistent Patterns ..................................................................................................... 8
Crosswalks .................................................................................................................. 9
Lighting Master Plan .................................................................................................11
Health Component .................................................................................................... 14
2.2. Lighting Types ................................................................................................................. 15
2.3. Shielding and Aesthetics ................................................................................................. 17
2.4. Green Technology ........................................................................................................... 21
2.5. Inventorying and Mapping .............................................................................................. 24
2.6. Energy Efficiency ............................................................................................................ 25
3.
Utility Lighting Options and Operational Costs .................................................................... 27
3.1.
3.2.
LED Lamps ..................................................................................................................... 27
Legacy Systems ............................................................................................................... 30
3.2.1. High-pressure sodium ............................................................................................... 30
3.2.2. Metal-halide .............................................................................................................. 30
3.2.3. Induction ................................................................................................................... 31
4.
Stakeholder Interviews........................................................................................................... 32
4.1.
4.2.
4.3.
4.4.
4.5.
Delaware Electric Cooperative........................................................................................ 32
City of Newark ................................................................................................................ 33
Delmarva Power .............................................................................................................. 34
Town of Smyrna .............................................................................................................. 35
Summary of Interviews ................................................................................................... 36
5. Methodological Framework for Communities to Inventory and Assess Lighting
Infrastructure ................................................................................................................................. 37
5.1.
5.2.
Lighting Inventory Basics ............................................................................................... 37
Using the Cellphone Application (GISKey Field Assets App) ....................................... 39
5.2.1.
Definitions of Attributes of Pole............................................................................... 41
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February 2016
5.3. Geospatial Data ............................................................................................................... 43
6.
Delaware Community Inventory and Assessment Case Studies............................................ 44
6.1.
6.2.
6.3.
6.4.
7.
The Fieldwork ................................................................................................................. 44
City of New Castle .......................................................................................................... 44
Town of Odessa ............................................................................................................... 49
Town of Bellefonte .......................................................................................................... 53
Conclusions and Recommendations ...................................................................................... 57
7.1.
7.2.
7.3.
Update Lighting Technology Information ....................................................................... 57
Lighting Providers ........................................................................................................... 57
Low-Cost Method to Inventory and Visually Express Existing Lighting ....................... 58
8. End Notes ............................................................................................................................... 60
9. References .............................................................................................................................. 65
10. Additional Resources ........................................................................................................... 69
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List of Figures and Tables
Figure 1: Sidewalk Zones ............................................................................................................... 8
Figure 2: Broadgate Public Space Enhancement ............................................................................ 9
Figure 3: Louis Vuitton Building Vertical Light ........................................................................... 10
Figure 4: The New York Times Building at Night Reflectance .................................................... 10
Figure 5: Building-Mounted Lighting ...........................................................................................11
Figure 6: Photometric Map of the Town of Chapel Hill, NC ....................................................... 14
Figure 7: Lighting Fixtures ........................................................................................................... 15
Figure 8: Lighting Standards in the United States ........................................................................ 16
Figure 9: Existing Lights in Downtown Chapel Hill, N.C. .......................................................... 17
Figure 10: Integrated Simple Pole with Acorn-Style Lighting Fixture ........................................ 18
Figure 11: Arlington Design ......................................................................................................... 19
Figure 12: Acorn Fixture............................................................................................................... 19
Figure 13: Lantern Design ............................................................................................................ 20
Figure 14: Ornamental Design ...................................................................................................... 20
Figure 15: LED Street & Area Lighting ....................................................................................... 21
Figure 16. Screenshots of GISKey Field Assets App Main Menu and Asset Screens .................. 40
Figure 17. Screenshots of GISKey Field Assets App Asset and Attribute Screens ...................... 40
Figure 18. Screenshots of GISKey Field Assets App Asset Screen .............................................. 41
Figure 19. Screenshot of GISKey Field Assets App Asset List Screen ........................................ 42
Figure 20. Screenshots of GISKey Field Assets App Export Screens .......................................... 42
Figure 21. Screenshots of GISKey Field Assets App Export Screens .......................................... 43
Figure 22: Raw Data Mapped in Cellular Application KMZ ....................................................... 45
Figure 23: Data in ArcGIS ............................................................................................................ 46
Figure 24: Raw Data Mapped in Cellular Application KMZ ....................................................... 50
Figure 25: Town of Bellefonte Lighting Inventory....................................................................... 53
Table 1. Efficacy of Various Street Lighting Technologies ...........................................................29
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Executive Summary
In December 2011, the Institute for Public Administration completed a project that examined
pedestrian-lighting policies in unincorporated areas in Delaware. The purpose of the 2011 study
was to better understand who shared in the responsibilities for providing pedestrian lighting in
these areas. This current project builds on the 2011 pedestrian-lighting research by conducting a
literature review to provide an update of new lighting technologies and trends, including fixture
designs, lighting options, and operational costs. The most important part of this work, however,
focuses on piloting a low-cost method to assess lighting in a few selected communities in
Delaware.
While working on another community planning project, IPA learned that many municipalities do
not have a readily available inventory of the lighting in their towns. Municipalities that provide
electric service also provide the lighting in their towns and maintain lighting inventories. Most
towns in Delaware, however, do not provide electric service, and lighting in those towns is
provided by a private utility. Towns that do not have data or maps showing the locations of
lighting fixtures have little information on how well the sidewalks and pathways are visible after
dark.
For this research, IPA proposed using a relatively inexpensive mobile phone application to
develop lighting inventories for towns. The development of an inventory of lighting fixtures to
show the location of installed lights is the first step to addressing the lighting needs of a town.
IPA will use this information to develop maps of selected areas to demonstrate potential
products. This report is organized as follows:
Chapter 1. Introduction
Chapter 1 introduces pedestrian lighting and discusses vital themes connecting pedestrian
lighting to overall community walkability.
Chapter 2. New Technology for Pedestrian Lighting Infrastructure
Chapter 2 presents the literature survey work for this project. Research concerning a number of
important innovations in pedestrian lighting is presented, including safety, lighting types,
shielding and aesthetics, green technology, inventorying and mapping, and energy efficiency.
Chapter 3. Utility Lighting Options and Operational Costs
Chapter 3 explores differences among lighting options as well as costs related to the varied
lighting types, especially the rapidly developing LED technologies. This chapter also offers a
brief explanation of the benefits and limitations of each lighting type and presents strategies to
mitigate some of the most common (cost) concerns often expressed by stakeholders.
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Chapter 4. Stakeholder Interviews
This chapter begins the development of a better understanding of the procedures, policies, and
protocols of the providers of public lighting in Delaware.
Chapter 5. Methodological Framework for Communities to Inventory and Assess
Lighting Infrastructure
Chapter 5 outlines a methodology for lighting infrastructure assessments for communities in
Delaware. This framework can serve as a useful tool for planners and administrators to develop
strategies for improving lighting for pedestrians in cities and towns in the state.
Chapter 6. Delaware Community Inventory and Assessment Case Studies
Chapter 6 presents the results of many hours of fieldwork invested in this project. It includes the
lighting inventory and mapping work in the City of New Castle, Town of Odessa, and the Town
of Bellefonte.
Chapter 7. Conclusions and Recommendations
Chapter 7 provides the conclusions and recommendations to consider for improving lighting in
cities and towns. IPA’s main recommendation from this project is that lighting maps become a
regular feature of the comprehensive plans for towns. All towns have walkable areas and it
would be a more step in the right direction if town comprehensive plans included areas the town
designates as walkable. Towns may want to create maps of walkable areas that are best in the
daytime as well as areas that are walkable both during the day and night. Towns also should
consider including maps in their comprehensive plans that include the type of “lighting-inventory
mapping” piloted in this report.
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1. Introduction
1.1. The Project Proposal
In December 2011, the Institute for Public Administration completed a project funded through
the Delaware Center for Transportation Research Program that examined pedestrian-lighting
policies in unincorporated areas in Delaware. The objective of that study was to improve the
understanding of who shared in the responsibilities for providing pedestrian lighting in these
unincorporated areas and develop recommendations for improving this lighting. This current
project builds on the 2011 pedestrian-lighting research with the goal of advancing the provision
of more information and better tools for communities to improve the lighting of areas frequently
utilized by pedestrians.
As stated in the proposal, lighting infrastructure needs were inventoried and assessed in selected
areas in Delaware featuring multiple modes of transportation and motorized and non-motorized
transportation routes. The inventory consisted of locating lighting stock within a given
geographical area using a relatively inexpensive cell phone application. An assessment of the app
and options to display the data on maps to develop possible lighting solutions was conducted.
A literature review was conducted to provide an update from the 2011 report of lighting
technologies and trends, including fixture designs, lighting options, and operational costs. The
project team used the literature review to determine if certain lighting types make pedestrians
feel more secure and safe as well as the technology being used locally to monitor, map, and
inventory lighting infrastructure. The IPA project team also explored whether or not there are
ADA regulations and standards that can be addressed through enhancing pedestrian-lighting
infrastructure.
The most important part of this work, however, focuses on the assessment of pedestrian lighting
in a few selected communities in Delaware. While working on a related project, the IPA project
team found that many jurisdictions do not have a readily available inventory or mapping of the
lighting in their towns. Some towns provide electric service within their boundaries and those
towns provide most of the lighting fixtures in their service areas. But most towns in Delaware do
not provide electric service; lighting in these towns is provided by private utilities. Private
utilities provide towns or developers with a menu of light-fixture options, then install and
maintain the lighting fixtures. Towns pay the costs for installation of the fixtures and the
electricity to operate the lights, often through a lease-type arrangement. The towns determine
how to spread out the costs among its customers.
As part of this research, the IPA project team interviewed a number of electric providers
including Delmarva Power and the Delaware Electric Cooperative to better understand their
policies and procedures. IPA project team members interviewed staff from the City of Newark
and the Town of Smyrna, municipalities that provide electric to their businesses and residents but
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have different approaches to lighting. IPA project team members also talked informally with the
New Castle Board of Water & Light prior to conducting fieldwork in the City of New Castle.
Another part of this project required the development of a methodological framework for
communities to inventory and assess lighting infrastructure through completion of lighting plans
and maps. The fieldwork for this effort required many hours of staff time working in the
evening—after sunset—to observe street and sidewalk conditions when illuminated by lights.
One of the IPA project team’s goals was to research and select an inexpensive technological tool
that could be used by towns to develop lighting maps and plans. IPA project team members
decided to use an inexpensive application designed for a cell phone (iPhone) and applied this
tool in a number of situations to determine if it could be used by towns to develop their own
lighting inventories. The first step in addressing a town’s lighting needs is the development of a
lighting inventory and map of existing light structures.
The IPA project team selected study areas within three communities to conduct lighting
inventories. The inventory fieldwork was conducted during the day, including the collection of
point data and photographs of each lighting structure. After mapping the point data, IPA project
team members added a tree canopy data layer and selected areas where there appeared to be
potential issues with trees blocking the lighting. IPA staff revisited two of the communities in the
evening to identify areas where lighting for pedestrians was sufficient and where it was
insufficient.
1.2. What Is Pedestrian Lighting?
In the December 2011 working paper Pedestrian Lighting Options and Roles of Responsibility
within Unincorporated Delaware Communities, Gillespie and Patterson define pedestrian
lighting as “any type of lighting that illuminates pedestrians or pedestrian facilities.” 1 Pedestrian
lighting can include residential light posts, commercial storefront lighting, street lights, highway
lighting, and bus-shelter lighting. 2 However, pedestrian lighting can also include more ambient
examples such as storefront displays, lights used as landscaping elements, and even lighting
designed to draw attention to the unique features of a building or home. 3 Enhancing and
improving the efficiency of community or municipality lighting systems not only positively
influences safety but is also an essential tool for economic development.
1.3. The Benefits of Improving Pedestrian Lighting
Lighting is a vital element for the creation of a safe and comfortable pedestrian environment. The
current car-centric environment of the United States discourages pedestrian activity, and walking
is especially dangerous at night. The National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA)
reported that nationally about 70% of pedestrian fatalities in 2011 occurred at night, with a large
percentage of fatalities occurring between the hours of 8:00 and 11:59 p.m. 4 In Delaware, more
than half of the pedestrian fatalities in 2013 occurred in dark conditions. 5 The National Complete
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Streets Coalition, a program of Smart Growth America that advocates for complete streets
policies, published a report in 2014 that ranked Delaware as the sixth most dangerous state for
pedestrians. In its ranking of states and metropolitan areas, the report’s Pedestrian Danger Index
drew mainly on traffic fatalities and pedestrian fatalities data from 2003 to 2012. 6
In 2015 a Delaware News Journal article stated that Delaware is the most dangerous state for
pedestrians, reporting that in 2014 there were 28 pedestrians struck and killed by vehicles while
walking along or crossing roads. Most of these pedestrians were struck walking along or trying
to cross roads with speed limits of 50 miles per hour or greater. Although these speeds are rare
within municipalities, better lighting in Delaware could help to provide a safer environment for
adult and adolescent pedestrians. Municipalities in Delaware should evaluate their current
lighting and decide whether their towns are lit sufficiently to be safe for pedestrians at night.
In general, street lights are intended to create a safe nighttime environment allowing both
pedestrians and motorists to identify other modes of transportation around them. Improving a
town’s lighting can also be a cost-effective means of creating a sense of safety in public areas to
encourage pedestrian activity. 7 Research from a British crime survey showed that violent crimes
most commonly occur in public areas between the hours of 6:00 p.m. and midnight. 8 Also, dimly
lit streets often contribute to a sense of insecurity for pedestrians as the lack of adequate light
creates areas with blind spots and shadows that potentially encourage danger and crime.
Improving or adding lighting systems has proven to not only increase the feeling of personal
safety among men and women, but it has also been found to reduce nighttime crime. 9
Good pedestrian lighting helps to create an environment that is attractive to pedestrians and
businesses. Attractive, efficiently lit downtown streets contribute to the economic development
of an area by creating an environment that draws customers to businesses. The City of Seattle’s
Office of Economic Development found that good pedestrian lighting is beneficial in helping a
business district thrive; enhanced pedestrian lighting not only creates safer routes for pedestrian
travel, it can also help draw pedestrians into targeted areas. 10 In this case, attractively lit retail
displays, lights from landscaping, or other forms of attractive ambient lighting supplement the
formal public lighting stock to provide a well-lit, safe environment for pedestrians visiting the
area after sunset.
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2. New Technology for Pedestrian Lighting Infrastructure
Over the past century, innovations in outdoor-lighting technology have greatly enhanced the
overall efficiency, utility, and aesthetic value of lighting. In the following chapter, research
concerning a number of important innovations in pedestrian lighting will be presented: safety,
lighting types, shielding and aesthetics, green technology, inventorying and mapping, and energy
efficiency.
The primary reason for providing lighting for pedestrians is safety. Safe environments are much
more attractive to individuals and to families, and also usually contribute to more opportunities
for successful economic development activity. While there are a wide variety of lighting types
used throughout the nation, IPA project team’s research indicates that the lighting types available
for communities from the state’s electric providers (municipalities and utilities) are limited.
Simply providing a greater number of light sources is often inadequate if it is not done in a
thoughtful manner. Each type of lighting has its own character and purpose.
Communities are interested in investing in lighting to enhance designated areas, including
pedestrian pathways. Communities also want lighting that will reflect their character. New
aesthetically pleasing pedestrian-lighting styles are being developed to help provide an attractive
atmosphere in quiet residential communities as well as in bustling, high-tech business and
commercial districts. Shielding and aesthetic practices have changed over time to reduce light
pollution and energy waste. There is more concern now on mitigating light-pollution, so new and
better ways of shielding light have been utilized in light-fixture design.
Green technology, such as new light fixture monitoring devices and light bulb design, solar
power, and wind power, is reshaping the energy landscape throughout the world. These
innovations lead to brighter, more durable bulbs and smarter controls. Inventorying and mapping
includes information on data applications that can help municipalities to efficiently manage
lighting throughout their communities. Energy efficiency is a constant concern from financial
and environmental perspectives as well. New lighting fixtures often have higher installation
costs, but provide major opportunities for cost-savings with lower long-run operational costs.
2.1. Safety
As urban planners increasingly follow new urbanism principles to create more complete
communities, it will become increasingly important to focus on pedestrian lighting to enhance
the ability of residents and visitors to safely move around their communities without a car.
People must be able to walk and bike throughout the day, and night, if they are going to embrace
moving around their communities without motor vehicles. Improving opportunities for
pedestrian movement by lighting pathways also often results in a more healthy population and
can be a significant economic development tool. The foremost priority for pedestrian lighting is
to guarantee that walkways are adequately illuminated. From the pedestrian safety perspective,
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factors that can have a negative impact on a pedestrian’s walking experience include trees,
shrubbery, parked vehicles, tall church steeples, or other apexes of a building, and odd
geometrics of a street. 11
A simple, but sometimes forgotten, principle of pedestrian lighting is that it must be designed
with the pedestrian in mind. Pedestrian lighting must be conceptualized on a pedestrian scale. A
study conducted in Glasgow, Scotland, showed a major increase in pedestrian activity when
sidewalks and streets had received a significant increase in lighting. Glasgow’s pedestrians
reportedly felt more comfortable. 12 So, what are the best practices that Delaware communities
can implement today that will result in pedestrian-friendly or walkable destinations?
2.1.1. Sidewalk Zones
First, the sidewalk is the foundation of best pedestrian-lighting practices. The design of the
sidewalk is crucial for maximizing lighting effects and is shown in Figure 1 below. In a 2013
study, members of the city of San Francisco’s Planning Department and Municipal
Transportation Agency, which are new urbanism design advocates, explained the mechanics of
the sidewalk in five portions. 13 The first portion is described as the frontage zone of the
sidewalk, which is the area that is adjacent to a building’s property line specifically where the
public sidewalk and the space within the buildings, or properties, meet.
Second, the throughway zone is the designated space on the sidewalk for pedestrians to travel.
Third, the furnishing zone is the space designated for the use of trees, landscaping, transit stops,
street lights, and site furnishings. The edge zone is the fourth part of the sidewalk, which is
generally used by pedestrians to enter and exit vehicles. The final portion of the sidewalk is the
extension zone, which is usually used for multi-modal vehicle travel or parking.
The extension, edge, or the furnishing zone can be the location for pedestrian lighting. The 2013
report noted that the width of the sidewalk is usually determined by the state’s or municipality’s
code. Medians also can serve as a location for pedestrian-lighting options. 14
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Figure 1: Sidewalk Zones
Source: www.sfbetterstreets.org/design-guidelines/sidewalk-zones/, December 2013
2.1.2. Light-Pole Spacing
Next, each state has specific regulations for spacing between lighting poles. According to the
U.S. Department of Transportation’s Federal Highway Administration (FHA), a lack of
continuous lighting has a negative effect on pedestrians and pedestrian facilities. The lighting
also acts as a street-calming feature. As one would expect, pedestrian-vehicle accidents are more
likely to occur in areas with poor lighting. The FHA recommends that pedestrian lighting be
properly spaced to minimize or eliminate dark areas along the roads and sidewalks. The
administration recommends that double-sided lighting be provided along wide arterial streets to
illuminate both road and sidewalks for the security and safety of the pedestrian. 15 Additionally,
updating poles from wood to metal is recommended for pedestrian lighting sustainability and
visual continuity. 16
2.1.3. Consistent Patterns
The FHA recommends that street lighting remain consistent and free of dark spots. 17 On the
other hand, focusing on uniformity can stop the creation of contrast, which results in reduced
visibility and increased glare. 18 The American Medical Association (AMA) advocates against the
over-lighting of pedestrian walkways, as well. 19
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2.1.4. Crosswalks
Thorn Lighting, a large, global supplier of outdoor and indoor luminaires and integrated controls
conducted a pedestrian lighting study in the United Kingdom. In the U.K., 25 percent of all
pedestrian fatalities occur at crosswalks. One of the recommendations from the Thorn Lighting
study was that white light bulbs with high color-rending properties should be used at crosswalks
to create a safe ambience for pedestrians. Additionally, this lighting must also alert drivers to the
presence of crosswalks and make pedestrians as visible as possible on or at the crossing area.
The Thorn study also provided the following recommendations: for a one-way street with one
lane, a 150W lighting fixture was suggested, and for a two-way street with two lanes, the best
choice would either be a 100W or 150W fixture. For a two-way street with three lanes, the best
choice is either a 150W or 250W fixture, and for a one-way street with three lanes, a 400W
lighting fixture is the best choice. For a two-way street with four lanes, the best choice is also a
400W lighting fixture. 20
Another way to attract pedestrians to a particular area is through utilizing building façades. Tapio
Rosenius, who was a member of the team that designed Broadgate shown in Figure 2 and is a
mixed use complex with a large public space in London, described the design saying, “We
wanted to create a softer, friendlier, more welcoming environment. Everybody knows that
picking up vertical surfaces will give you a sense of an illuminated place. If the walls are lit, the
source will feel lit.” 21
Figure 2: Broadgate Public Space Enhancement
Source: www.m3c.co.uk/projects/item/414-broadgate-public-space-enhancement, December 2013
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Vertical light allows pedestrians to better perceive space. An example of vertical lighting can be
seen in Figure 3.
Figure 3: Louis Vuitton Building Vertical Light
Source: www.flickr.com/photos/22703728@N05/3619712609/, December 2013
According to Christa van Santen, author of Light Zone City: Light Planning in the Urban
Context (2006), dark-colored walls do not always create a pleasant atmosphere. 22 Yet, when all
of the exterior walls of a building are lit up, it creates an “unreal feeling of space.” 23 Lightcolored walls reflect a lot of light, and glass façades reflect the light source, which makes it
difficult to illuminate the area. Lighting façades are complicated because each lamp has a
particular color. This requires engineers to have knowledge of the color spectrum of each lamp. 24
Using walls as a light source can be viewed in Figure 4.
Figure 4: The New York Times Building at Night Reflectance
Source: pacificoatings.com/v1/gallery/LouisVuitton.html, December 2013
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Van Santen also writes, “…when illuminating buildings, you have to consider the reflectance of
the various materials, the color and the texture (matt[e] or shiny). More light is not always the
solution. The color spectrum and the amount of light are determining factors in the choice of a
light source.” 25 Exterior lighting on building façades not only gives pedestrians a better walking
experience, but it also enhances architectural features of the buildings. 26
Figure 5: Building-Mounted Lighting
Source: Amarillo Downtown Urban Design Standards, August 2010
An interesting example of exterior lighting standards is also found in the Amarillo Downtown
Urban Design Standards. 27 An example of exterior lighting can be viewed in Figure 5 below.
Building-mounted lighting as part of building facades is encouraged. 28 Building lighting is to be
complementary to the architecture of the building. 29 Lighting design must avoid light pollution
that causes disturbances to adjacent properties, such as excessive glare. The design standards
also make specific note of encouraging white-light installation in street trees. 30 Finally, lighting
throughout parking structures is required to be pointed inward to eliminate possible light
pollution.31
2.1.5. Lighting Master Plan
Developing a lighting master plan for towns or cities is recommended to bring out the most
potential in pedestrian lighting. 32 Lighting master plans provide indirect and direct advantages by
bringing a new or refreshed identity to a community. 33 The first step in creating a lighting master
plan is research. 34 This research should focus on developing an understanding of the character of
the community, its history, important landmarks, community character, and any special
community events.
Engineers and city planners should also take into account the topography, traffic analyses, and
viewing points and distances. Photometrics are an important component in this step. 35
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Photometrics is based on the measurement of light and the human eye’s perception of its
brightness. An assessment of the existing lighting should be conducted, which will categorize
architectural lighting, luminaires, and other light sources. During the lighting assessment, it is
important to take into account what entities own, operate, and maintain the lighting. Next,
determine who supplies the energy for the lighting and at what cost. 36 In Delaware, the entity can
be the municipality but in the majority of the towns it is Delmarva Power. Creating sustainable
communities is now more important than ever, so functional lighting and an inventory of light
nuisances (i.e., sky glow or glare) should also be conducted.
The next step in creating a lighting master plan is creating a lighting strategy. This strategy
should include light pollution, energy use, and other environmental factors. The final step is
implementation, which includes planning and capital costs for installation of lighting, operating
costs, and budget and maintenance systems. 37
Educating the public about the importance of pedestrian lighting and creating an open dialogue
about lighting issues are important for communities. When the City of Columbus, Ohio, decided
to create a lighting master plan, it strongly supported the creation of a citizens-based committee
to help develop the lighting master plan. The City outlined 14 goals in its lighting master plan;
many of these goals could serve as a guideline for other communities. Some of their lighting
master plan goals are:
• All street light installation must meet standards for safety and security.
•
All planning for street lighting projects will strive for consistency and quality.
•
It will be the Division of Electricity’s first implementation priority to make street lighting
available to areas of the city that are not currently serviced or are only partially lighted.
•
It is the city’s policy to encourage and enable property owners to conduct an assessment
and petition process for obtaining street lighting.
•
All new decorative installations are to be paid for with funds other than what is available
through the city’s Division of Electricity. When funds are available, the city will
contribute up to 20% of the cost of decorative fixtures in unlighted areas. Within new
subdivisions, developers will pay the entire cost.
•
Decorative street lighting project requests will be evaluated against the larger urban
design/aesthetic context of the neighborhood, major street, or development in which it is
proposed.
•
All street and alley light installations will be limited to the city’s inventory as approved in
the Master Plan.
•
For purposes of consistency and continuity, assessment projects within large unit
neighborhoods must have the minimum participation of 100 households. 38
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Another good example for cities to consider in developing a lighting master plan comes from the
City of San Jose, California. San Jose highlighted six core design principles in its lighting master
plan. 39 First, create downtown identity by using lighting to identify the downtown area
“boundaries” at night. City officials thought it was important that the Greater Downtown’s
lighting should be different from non-downtown areas. San Jose’s master plan calls for highpressure sodium lamps to replace low-pressure sodium lamps. Metal halide (MH) lamps will be
used in pedestrian lighting fixtures in commercial areas to bring a better color rendering and
white light” to high-traffic pedestrian areas. This is done to allow people to better identify
surroundings and other people as well as to provide a more comfortable pedestrian environment.
Consistent lighting design is another focus. San Jose officials chose a semi-cut-off cobrahead
light fixture to be placed at intersections and a cut-off cobrahead street light fixture to be placed
along the length of the street. 40
The second principle is to encourage pedestrian use of downtown. 41 Pedestrian lighting in the
downtown area must incorporate the following attributes: (1) have light levels that are safe and
increase visibility, (2) be relatively uniform so there are no perceived inappropriate dark areas,
(3) make destinations appealing by highlighting streetscape elements and gathering places, (4)
minimize discomfort glare, and (5) use pedestrian lighting fixture types that are appropriate to
each area on its Downtown Urban Structure and Pedestrian Network Streets (that experience
high-pedestrian volume). The remaining three principles from the City of San Jose are to present
a cohesive downtown lighting approach, identify special areas, and build upon existing
infrastructure. 42
Chapel Hill, North Carolina, provides another good example of a city’s efforts to develop a
lighting master plan. The Chapel Hill Planning Department created a pedestrian lighting plan for
its downtown area and utilized foot-candle measurements and photometrics in their analyses. A
foot-candle is defined by the Lighting Research Center as, “a measure of illuminance in lumens
per square foot.” 43 The Chapel Hill Planning Department describes foot-candles as, “…a
measure of light casts onto a surface. It can be defined as the illuminance on a one-square-foot
surface of which there is a uniformly distributed flux of one lumen.” 44 Key recommendations
included: (1) a 1.0 horizontal foot-candle on the walking surface, (2) a 0.5 vertical foot-candle at
5.9 feet above the walking surface, and (3) an average to minimum design uniformity. 45
To develop these lighting standards, the town’s lighting engineer implemented a series of steps
using photometrics. As mentioned previously, the concept of photometrics is based on the
measurement of light and the human eye’s perception of brightness. First, computerized lighting
calculations were completed based on current placement and selection of light fixtures. This
action determined if the lighting output for the fixtures met the manufacturer’s specifications.
Second, recorded light readings were conducted at night to assess the actual light output in
Chapel Hill’s Downtown District. Third, mapped visual observations at night were compared
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with the computerized lighting calculations. This mapped visual can be seen in Figure 6. The
lighting engineer also included observation notes on obstructions and inconsistency in light
output and quality. 46
Figure 6 below shows the photometric map developed by Chapel Hill’s lighting engineer to
illustrate light output from existing and proposed light fixtures. According to Chapel Hill’s
master plan, the outermost ring, or iso-curve, symbolizes the periphery of the lighting fixture’s
measureable output. This plan uses 100W metal halide (MH) lamps. The proposed pedestrian
lights (orange) were added in areas where lighting conditions were deemed inadequate. This
design allowed for new pedestrian lighting fixtures and pedestrian lights to be added to already
existing poles.
Figure 6: Photometric Map of the Town of Chapel Hill, NC
Figure Key
Existing Street Light (30′ height)
Existing Pedestrian Light (16′ height)
Proposed Pedestrian Light (16′ height)
Source: townhall.townofchapelhill.org/agendas/2009/06/15/1/master_plan/pages_from_mykd_chapelhill_masterplan_section6.pdf,
p. 71. November 14, 2013
2.1.6. Health Component
The human eye has three ways to adjust for changing illumination. Dilation is the first way. 47
During daytime hours, the human eye’s pupil is not dilated. However, the pupil is dilated at
night. 48 In other words, the pupil widens at night to allow a larger amount of light to pass
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through. Second, a healthy eye has the ability to switch from cone cells during times of abundant
lighting (also referred to as photopic conditions) to rods during times of dim lighting (scotopic
conditions). 49 The final way that the human eye adjusts is through rod cells. These rods have the
ability to change their sensitivity levels. 50 As the eye goes through this process of adaptation, the
eye’s perception of color decreases because cones can detect more light than rods. 51
2.2. Lighting Types
There are lighting options (i.e., height, direction, and luminosity) that can be customized for any
community. 52 Examples of pedestrian-lighting options can be viewed in Figure 7.
Figure 7: Lighting Fixtures
Source: www.nyc.gov/html/dcp/html/dwn_bklyn_ped/dwn_bklyn_ped_rec3.shtml, December 2013
A central hub can be installed to control the intensity of street lights for a variety of reasons.
Pedestrian lighting can be adjusted to save energy, indicate the boundaries of residential (less
bright) versus commercial (brighter) districts, contribute to the aesthetics of a local community
event, and indicate times of emergencies or evacuation situations.53
Carnegie Mellon assessed the lighting in the City of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, and found that
there were five popular street lighting structures: cobraheads, shoeboxes, acorns, pendants, and
globes. 54 Photos of these structures can be viewed in Figure 8.
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Figure 8: Lighting Standards in the United States
Cobrahead
Shoebox
Acorn
Pendant
Globe
Source: www.cmu.edu/rci/images/projects/led-updated-web-report.pdf, December 2013
Cobrahead lights are commonly found on neighborhood streets and commercial roads. They are
typically affixed at a height of 25 feet to wooden poles via 4- to 8-foot arms. In the City of
Pittsburgh, these lights make up 93 percent (37,000) of all fixtures. Full cut-off down-lighting
shoebox fixtures are usually installed on freestanding steel poles or are attached to traffic lights
at a height of approximately 25–30 feet. Acorn fixtures are post-top fixtures mounted on steel
poles at a height of 15, 12, or 10 feet. They are often used as pedestrian-scale lighting in business
districts and resemble nineteenth century gas lanterns. Pendants luminaires, also known as
teardrops, are usually mounted on steel poles at 25–30 feet from the base. Finally, globe lighting
fixtures are post-top fixtures that are usually mounted at a height of 15, 12, or 10 feet. Some
fixtures can have up to eight globes on one pole. Globes can usually be found in business
districts.
The town of Chapel Hill, North Carolina, also highlighted three of its most popular lighting
structures in its Downtown district. 55 These examples can be viewed in Figure 9. The 175W
mercury vapor pedestrian light casts a yellowish-green or bluish glow, and though they are less
energy efficient than metal halide (MH) lamps, they do not need to be replaced as often. Next,
the 175W mercury vapor decorative light is a Lumec Domus fixture that is not energy efficiency,
compared to a 100W or 175W metal halide lamp. Finally, the 400W high-pressure sodium street
light casts a yellowish-orange light and has a cobrahead fixture on a wooden pole, which the
town would like to replace for continuity and sustainability. 56
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Figure 9: Existing Lights in Downtown Chapel Hill, N.C.
175W Mercury Vapor Pedestrian Light
175W Mercury Vapor Decorative Light
400W High-Pressure Sodium Street Light
Source: townhall.townofchapelhill.org/agendas/2009/06/15/1/master_plan/pages_from_mykd_chapelhill_masterplan_section6.pdf,
November 2013
In general, there are seven different types of lamps that are popular market-wide. Each varies in
cost, burning span, energy efficiency, and quality of color. 57 First, incandescent bulbs have very
poor energy efficiency and they have a short burn time. Second, mercury vapor (MV) lamps are
energy inefficient, but last longer. Next, high-pressure sodium (HPS) lamps are energy efficient,
but have no color rendering and emit an orange glow. The fourth street lamp type is low-pressure
sodium (LPS), which is very energy efficient, but only offers limited color rendering. Fifth, metal
halide (MH) bulbs are energy efficient and offer good color rending, especially pulse start or
ceramic metal types. The sixth type is fluorescent bulbs, which are energy efficient and provide
good color quality, but offer limited optical control. 58 The seventh type is light emitting diode
(LED) 59 lights. LEDs are very energy efficient, and their quality seems to only be on the rise.
LEDs illumination output can be better controlled in comparison to other lamps and can even be
dimmed at times of low pedestrian traffic.
2.3. Shielding and Aesthetics
Many communities desire lighting that enhances the historic character of long-standing
downtown settings. In coordination with local governments and consumers, utility companies are
continuing to develop and offer new aesthetically pleasing lighting options. The appearance of
pedestrian lighting varies widely and often has a substantial impact on how the lighting is
received by a community. There are many fixture options to choose from, differentiated
primarily by technology, design, post style, and shielding type. Therefore, a community should
decide both the aesthetic look and the purpose of the lighting before choosing a fixture style.
There are more variables than one might expect when deciding what type of fixture style to use
for a project. Among the first steps is determining what type of lamp is desired. Lamp
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technology provides various types of light, as has been discussed previously in the technology
section. For a lighted area, the type of lighting makes a significant aesthetic difference. Whiter
light is often used to create a brighter look and can be seen in many business districts. The
yellow or orange light from older technologies provides a more relaxed atmosphere. The lighting
style chosen will directly influence the feel of the lighting and help to narrow the available
fixture options.
A second consideration when determining lighting styles is the extent to which a community
prefers decorative lighting. Some subdivision residents prefer very basic lighting that blends in
with the surroundings. Not surprisingly, basic fixtures are generally cheaper as well. Residents of
other neighborhoods may choose highly ornamental lighting that adds more than just light to the
community, providing a decorative value as well. The more elaborate the fixture, the higher the
price. While residents may disagree on details, getting an idea for the level of ornamentation that
may be desired is important and further narrows the available options.
A final aesthetic consideration is the type of pole on which to mount the fixture. Variations
include everything from brick, which is extremely expensive, to basic integrated poles where the
lighting is mounted on existing poles (Figures 10–14). A wide variety of finishes, colors, shapes,
and other decorative features are available. While a pole may not make a huge aesthetic
difference for many citizens, it is worth noting the wide variety of poles on the market.
Figure 10: Integrated Simple Pole with Acorn-Style Lighting Fixture
Source: U.S. Department of Transportation, Federal Highway Administration
With these basic guidelines in mind, the following fixtures are representative of those found on
the market. Most are similar or identical to options currently available to communities in New
Castle County and many other communities in Delaware.
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The Arlington Design fixture shown in Figure 11 is common throughout the country and is one
of several current options for communities installing lighting in New Castle County. Note that it
is similar to the Acorn Fixture that follows in Figure 12, but is better shielded.
Figure 11: Arlington Design
Source: New Castle County Government
The Acorn Fixture in Figure 12 is a more traditional-style fixture that some people associate with
pedestrian lighting and is also currently available in New Castle County. It is not shielded and
does cause light pollution.
Figure 12: Acorn Fixture
Source: New Castle County Government
Perhaps less aesthetically pleasing are basic pedestrian lights like the Lantern Design fixture
below in Figure 13. However, the fixture features a very well-shielded design, directing light
outwards and downward and is less expensive than many other options.
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Figure 13: Lantern Design
Source: New Castle County Government
Lastly, the fixture below in Figure 14 is an example of a more ornamental design. It is very
similar to the Acorn Design fixture, but more aesthetic detail has been added in the form of ribs
going up the sides. This adds cost to the fixture, but also adds to the charm that a community
may wish to project.
Figure 14: Ornamental Design
Source: New Castle County Government
Shielding should be considered when discussing aesthetics. A shielding device or shroud attaches
to the front of the fixture to block lamp brightness. 60 Although shielding doesn’t necessarily
impact aesthetics, it directly affects the type of fixture that is appropriate. Not all fixture types
are available with each level of shielding; in this way, a decision on shielding should be made
before considering fixture aesthetics. This will help to narrow the options. It should be noted that
once installed, shielded lights are aesthetically different in that they direct light downwards
instead of spilling light in all directions. For those concerned with light pollution, or who end up
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with a light outside their bedroom window, the level of shielding may be the only aesthetic detail
about which they care.
2.4. Green Technology
Pepco Holdings, Inc. (PHI) conducted an LED street light pilot program in 2010 and published
the results in a 2012 report. The goal of the report was to find and test affordable smart street
lighting technology which could be integrated into PHI’s existing Automated Metering
Infrastructure (AMI) mesh radio system and provide street lighting benefits such as energy
savings and efficient outage replacement.” 61 PHI owns a number of businesses, including
Maryland and Washington, D.C.’s Pepco, Delaware and the Delmarva Peninsula’s Delmarva
Power, and southern New Jersey’s Atlantic City Electric. Installation costs for new luminaires
averaged $237.12, which includes labor overhead and engineering costs. 62 The American
National Standard Practice for Roadway Lighting guided the testing procedures. 63 An example
of the difference LED lighting can make in a community can be found below in Figure 15.
Figure 15: LED Street & Area Lighting
Source: David Alexander, Pacific Gas & Electric Company, LED Street & Area Lighting
The PHI program partnered with 11 municipalities across its three territories and two of the sites
were located in Wilmington and Georgetown, Delaware. The test in Wilmington was on North
Broom Street, and it was well received. 64 The test in Georgetown was on North Bedford Street
and had poor testing conditions due to the long spacing and relatively low mounting height of the
poles and luminaires. However, it too was generally well received by the public. 65
PHI tested a remote street-lighting system that would identify lighting assets and early detection
of malfunctions. The project used the Remote Operations Asset Management (ROAM) system,
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which is a remote monitoring and control system that provides accurate system information,
reduces street light operation and management costs and energy consumption, enhances system
sustainability, and reduces customer call traffic related to lighting issues. The system uses GPS to
create a system map. Intelligent photo controls (nodes) monitor luminaire operations and
transmit data through 2.4 GHz mesh network to a collector (gateway). 66 Remote street light
monitoring and control systems take the burden of outage identification off of consumers and
onto the lighting authority. These systems also lead to more accurate consumer billing. 67
The ROAM web-based customer portal provided system-wide visibility and information on
fixture performance and attributes. It also has on/off operation for individual or groups of
lights. 68 The U.S. Department of Energy recommends a loss light factor (LLF) equal to a
minimum depreciation factor of 0.63. This measurement comes from the assumption that at the
end of the useful life of the luminaire, the light output of the LEDs is at least 70 percent from the
time that it was new. This also assumes that as the luminaire optics become dirty, the light output
is still 90 percent of that when it was clean.
New lighting technologies are considered to be efficient largely due to their monitoring systems.
Authors Fabio Leccese and Zbigniew Leonowicz discuss monitoring systems at length in their
article “Intelligent Wireless Street Lighting System, which examines the features detection and
sensor systems. They define “presence detector,” explaining that “the presence sensor has the
task of identifying the passage of a vehicle or pedestrian causing the switching on of lamps.” 69
Additionally, their article discusses the system’s functionality and reveals that “this feature
permits activation of the lamps solely when necessary, avoiding waste of energy.” 70
Monitoring systems are considered to be efficient since no energy is used or wasted for lighting
unless it is demanded by the detection of a car or person. Also, the authors stress the importance
of aiming the sensor properly and instruct that “The sensor ought to be placed at the optimal
height, neither too low (e.g., to avoid any erroneous detection of small animals) nor too high
(e.g., to avoid failure to detect children).” 71 This way the consumer (vehicle or pedestrian) will
always receive light when needed.
Pilar Elejoste and co-writers of the article “An Easy to Deploy Street Light Control System
Based on Wireless Communication and LED Technology” provide even more detail on detection
technologies, including when they should be operating and how closely pedestrians and cars
should be monitored. Looking first at specific detection technologies, the authors suggest that
Passive Infrared Sensors (PIRs) work best when monitoring vehicles and pedestrians. The
sensors work by detecting a precise amount of infrared light or energy radiating from items
within its view. During the day when there is sunlight, the sensors will most likely be in a sleep
mode, occasionally monitoring vehicle and pedestrian traffic. As evening approaches, light
sensors will detect the darkening of a surrounding area, and the street light will get progressively
brighter as the area gets darker.
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The authors detail what happens when a sensor detects a pedestrian. “When one node detects a
pedestrian on the sidewalk (by the PIR sensor), its lighting level increases and it informs the
remote concentrator of pedestrian flow. If in a short period of time after the initial detection an
additional detection occurs in a second node, the luminary also will start to increase its lighting
level.” 72 This means that when the sensors detect more than one item (pedestrian or vehicle),
only the lights immediately around the detection will turn on. “After two positive detections, the
concentrator will order the rest of the nodes of the current facility to raise their output, even if
they have not yet detected the pedestrian flow.” 73 What the authors mean is that after two
detections, the rest of the nodes will power on (though not completely) even though they have
not yet detected the presence of a pedestrian or vehicle. The system does this because if two
nodes are triggered within a close time period with one another, others surrounding them will
usually follow.
Elejoste and other authors also stress the importance of the location of these sensors to ensure
efficiency. They suggest that the orientation of the sensor is the key component when considering
the success and efficiency of the system. The authors present a scenario in which a pedestrian
wants to cross from one sidewalk to another at a given point between systems, which could lead
the system to fail. Their solution is to place the “first and last PIR sensors perpendicular to the
sidewalk direction to detect pedestrians as far as possible (10–12 meters) and point the others
below the luminary and slightly tilted toward the road, trying to detect both sides of the luminary
and people at shorter distances (6–8 meters).” 74 This allows the lights to operate efficiently and
accommodate pedestrians who may arbitrarily cross from one side to the other.
The authors discuss the benefits this system can have beyond lighting purposes. For vehicle
detection they explain “the intelligent system could also use, if necessary, data collected from
electromagnetic loop detectors situated along roads, which detect vehicles when they pass over
them and collect the data required for traffic control: counts, queues, saturation, occupancy rates
and intervals between vehicles.” 75 This information and data can be extremely valuable when
considering how to move traffic efficiently throughout a city or given region.
Regarding light sensor technology, Leccese and Leonowicz discuss the system’s purpose and
function by explaining “Light sensors will measure the external light intensity to assure a
minimum level of illumination of the road, as needed by regulations. The sensor should have
high sensitivity within the visible spectrum, providing a photocurrent high enough for low-light
luminance levels.” 76 They argue when and how much light should be emitted, stating “This
action isn’t needed throughout daylight time, however is desired within the early morning and at
dusk, when it is not necessary to operate the lamp at full power however merely to ‘support’ the
daylight.” 77 The purpose of this practice is to save as much energy as possible. The sensor has
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the ability to detect the level of light in its given environment and adjust its level of light output
accordingly.
Other benefits a sensor can bring that are related to light pollution and glare are also mentioned
in the work by Elejoste and others. They state, “This increase of the emitting level is performed
gradually, in order to facilitate eye adaptation to changing light conditions with the aim of
avoiding unintended consequences such as glare that can affect both drivers and pedestrians, and
that can occur if the transitions between different levels are performed too quickly or in
inadequate stages.” 78 The sensor allows for the perfect amount of light to be emitted while at the
same time reducing and saving energy.
2.5. Inventorying and Mapping
Municipalities have begun to implement street light inventory assessments to understand how
they can improve lighting systems for increased pedestrian comfort and safety. The city of
Tampa created the program “Bright Lights, Safe Nights” in 2012 with the goal of reducing crime
and nighttime pedestrian accidents in the city. “Bright Lights, Safe Nights” is a partnership with
the Tampa Electric Company. Tampa Electric conducts yearly nighttime street light inventories
targeting high crime areas, roadways with a high rate of accidents, and places with potential for
economic growth. Workers look for areas with low illumination, replace dimming light bulbs,
and trim tree branches that obstruct the light fixtures. The city of Tampa is using these
inventories as a guide to help expand their current lighting network by 30 percent over five
years, which amounts to more than eight thousand street lights. 79
Towns, cities, and even states are also using street light inventories to identify inefficient and
costly lighting use. The Southwestern Pennsylvania Commission (SPC) found that many local
municipalities struggle with the exorbitant cost of street lights: about two-thirds of a
southwestern Pennsylvania municipality’s energy expenditure comes from lighting streets. 80 To
start reducing municipality energy costs, SPC suggested that towns and cities need to undertake a
lighting inventory. Street light inventories are useful for understanding the scope of the problem.
Mapping the municipality’s street light inventory allows them to visualize low-use areas that
have unnecessary street lights or switching to more energy-efficient lighting.
Creating a street light inventory can be cumbersome and lengthy. For example, several years ago
Holy Cross Energy of Western Colorado directed meter supervisors to create lighting inventories
for each town they service. Meter supervisors started the street light project finding street lights
through software that provided them with GPS location from a customized map. 81 The
supervisors then found the actual location in the field and marked it on paper maps. Later, points
were taken from the paper maps and painstakingly placed on a digital map. As one might
imagine, this method can be inefficient, inaccurate, and especially frustrating.
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Technology developments, however, are continuously helping the inventorying process to
become more efficient and accurate. Managing Energy Costs in Street Lighting suggested
municipalities employ the use of GPS receivers and digital cameras for street light inventories. 82
The city of Akron, Ohio, used the GPS receiver and digital camera combination to spatially
locate their street lights. The camera that city workers used allowed five attributes to be entered
and embedded in the photos as the pictures were taken. The team conducting the street light
inventory then found a particular street light, placed the GPS receiver at the pole’s base, entered
any desired attributes into the camera, and took a picture of the complete pole. 83
Developers of inventory-specific software are becoming more sensitive to the needs for
convenience in inventorying municipality attributes. New smartphone applications are also being
developed with the ability to create inventories. In 2012, the University of Delaware’s Institute
for Public Administration completed a street light inventory for the town of Elsmere. IPA staff
incorporated new technology into their inventory methodology, using a low-cost cell phone
application to pinpoint and photograph street light locations.
In this case, the application used was called FieldAssets. Smartphone applications, such as
FieldAssets, not only allow quick location and pinpointing of an object, they also allow users to
take notes and record voice memos and photos to associate with a specific point. 84 One of the
most important features of the FieldAssets application is that it allows the user to take all located
points and e-mail them as one file. The file can be loaded into a mapping software program. 85
SPC’s Managing Energy Costs in Street Lighting promoted the use of InQuest Technologies’
Street Light Inventory application. The application allows inventories to be completed quickly
and easily. Street Light Inventory connects a phone application to a computer. The user uses the
phone application to locate and take a picture of the street lights in the field. This application also
records features such as height, width, and light wattage. All information from the phone
application automatically uploads to a computer application that uses Google Maps to update the
status of each street light.
2.6. Energy Efficiency
This section provides a discussion of new innovations in energy efficiency related to pedestrian
lighting. David S. Liebl, a researcher with the Solid & Hazardous Waste Education Center at the
University of Wisconsin, estimates that poorly designed lighting fixtures can waste 30–40
percent of the electricity by over-lighting areas. 86 Liebl estimates that billions of dollars per year
in possible energy savings are wasted as a result. 87 Having discussed specific types of lamp
technology and how advances in this area relate to energy efficiency, there are a variety of other
innovations aimed at this goal. Beyond the individual lights themselves, other technology exists
to increase energy efficiency. One consideration already being used in some areas is a dimmer
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system. The use of technological advancements like this should continue to result in better
energy efficiency going forward.
As governments search for ways to decrease electricity expenditures, technological advances
such as dimming switches for streetlight networks are being implemented throughout the world.
In Victoria, British Columbia, Canada, a local company called Streetlight Intelligence developed
a dimming system it claims “can slash the power bills of provincial cities by 40%” and “save
municipalities $6.5 million a year in electricity costs.” 88 Those are numbers that grab the
attention of government managers and finance officers everywhere. After a test project
confirmed the potential to save 40 percent in energy, British Columbia decided to use incentives
to get cities in the region on board with such an energy-saving idea. 89
The result was a grant program designed to cover the costs of studies to determine what the
benefit would be in area cities, allowing them to essentially research the benefits and concerns
for free. 90 Ironically, this not only led to significant interest in street light intelligence and
dimming in general, but also pulled competitors into the market. Several Canadian cities had
either installed or voted to install dimming systems from Streetlight Intelligence with other firms
likely to pursue the growing business.
Exactly how does a dimming system cut energy use by 40 percent? The largest key is something
often said by lighting experts and reiterated, prior to its bankruptcy, by Streetlight Intelligence:
“Field tests in conjunction with B.C. Hydro show that dimming lights by up to 50% is
‘imperceptible to the human eye.’” 91 A video showing the technology’s use in a town in the
United Kingdom was shown to a working group. In the video a field reporter claimed, “It’s very
difficult to spot the difference with the naked eye.” 92 In this way, 30–40 percent lower levels of
light may be acceptable, especially for areas that are not often used late at night. The entire
system is controlled remotely, generally with a hand-held device and a central monitoring system
or something similar. 93 This allows individuals in the field or office to monitor the system by
adjusting lighting levels as necessary, providing further flexibility and even more potential for
energy savings.
This is a relatively new technology that has been implemented in only a few areas. However, the
potential energy savings are substantial and it is likely that more communities will utilize it. The
initial cost to add dimming technology may be high, but cutting a large chunk of electricity costs
out of the budget may make it worth the investment. Although business models and costs
certainly vary, it may be beneficial for some areas to wait until a replacement of street lighting is
needed. Nonetheless, this is a promising option for governments and communities eager to save
both money and the environment.
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3. Utility Lighting Options and Operational Costs
This chapter explores the differences between utility lighting options and the costs related to the
varied lighting types, especially the rapidly developing LED lighting technologies. Reviewing
the analysis, it quickly becomes apparent that the costs of replacing the older technologies are
often high and could potentially deter stakeholders from upgrading. Moreover, maintenance and
upkeep of these newer technologies are also concerns for stakeholders, above and beyond the
formidable up-front costs. This chapter explores the lighting options, identifies associated costs,
and offers an explanation of the benefits and limitations of each lighting type. Strategies to
mitigate some of the most common (cost) concerns expressed by stakeholders are also discussed.
3.1. LED Lamps
Decision-makers in municipalities can sometimes fail to understand how well new lighting
technology can improve their existing lighting systems and reduce their daily operating costs,
particularly when confronted with the significant up-front costs. In a work by Gabe Arnold, Dan
Mellinger, Paul Markowitz, Mike Burke, and Dave Lahar titled, “A Win-Win-Win for Municipal
Street Lighting: Converting Two-Thirds of Vermont’s Street Lights to LED by 2014,” the authors
explain how it is possible for municipalities to save money while improving their lighting
systems by switching to LEDs. Additionally, they describe how they plan to implement this
technology in the State of Vermont. The authors state that their goals for this planned transition is
to “provide municipalities with better nighttime street lighting and significant cost savings—at
no additional capital expense to the municipalities, deliver 8,000 MWh of cost-effective new
savings due to energy efficiency, and deliver financially attractive returns for Vermont’s
utilities.” 94 In the authors’ estimation, the transition is a triple “Win-Win-Win” for several
reasons.
The new lighting technologies provide effective, bright illumination. Though some will argue
that other lighting systems are more efficient in terms of their source, many lighting systems lack
the optical efficiency of the luminaire. When efficiency of a street lighting system is measured
(source and luminaire optical efficiency), LED technology systems have a large advantage over
other existing technologies.
Properly financed, and as part of a comprehensive capital improvement plan, LEDs can reduce
costs below the current baseline over time. The authors present data on how LED technology can
create savings if older technologies are converted, stating, “Approximately 44.9 million street
lights are installed nationwide, using 52 terawatt (TWh)/year of electricity and representing 7%
of all lighting energy use. If all of these street lights were converted to LED technology, the
estimated energy savings would be 17.2 TWh/year.” 95 Furthermore, they conclude that such a
transition is quite possible, stating, “What makes LED street lighting so enticing is that the vast
majority of street lighting systems are owned and controlled by a relatively small number of
entities, the electric utilities.” 96
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The fact that asset ownership is limited to a small number of entities acts as a positive factor to
potential change to higher efficiency: but how these improvements are generally financed in the
typical utility/municipality relationship may be counted as a potential limiting factor. While the
utility companies own the street lighting, the costs of purchasing, installing, and maintaining the
systems is provided by a municipality’s residents through utility rate tariffs. The authors describe
the dynamic that results in utility companies that are cautious when attempting to raise tariffs due
to technical and financial concerns. Of course, municipal political leaders may also be wary of
proposing changes that could lead to a rate hike, new fee, or tax increase. One strategy to
effectively garner public support would be to launch an extensive outreach campaign to
demonstrate longer-term savings to individual system users.
The authors looked at the transition to LED systems from multiple perspectives. First, they
address the concerns of the utility companies. One of their key conclusions is that many utilities
worry that LED street lighting is a new technology, still in its infancy, and still prone to
technological and market shifts. Longer-term maintenance costs are also a concern, as few LED
systems have been operating long enough to gather empirical data regarding maintenance and
upkeep over 5, 10, or 15 years, the typical period over which they would hope to recover the
higher costs of initial capital outlay due to higher efficiency. This unknown is an important
variable in that cost-benefit equation. And the authors rightly point out that studies indicate that
the lifetime of these systems can be over 20 years. The problem is that this technology has not
existed long enough to prove that claim.
The authors acknowledge that this is a legitimate risk for utility companies; they have come up
with strategies to ease their concerns. Though LED technology for street lights is new, the
authors remind us that LED lights have existed for decades. They explain that the current LED
street lighting technology uses higher power devices than previous LEDs. They argue there are
effective tests that can prove the effective lifetime of LED street lighting systems. They state,
“There is no disagreement from the experts in the industry that LED street lighting has the ability
to perform as promised. However, the challenge is to use the appropriate information and tools to
ensure that the actual product delivers this performance.” 97 For this technology to be successful,
utility companies must use some sort of quality assurance testing/standards to limit the risk of
ineffective LED street lighting technology.
The U.S. Department of Energy created and released in October 2011 its Model Specification for
LED Roadway Luminaires. 98 The authors praise the standard and state, “When used correctly,
this specification drastically reduces the risk that an LED street light product will not realize its
estimated lifetime and performance benefits. This specification is the key to mitigating many of
the risks to utilities and other entities considering LED installations.” 99
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Moving beyond technical concerns to focusing on the financial challenges utility companies face
when considering LED street lighting technology, the authors address the cost of its initial
installation phase, which will increase the tariff rate. The authors state, “Utilities have found that
the high initial cost of the LED technology offsets all energy and maintenance savings in their
rate tariff, resulting in a higher tariff rate compared to older technologies. 100 If a tariff rate was
increased due to new technology, why would anyone want to transition to this new technology?
The authors argue that the costs of LED lighting luminaires are competitively priced.
Another concern utility companies may have as a result of the transition to LED technology is a
decrease in street light revenue. The authors argue, “It is important to understand that while street
lighting revenue for the utility may decrease, a utility’s profit is just as likely to increase. Savings
in fixed expenses—electricity and especially maintenance—can more than offset the loss of
revenue.” 101
Table 1 below summarizes some of the most important aspects of each lighting type. However, it
is important to note that LED performance continues to improve almost monthly. Many
manufacturers and advocates, for example, cite 70–150 typical source efficacies for LED, with
comparable improvements in the related figures. LEDs compare favorably to the alternatives
even when using the more conservative figures above.
Table 1: Efficacy of Various Street Lighting Technologies
Street Light
Technology
High-pressure sodium
Percent
Market
Share
59%
Typical Source
Efficacy
(lumens per Watt)
70 – 150
Typical
Luminaire
Efficiency
45%
Typical
Net Efficacy
(lumens per Watt)
32 – 68
Low-pressure sodium
10%
68 – 177
25%
17 – 44
Mercury vapor
20%
34 – 58
30%
10 – 17
Metal halide
5%
61 – 85
35 – 40%
21 – 34
Compact fluorescent
2%
50 – 70
60%
30 – 42
Incandescent
4%
10 – 17
60%
6 – 10
Induction
0%
60 – 80
60 – 80 %
36 – 64
HE ceramic MH
0%
95 – 120
60 – 80%
57 – 96
LED
0%
60 – 100
60 – 90%
36 – 90
Source: Clinton Climate Initiative, 2010
High-pressure sodium remains the “brightest” per watt delivered at the source (each individual
lamp), but, as a system, is not particularly efficient. The industry standard for so long with
relatively low retail costs, it continues as the primary lighting type in use.
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Metal halide continues as a niche product, offering respectable source efficiency and luminaire
efficiency. Like sodium lights, though, these figures drop considerably when the net effects are
evaluated system wide. From a purely technological perspective, induction and ceramic bulbs
compare well. Municipalities might find their implementation hard to justify, however with their
sheer expense and relative rarity, particularly when the trend is so clearly pointing toward LED
technology.
3.2. Legacy Systems
Though research is trending towards an eventual transition to LED, there are several tried-andtrue lighting/bulb technologies that continue to compete and, in fact, still dominate the market.
For some communities or utilities, LEDs may not be an immediate option. High and low
pressure sodium (HPS), metal-halide (MH) and induction bulbs are the most common. Mercury
vapor (MV) lamps continue to represent a significant market segment, but will not be discussed
in-depth as they have been severely regulated and fallen from favor since 2008. Most electric
providers have programs to retire their mercury vapor lights.
3.2.1. High-pressure sodium
High-pressure sodium (HPS) lamps are the technology commonly used in street lights. These
lamps emit a light that is often more orange than other lamps, although some HPS lamps are
color-corrected. They use high-intensity-discharge (HID) technology to create the light. A wide
variety of wattages are available, allowing flexibility when choosing how much light is needed
for a given area. Most retailers offer versions from 35 to 1,000 watts. HPS lamps require an
electronic ballast to function. A wide variety of fixtures, or housings, are available with HPS
lamps. In addition to traditional street lights, overhead and wall-mounted housings, which can be
useful for pedestrian areas not located near a road, are also an option. They account for roughly a
third of the nation’s lighting stock. 102
The quality of light is often a concern for municipalities considering lighting upgrades,
particularly for pedestrian lighting where appropriate color is more noticeable. Color-rendering
index (CRI), a measure of “how well a light source will make colors appear,” is quantified on a
scale of 100; the 100 rating represents the high-quality light and clear color that incandescent
bulbs emit and against which other lighting technologies are measured. 103 HPS bulbs have the
lowest CRI of the technologies commonly used for street and pedestrian lighting, reaching
ratings as low as 20. 104 Areas that benefit from realistic color should consider using a lamp other
than HPS. Generally, historic areas or business districts, where nicer finishes and many
pedestrians make proper color important, shy away from HPS lamps. 105
3.2.2. Metal-halide
Metal-halide (MH) lamps are another option when deciding what lighting is the best fit for a
project. Quite similar to the HPA lamps, MH uses HID technology to produce light and is
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available in a wide variety of models and wattages. Both use similar housings and require an
electronic ballast to function. According to the University of Pittsburgh, the primary difference
between the two technologies is that it “produces a wider range of wavelengths of light because
there is more than one type of gas in the lamp.” 106 However, what is gained in the wider range of
light is paid for in bulb costs and longevity. The benefits have convinced many governments that
it is worth the extra money. Recent estimates find that over a quarter of street lights in the
country are MH lamps, second only to HPS lamps. 107 Overall, the MH technology is remarkably
similar to HPS but with a wider variety of ideal applications. They may be useful in pedestrian
settings and situations where LED is not yet affordable as an attractive upgrade to HPS, but
again, bulb cost and maintenance expenses are higher.
3.2.3. Induction
Induction lamps use a technology very similar to fluorescent lighting that generally emits whiter
light. The bulbs also last longer than fluorescent lamps. The technology depends on exciting gas
molecules to produce light, just as HPS and MH lamps do. 108 Recent estimates put the
percentage of these lamps in use at well under 10 percent of total, trailing HPS, MH, and
mercury halide (an older version of MH and HPS using only mercury) lamps. 109 The high cost
for bulbs and the emergence of LED as an option for similar light make induction lamps
relatively uncommon. Bulbs can cost nearly $300, and some fixtures can hold up to four bulbs as
needed. 110 These bulbs are much more expensive than the HPS or MH options but have one
significant advantage. The Mascaro Center data from Table 1 estimates that bulbs will last about
100,000 hours, which means that a single bulb could last 8,333 12-hour cycles. Assuming those
12-hour cycles, replacement would only be needed once every 22.8 years. Therefore, while bulbs
are substantially more expensive up front, maintenance costs are minimal. Municipalities or
organizations would not need to worry about their street- or pedestrian lighting for at least two
decades. Though durability and bulb longevity are desirable, they may prove overkill for
pedestrian areas where burnt-out lights would be readily noticed and lower pole heights make
them easier to replace.
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4. Stakeholder Interviews
Part of the pedestrian lighting project involved developing a better understanding of the
procedures, policies, and protocols of the public-lighting providers in Delaware, the entities that
provides electricity to the lighting fixtures located along streets, sidewalks, and trails. As listed in
the proposal, IPA interviewed representatives of the Delaware Electric Cooperative and
Delmarva Power. IPA also interviewed selected municipal representatives, and staff met with
representatives of the City of Newark and the Town of Smyrna.
Prior to contacting the providers, IPA developed a short list of questions to guide their
discussions. IPA staff members offered to meet with all of the representatives for these
interviews. Representatives from the City of Newark and Town of Smyrna requested in-person
meetings, while representatives from Delaware Electric Cooperative requested a conference call.
Representatives of Delmarva Power agreed to fill out the questionnaire.
4.1. Delaware Electric Cooperative
The Delaware Electric Cooperative (DEC) is a major provider of electricity to rural
Delawareans. DEC was founded in 1936 and has grown substantially with the majority of its
current members joining after the year 2000. Cooperatives differ from traditional utilities in that
it is owned by its members and if there are profits those profits are returned to its members.
On May 5, 2014 IPA held a conference call with a representative of the DEC, Tony Rutherford
who is a Planning Engineer with DEC. Mr. Rutherford explained that DEC provides electric only
to rural areas and is the provider of street and security lighting for many rural communities. DEC
offers about ten different fixture designs and their main focus is on lighting the street for cars,
with pedestrian lighting as an indirect benefit. The lighting fixtures are provided by a leasing
agreement with the community, usually 3 years, with the cost ranging from $7 to about
$27/month, depending on the fixture selected. The lighting is usually staggered at utility
standards of about 75 feet between poles and the pole heights (10 foot, 12 foot, or 18 foot) vary
depending on the location. DEC maintains an inventory of their lighting fixtures, and all
equipment is entered on a GIS application. He also offered to provide more specific information
on their GIS data if requested.
IPA asked about the type of technology being used for their lighting inventory and if DEC is
using LED. Mr. Rutherford responded that DEC was looking at all of its different types of
fixtures and comparing them to LED. But the big drawback for LED has been the upfront
expense, although the amount of electricity needed to run them is lower afterwards. As of the
time of the interview in May 2014 a decision had not been reached. However, in June 2015 it
was observed on the DEC website that there are seven types of fixtures advertised and four of the
seven are LED type lights. The types of lights and monthly lease cost can be found at
www.delaware.coop/form/member-services/security-lights.
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4.2. City of Newark
The City of Newark provides electricity to its residents and businesses, including its largest
customer the University of Delaware. The City of Newark, which provides the energy and
fixtures for most of the public lighting within its boundaries, takes part in the Delaware
Municipal Electric Corporation (DEMEC), a public corporation comprising nine major towns in
the state that was established to provide reliable, competitive energy to its members.
On May 22, 2014, IPA staff members met with and interviewed two representatives of the city,
Director of Parks Charlie Emerson and Director of Electric Rick Vitelli. The City of Newark
installs and maintains both street lighting and pedestrian lighting. The City of Newark is required
by code to provide lighting on all city streets and provides pedestrian-oriented lighting on mainly
the trail system within the city. Mr. Vitelli noted that there are approximately 2,600 light fixtures
in the city, and currently there is only one truck and crew to maintain those lights. An inventory
of the lights are kept in a GIS database, and the most common type of light for the city’s streets
is the high-pressure sodium (HPS) cobra-head fixture. HPS lights typically last about 25,000
hours. All of the roadway lighting fixtures are HPS, and it is the only type of light provided by
the city within the city limits. The lights cost about $145 for the fixture and $120 for the pole.
Typically, they are placed 100–123 feet apart.
The City of Newark is undecided on the widespread use of LED lighting. Mr. Vitelli discussed
the proliferation of companies selling LED bulbs and fixtures and as well as the lack of evidence
on the actual performance of these lights over a longer time frame. He is concerned that the
products may not last as long as promised by the companies marketing and selling the lights,
particularly those offering less-costly products. And, since the number of products and
technology are changing so rapidly, it may be better for to wait until a better performance record
is developed for the various brands of LED lights.
Maintenance is a very big concern for the City of Newark. It has only one truck and crew for
maintaining its street light inventory. HPS bulbs have a predictable life span that, admittedly, is
less than the life-span promises for LED lights. If LEDs last longer, it would be advantageous to
install them, particularly along the most-traveled roads in Newark. Maintenance of street lights
along the busiest streets is particularly disruptive since traffic lanes have to be closed for
replacement.
Mr. Vitelli mentioned that there are a number of LED lighting fixtures on Main Street. They were
installed as part of a state-funded road project and said that Main Street is a good example of an
appropriate locations for LEDs, assuming that it delivers on its promise of longer life. It is
difficult to replace lights on Main Street due to the heavy traffic but if LEDs last as long as
promised it would save a lot of maintenance lane closures. He also reported that the LED lights
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on Main Street have been working well to date. It was also mentioned that the City of Newark is
retiring its mercury vapor lights.
Although most of the lighting provided in the city is to light its streets, much of that lighting also
illuminates the adjacent sidewalks. Sidewalks are required in the City of Newark, so pedestrians
enjoy numerous illuminated areas throughout the city. Lighting is also provided on two
pedestrian-only trails—the Pomeroy and the Hall Trails. Lighting for these trails was included as
part of the trail design, and employees monitor them at least every couple of months. The
Pomeroy Trail has LED lights, while the Hall Trail has sodium lights. The Hall Trail lights may
be switched to LED in the future if funds become available. These two trails experience a lot of
pedestrian and bicycle traffic, and outages are usually reported by the public or the city police.
Street lighting in the city is paid for through the energy bill of every customer. The Electric
Department estimates the cost for installing and operating the 2,600 lighting fixtures in Newark
and spreads the cost among its electric customers within the city.
UPDATE: During the development of this report, the City of Newark revisited the use of LED
lighting fixtures, and on October 12, 2015, received unanimous approval from City Council to
replace nearly 2,000 street lights with LED lighting. The City of Newark plans to replace about
2000 cobra-head street lights with Leotek LED lighting fixtures selected based on a number of
factors including warranty and recommendations from other jurisdictions. The fixtures slated to
be replaced are located on main roads. This project will cost approximately $460,000 and will be
partly funded through a low-interest loan that was obtained by the Delaware Municipal Electric
Corporation from the Delaware Sustainable Energy Utility with about $100,000 coming from the
City of Newark. The project is projected to save the municipality about $90,000 a year in energy
costs and over $13,000 a year in avoided labor costs (bulb replacement).
4.3. Delmarva Power
Delmarva Power provides electricity to over 300,000 customers in Delaware including all of the
towns that do not provide electric service. IPA staff members were unable to schedule an
interview with a representative of Delmarva, but the company did agree to fill out a
questionnaire and submitted it on June 23, 2014. Senior Public Affairs Manager Jim Smith
provided answers to assist IPA with this project.
Mr. Smith reported that Delmarva Power offers a variety of outdoor lighting options and installs
those lights based on customer requests. These options can be viewed online at
www.delmarva.com. In addition to these lighting options, Delmarva understands that some
customers may need more customized lighting to meet specific needs, such as sidewalk lighting,
height restrictions, historic character, etc. Therefore, Delmarva is also willing to work with
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customers who want more customized lighting by having the customers install and maintain their
choice of lighting, with Delmarva providing the electric service and metering.
Delmarva Power has a regular maintenance schedule for street lights and visits 25 percent of the
total installed lights each year. The visits include cleaning, re-lamping, and photocell
replacement as needed. Of course, Delmarva also responds to issues with the lighting stock
whenever problems are discovered and reported. An internal GIS database is used to track all of
Delmarva’s lighting fixtures.
Delmarva Power has added an LED option to its outdoor lighting choices as the company seeks
to continue to offer lighting options that are cost effective, energy efficient, and durable. The
company regularly interacts with the towns its serves and will respond accordingly to the
requests made by the towns for new or replacement lighting.
4.4. Town of Smyrna
The Town of Smyrna has been one of the fastest growing towns in Delaware. The Town of
Smyrna provides electric service to its residents and businesses and installs and maintains most
of the street lighting. IPA staff members met with Town Manager David Hugg on June 27, 2014,
to discuss the town’s lighting. Mr. Hugg explained that street lighting is required in all
developments in town. A couple of years ago, the Town of Smyrna decided to begin evaluating
LED-type lighting and installed a number of models in front of the town hall along with meters
to measure the electric use. Mr. Hugg mentioned there are many models of LEDs being sold and
it is difficult to evaluate them based on the relatively short history of their use. The sample
locations were used not just to measure the energy used, but also to measure the “cone of
brightness” from the models and collect observations from people using the lights.
The Town of Smyrna is actively converting its existing lighting stock to LED-type lights.
Currently about half of its lighting infrastructure is LED lights. The Town of Smyrna has been
fortunate to receive state assistance for some of its LED lights. Additionally, in 2014 the
Delaware Municipal Electric Corporation (DEMAC) was awarded a Rural Economic
Development Loan ($593,120 with no interest for ten years) that will be used to loan funds to
seven rural towns, including the Town of Smyrna, to convert street lights to LED. The Town of
Smyrna will utilize this loan program to continue to convert its lighting stock to LED.
Mr. Hugg said there are two main reasons the Town of Smyrna has embraced the installation or
conversion of lighting to LED. First, LED is supposed to last much longer than HPS lights, so
the use of LED lighting should reduce maintenance costs over the long term. Second, LED are
proven to be much more energy efficient than conventional lighting and, if the Town of Smyrna
can use less electric for the town’s lighting needs, it will be able to keep overall electric rates
lower for its residential and commercial customers and, perhaps, realize a greater margin with its
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existing rates. That increased margin could be used to fund electric system upgrades instead of
having to increase customer rates and fees.
Mr. Hugg added that the Town of Smyrna has received feedback from customers in some of the
areas where they have replaced HPS lights with LED lights. The most common complaint has
been that the LED street lights provide less light than the HPS street lights, and the area outside
the residence is darker. The Town of Smyrna has responded to these observations and generally
found that the measured lighting on the street is not much different, but the LED lights are more
focused, the cone of brightness is smaller, and so there is less spillover light on the sidewalk and
property fronting the residence. This is an important observation to remember when designing
lighting using LED technology. More light fixtures may be needed. In downtown areas where
there are more pedestrians, the Town of Smyrna has installed lower, more ornate pedestrian-scale
light fixtures, and the response has been positive.
The discussion ended with Mr. Hugg reporting that he is an advocate of the LED lighting and
that the Town of Smyrna plans to continue to replace the older HPS lighting with new LED
lights. The Town of Smyrna now maintains a small inventory of LEDs for maintenance, and his
staff has reported that the LEDs are lighter to install and have tougher shielding than the HPS
lights. As it continues to gain more experience with the LED lights, the Town of Smyrna will
learn to address the smaller “cone of brightness” issue so the concerns of residents and
businesses are addressed.
4.5. Summary of Interviews
The interviews provided researchers with the providers’ perspectives on making decisions based
their legal obligations to provide lighting for safety while also considering the costs of
installation, operations, and maintenance. All of the providers offer limited selection of fixtures
and still rely heavily on older high-pressure sodium (HPS) technology that has a long history
and, therefore, predictability of performance.
While all of the providers now include LED lighting in their lighting inventory, only the Town of
Smyrna (and, recently, the City of Newark) has decided to fully embrace this new technology in
anticipation that the proven energy savings will outweigh the less predictable performance. The
municipalities also have received financial assistance that makes the decision to convert to LED
more attractive.
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5. Methodological Framework for Communities to Inventory
and Assess Lighting Infrastructure
This chapter outlines a methodology for conducting lighting infrastructure assessments for
communities in Delaware. This framework can serve as a useful tool for planners and
administrators to develop strategies for improving lighting for pedestrians in cities and towns in
the state.
5.1. Lighting Inventory Basics
The first step in developing a lighting assessment is to identify the area of study. This may be a
downtown district, areas that have sidewalks, frequently used commuting paths, or the entire
town if it covers a relatively small area. Once the area of study is defined, it should be walked by
a team comprising several individuals once during the day and then again at night. The team
should note the various sources of lighting as well as obstructions that may potentially interfere
with light reaching the sidewalks.
Often cited in the literature is the need to inventory both public and private lighting. An
inventory of this kind would be useful in areas with significant commercial activity, such as
when private lighting may be turned on for businesses that stay open later or for business owners
who leave their lights on for increased security. But many towns in Delaware have small
commercial areas in which businesses close earlier and less security may be needed. So IPA staff
members suggest that an initial lighting assessment should focus on the public lighting fixtures
that will always be on during the evening. A secondary assessment of private lighting sources
may be conducted if conditions warrant.
In preparation for start the fieldwork, the team should discuss the following components that
may be included in a lighting inventory and decide which components will be collected:
•
Identification of outages and recording of pole numbers for submittal to municipality,
local government, or private provider.
•
Identification of trees or other obstructions to lighting infrastructure.
•
Assessment of lighting infrastructure at transit facilities, including bus stops and
associated crosswalks.
•
Measurement and/or mapping of the “light beam spread” of each fixture throughout
targeted areas as well as pole spacing.
•
Identification of prime areas for lighting infrastructure enhancement, especially blind
spots.
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•
Examination of sidewalk facilities versus lighting infrastructure (where does lighting
exist without sidewalks and vice versa).
•
Examination of whether fixture design, light color, and aesthetic quality matches and
enhances community character. Glare will also be considered for its positive or negative
impact on a pedestrian environment.
IPA staff members began conducting lighting inventories as part of the Institute’s Complete
Communities project conducted in Elsmere, Delaware. This experience provided an excellent
template for application elsewhere in the state. For street lighting and sidewalk data, IPA staff
members researched and discovered a cellular-phone application that allowed field researchers to
easily record into a database light fixture locations and sidewalk deficiencies. Using the
application, IPA researchers were able to associate notes, images, or voice memos with each
point recorded. The inexpensive smart phone application accurately located the lighting fixtures
and stored the data in a file that was easily downloaded and imported into a mapping program.
During the lighting assessment, notes were made relating to light quality, outages, safety
concerns, and obstructions.
In addition to geo-locating street lights throughout Elsmere, a nighttime-lighting inventory was
conducted to identify lighting deficiencies. Inoperable light fixtures were identified so the
information could be passed on to Delmarva Power, the entity responsible for providing street
lighting in Elsmere. The street light inventory data collected using the application was imported
into a GIS application and several other data layers available from FirstMap were added to
generate Map 1.
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Map 1: Elsmere Lighting Inventory
5.2. Using the Cellphone Application (GISKey Field Assets App)
The Field Assets ToolTM is a mobile-based application that collects asset data and exports SQLite
tables, Shape files, KML, CSV, and XML formats. Additionally, the Field Assets Tool is readily
customizable for field data collection. 111 More specifically, this tool enables the user to inventory
a lighting structure’s coordinates by simply standing next to it and selecting the use current
coordinates tool. This application also has the ability to record photos for each feature. The app
used for this project was purchased in 2014 from the Apple Store for approximately $30.
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The app is easy to use by following the step-by-step instructions below. When the app is opened,
the following screen (below left) appears. Standing next to the feature (the light fixture), the user
selects “Type of Asset” and the next screen (below right) provides a place to enter a title or name
of the feature and its location and customize attributes of that feature.
Figure 16. Screenshots of GISKey Field Assets App Main Menu and Asset Screens
Selecting “Add an Attribute” opens another screen (below right) where the user can enter
characteristics about the feature. On that screen, the user can add and pick attributes, like “Tree
branch” or “Light shield” or create a new attribute by simply selecting the “Add” button in the
top right corner and typing in an attribute name. Some of the common attributes used in this
work are listed below.
Figure 17. Screenshots of GISKey Field Assets App Asset and Attribute Screens
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5.2.1. Definitions of Attributes of Pole
•
Tree Branch – Any light fixture that was blocked by a tree or any other sort of
streetscape feature.
•
Lamp – A pedestrian light pole that also has a unique lamp fixture that made area
character historically or aesthetically pleasing.
•
Fully Lit – During nighttime inventory a light that was functioning (coded as “1” in
attribute table and “0” if it was out).
•
Shield – A light fixture that was blocked and hindering light to be used at full potential
(only occurred in New Castle).
•
Blind Spot – Any point during a night inventory where there was no light.
The same process can be used to add a photo by using the camera device on phone. After the user
selects all of the attribute(s) for this feature, the user will click “Back” to return to previous
screen.
Finally, standing next to the titled (named) feature to be inventoried, select “Use current
location” (figure below left). It is important the user hold the device still and wait a few moments
for the location coordinates to register. When complete, the coordinates will turn green (below
right).
Figure 18. Screenshots of GISKey Field Assets App Asset Screen
The user will then click the “Done” button located in the top right corner and will be taken to the
screen below.
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Figure 19. Screenshot of GISKey Field Assets App Asset List Screen
The user will need to hit the “Back” button twice to get back to the blank screen with “Asset” on
the top and repeat the previous steps until all of the features have been inventoried. Once the
inventory is complete, the user is ready to export the inventory data. The screenshots below
display the completed inventory of light poles and blind spots (that were also collected in this
survey work). The user will click the “Select All” button located on the bottom left section of the
screen, then click “Action.” The screen below on the right will appear and the user selects
“Export.”
Figure 20. Screenshots of GISKey Field Assets App Export Screens
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The screen below to the left (with Export across the top) will open. The user will select “Email”
and can choose from the four file types that appear (figure on right). The user types in his or her
email address as well as the type of file to export and the file is sent. IPA exported the files as
Google Earth KMZ, CSV, and SHP to provide flexibility for the staff as they experimented with
different ways to best map and display the data.
Figure 21. Screenshots of GISKey Field Assets App Export Screens
Once they had a chance to work with this app, project team members found they could quickly
and easily produce an inventory of the existing lighting along with a good descriptive
information base for further study.
5.3. Geospatial Data
The mapping tool described above is the first step in understanding the lighting provided in a
community. Once the data are exported, the user can immediately review the results of the
inventory using Google Earth to determine how well the app worked in locating the light
fixtures. The user can also click on each data point to review the attributes associated with the
lighting fixtures.
With increased technical capability, including GIS software, the data can be used to develop
more user-friendly maps. As in the City of New Castle, Delaware, map shown previously,
collected data can be converted into GIS shapefiles, layers (ArcGIS), or KML data (Google
Earth©).
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6. Delaware Community Inventory and Assessment Case
Studies
IPA staff members spent a number of hours conducting fieldwork for this project. An obvious
challenge for any project involving lighting is that some of the work needs to be conducted in the
evening after sunset. Staff developed most of the inventory of lighting fixtures during field visits
in the daytime hours and then re-visited in the evening to verify observations. After an initial
evening visit to downtown Middletown to observe general lighting conditions on Main Street,
multiple daytime and evening inventories were conducted in Odessa, New Castle, and
Bellefonte.
6.1. The Fieldwork
The project team started its fieldwork with an evening site visit to Main Street in Middletown.
The purpose of the visit was to observe the lighting infrastructure. During this site visit, the team
took photos and notes. Although it is often cited in literature that an inventory should include
private and public lighting, during this visit the project team observed that much of the private
lighting was not turned on as stores and offices were closed. Along Main Street there are a
number of residences. The project team observed that much of the outdoor lighting on the homes
was also not on, resulting in many dark sidewalks along Main Street. After a lengthy discussion,
the team decided that when conducting lighting inventories and recording (via GPS) and
mapping the lighting fixtures, only public lighting would be assessed since it was the only
lighting that would always be turned on in the evening.
6.2. City of New Castle
With concurrence from DelDOT, the project team selected the City of New Castle as one of its
pilot sites. The City of New Castle was selected because it was a relatively small town that is a
short commute from the University of Delaware’s Newark campus, has a defined downtown
area, and employs and several types of lighting fixtures. There are also sidewalks and walking
paths throughout the city. In addition, there are a number of cell towers located in the
surrounding area. In this way, the number of cell towers is likely important for the accuracy of
the phone application.
Before starting the inventory, the project team met with staff of the Municipal Services
Commission (MSC) of the City of New Castle to explain the project. With their agreement, the
project team made a visit to the City of New Castle during the day on July 23, 2014.
Using the Field Assets Tool mobile application, the project team walked the core areas of the city
and recorded the location of lighting fixtures. In terms of specific methodology, for all surveys
one person would use the app to collect the necessary data, while the other team members would
check off the streets on a map as they were completely surveyed. The team placed notes in the
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data file that included photos of fixtures and any characteristics they observed. The app was very
helpful in terms of being able to record unique characteristics about each individual light,
including the type of light fixture and obstruction blocking the light (e.g., trees) and take photos
of the light and attach them to the locational data.
The data from the survey were processed and used to develop a series of lighting maps. Figure
22 below is a relatively simple mapping of the data on a Google Earth base. The map is useful in
verifying the data points captured by this relatively inexpensive application and can be made
without any additional software and relatively little knowledge of mapping.
Figure 22: Raw Data Mapped in Cellular Application KMZ
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Figure 23 was developed by a project team member who had fundamental knowledge of and
access to ArcGIS software. The map shows a little more detail, including a differentiation of the
two types of lighting found in the city and the location of some trees that the project team
recorded using the Field Assets Tool that were thought to interfere with lighting.
Figure 23: Data in ArcGIS
The project team returned to the City of New Castle in the evening on November 6, 2014, to
observe and assess the lighting for pedestrians and determine if there were blind spots. As it was
a rainy evening, the team reported the next day that there were a number of places where the
sidewalks were too dark to see the puddles.
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The following two maps (Maps 2 and 3) were developed using information collected from the
two site visits and information available on the state’s FirstMap website
(firstmap.gis.delaware.gov/). Map 2 shows the lighting inventory with roads, sidewalks, trails,
and a tree cover overlay. When studying lighting, it is important to include a tree cover overlay
as trees may interfere with the light from street lights reaching the sidewalks or roads.
Fortunately, a tree canopy layer is available for Delaware on the FirstMap website.
Map 2: City of New Castle Lighting Inventory with Tree Canopy
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Map 3 shows another GIS application of this data—a “night-time view.” The map attempts to
show levels of illumination at night due to the presence of lighting fixtures. For simplicity, the
map uses a standard lighting diameter around each light. Ideally, a survey team would measure
the diameter of a sample of the light fixtures, apply the diameter to the map, and verify it in the
field.
Map 3: City of New Castle Night View Lighting Inventory & Blind Spots
Map 3 also shows a number of dark areas, or blind spots, that were observed during the evening
site visit. IPA staff members looked at the maps and tried to predict where trees may have
contributed to the creation of the blind spots and then did a quick survey of selected areas in the
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town to see how well these spots could be predicted. Although some of the blind spots were
predictable, the methodology likely needs more refinement, particularly in towns where
shielding around the lights is used.
The main point of this work is to show that fundamental lighting maps can be created by
combining some good survey data and other readily available information.
The following observations of the City of New Castle were noted by the survey team:
• Lighting fixtures around the more heavily traveled pedestrian areas reflected the
historical character of the city.
•
The downtown commercial area is well lit with the exception of an occasional light that
was blocked by trees.
•
There was lighting in the parks and other public areas, but more lighting would improve
visibility of walking surfaces.
•
Many of the lights were heavily shielded. It was reported that this shielding practice is a
response to complaints about street lights shining into homes. Installing these customized
shields on street lights directs the lighting downward and minimizes the ambient lighting
shining on residential windows. However, this is an inefficient use of energy and limits
the potential to properly light pedestrian walkways.
•
Residential areas had more issues with blind spots, shielding, and burnt-out lights. Blind
spots occurred more frequently in areas where lights were spaced farther apart and, in
some cases, this created more difficult walking conditions when there were uneven or wet
sidewalks.
•
The nighttime inventory provides a valuable opportunity to observe where lights are out,
blocked, or used inconsistently.
6.3. Town of Odessa
The project team selected the small Town of Odessa as the second pilot site for its work. The
Town of Odessa is located in southern New Castle County and is a compact town with a welldefined main street and historic area plus a network of sidewalks. One reason the Town of
Odessa was selected was that the project team wanted to test how well the GIS Application
worked in an area with fewer cell towers, since the application uses them to locate coordinates.
The project team traveled to the town to conduct its initial lighting survey during the daytime on
October 20, 2014, and returned for a night visit on November 20, 2014. The small historic
downtown area has several types of lighting fixtures and a large number of private lighting
sources that can illuminate the sidewalks when turned on in the evening. The residential areas are
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mostly located a block or two away from the downtown core and in those areas there are mostly
taller street fixtures more favorable to automobiles than pedestrians.
The data from the survey was again processed and used to develop a series of lighting maps.
Figure 24 is a relatively simple mapping of the data on a Google Earth base. The map is useful in
verifying the data points recorded by this application, and this map can be made without any
additional software and relatively little map-making knowledge.
Figure 24: Raw Data Mapped in Cellular Application KMZ
The lighting fixture location data were combined with the tree cover data available from the
state’s FirstMap site to produce the two maps on the following pages. Map 4 shows the light
fixtures, including some that are pedestrian-oriented lights (smaller yellow circles) as well as a
sidewalk layer and tree cover layer on a roadway base map.
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Map 4: Town of Odessa Lighting Inventory with Tree Canopy
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Map 5 shows this information using the night-time view. Again, the area of illumination (white
circles around yellow dot) was generalized but could easily be refined in future work by
measuring the actual area lit by these fixtures and applying it on the map. Map 5 also shows
several blind spots—areas where it was observed that the light coverage was insufficient to
clearly see the sidewalks.
Map 5: Town of Odessa Night View Lighting Inventory & Blind Spots
The project team observed that there are many types of public and private lighting fixtures that
complement the town’s commercial area historical character. Also, in several areas in Odessa
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there was a surplus of private lighting, which generously overlapped with the public lighting
fixtures. And, in some cases, it was hard to differentiate between the public and private lighting
fixtures in the commercial area. Finally, although the residential and commercial areas are
located only a block away, they differed in terms of lighting; as expected, the residential areas
were less lit, and sometimes it was more difficult to navigate the sidewalks at night.
6.4. Town of Bellefonte
At the suggestion of the Delaware Department of Transportation, IPA’s project team also visited
the Town of Bellefonte. The team traveled to Bellefonte during the daytime on August 6, 2014,
and used the application to locate and inventory the mix of street lights and pedestrian lights. The
data were used to initially make the simple map below (Figure 25).
Figure 25: Town of Bellefonte Lighting Inventory
The same methodology described for the previous two towns was applied to develop Maps 6 and
7. IPA’s project team did not conduct an evening survey in Bellefonte to observe the lighting and
identify areas that were inadequately lit.
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Map 6: Town of Bellefonte Lighting Inventory with Tree Canopy
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Map 7: Town of Bellefonte Night View Lighting Inventory
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The background was changed in Map 7 to determine if an aerial background would be more
useful than just the street and sidewalk network. After comparing the two backgrounds, IPA staff
members preferred the aerial background and would recommend the use of this map style for
future lighting inventories. The aerial allows the user to better identify landmarks to confirm
lighting locations. It could be very helpful for evening fieldwork for helping to identify the
extent of the lighting on sidewalks and paths.
The project team made a few additional observations. They observed that the light fixtures
located on the main commercial mixed-use area of town were pedestrian-scale fixtures and very
attractive. However, it may have been more efficient if they were positioned in a staggered
manner rather than running parallel with one other. Also, some light fixtures located on street
corners reached far into intersections providing more light for motor vehicles, but little light for
pedestrians. Many of the light fixtures on narrower side streets were mounted closer to the pole,
favoring pedestrians and cyclists.
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7. Conclusions and Recommendations
There were three main objectives for this project. The first objective was to update information
provided in IPA’s 2011 report on lighting technologies and trends, including fixture designs,
lighting options, and operational costs. The second objective was to engage the providers of
street lighting—both public and private—to better understand their general policies on lighting.
The third objective was to spend time in the field assessing the lighting in a few pilot towns in
the state to develop a low-cost method to inventory, map, and better visually express existing
lighting stock. The inventory developed could be used as a tool to determine if lighting was
adequate in areas frequented by pedestrians.
7.1. Update Lighting Technology Information
Lighting technology is rapidly advancing. During the development of this project, information
had to be updated frequently and some of it may be outdated even now. Research on a number of
important innovations in pedestrian lighting was presented, focusing on safety, lighting types,
shielding and aesthetics, green technology, inventorying and mapping, and energy efficiency.
Although high-pressure sodium (HPS) continues to be the dominant type of lighting throughout
Delaware, LED fixtures are replacing HPS lighting in many areas. LED fixtures are becoming
more common as providers gain more confidence in specific manufacturers and fixture costs
continue to decrease. Specifications and standards developed for LEDs help reduce the risk that
an LED street light product will not realize its estimated lifetime and performance benefits.
Although the potential energy savings from LEDs has been recognized for years, the potential for
cost savings due to less maintenance is also starting to be factored into lighting decisions for
providers. Less maintenance is particularly attractive in areas with higher traffic volumes that are
more difficult and disruptive for maintenance crews to access to change fixtures.
There are a number of other lighting technologies being tested, including sensors and dimmers
that reduce lighting intensity until the need is triggered by movement, but examples of pilot
programs using these technologies are mostly from outside of the United States. Lighting master
plans are becoming more common in larger cities throughout the United States and are useful not
only to improve access and safety, but also as an economic development tool.
7.2. Lighting Providers
IPA staff members contacted several providers of public lighting in Delaware to develop a better
understanding of their procedures, policies, and protocols. IPA staff interviewed representatives
of Delaware Electric Cooperative, Delmarva Power, and two cities that provide electricity (and
lighting)—the City of Newark and the Town of Smyrna. IPA’s project team also met briefly with
staff from the City of New Castle Municipal Services Commission to discuss their procedures
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and request permission to include the city as one of the pilot areas for the data collection part of
this project.
The Delaware Electric Cooperative and Delmarva Power provide lighting within their respective
service areas. Both of these lighting providers employ leasing agreements with jurisdictions or
communities and charge a monthly fee for the fixture and the electric service. The fee is set by
the type of fixture selected by the client and the providers take care of the installation and
maintenance for damaged or burned-out fixtures. At the time of the interviews in 2014, the
providers were weighing the increased investment in LED lighting, but it now appears that both
have an increased commitment to offering various types of LED lighting for future lighting
needs.
The City of Newark and the Town of Smyrna were headed in different directions concerning
LED lighting when they were interviewed in 2014, but now their policies are much closer than
anticipated. A year ago the Town of Smyrna began to embrace LED lighting and install the
fixtures in new installations and retrofit them during replacements. The Town of Smyrna was
fortunate to receive some financial assistance from several sources to help bring down the town’s
initial costs of installing LED lighting. The Town of Smyrna anticipates the decreased use of
electric for LED lighting and the advertised longer life of the fixtures would “save” money in the
future and allow the town to curb its future electric needs for public lighting. The decreased
electric use for public lighting would also help keep its customer rates from rising. The City of
Newark was concerned about the track record for LED lighting since it is a relatively unproven
technology from the standpoint of fixture lifespan. The City of Newark installed some LED
fixtures but did not anticipate the need to stock fixtures for repairs and replacements. In October
2015, the City of Newark’s direction on lighting changed when City Council gave its unanimous
approval to replace nearly 2,000 street lights with LED lighting. The fixtures slated for
replacement are located on main roads and the project, totaling almost $460,000, will be partly
funded through a low-interest loan obtained by the Delaware Municipal Electric Corporation
from the Delaware Sustainable Energy Utility. The project is projected to save the City of
Newark about $90,000 a year in energy costs and over $13,000 a year in avoided labor costs
(bulb replacement).
7.3. Low-Cost Method to Inventory and Visually Express Existing
Lighting
The most important component of this project involved the development of a methodology for
inventorying and assessing a town’s lighting stock with particular focus on pedestrian movement.
The need for adequate lighting for pedestrians (and cyclists) is increasing as the state continues
to promote policies to encourage people to seek alternatives (to cars) for transportation. These
policies, often referred to as complete streets and complete communities, have proven to be
effective in other states for improving lifestyles and promoting healthier habits. But it is
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important to recognize that when people are being asked to use alternatives to driving their cars,
be it walking, biking, or transit systems, they need to be able to see the sidewalk or path at all
times of the day, including after the sun sets.
Most towns in Delaware do not provide electric service and, therefore, do not have ready access
to the inventory of lighting fixtures in their jurisdictions. There are a variety of tools available to
help towns assess their current lighting. One main objective of this project was to explore the use
of a low-cost tool to build an inventory of lighting fixtures in a selected area. The staff and
students on IPA’s project team developed the inventory using a low-cost cell phone application.
IPA’s students reported that the phone app was easy to use and captured the lighting fixture
coordinates fairly well. The data were easy to download and could be exported from the phone
via email in several different formats.
Initially the data were displayed using a few different formats, as shown in the previous chapter.
Then IPA’s GIS staff was asked to employ its ArcGIS software to develop a better way to display
the data so it was easier to understand the areas that are well lit and those areas where
improvement is needed. The resulting maps shown in Chapter 6 provide a good starting point.
IPA’s project staff recommend that lighting maps be incorporated as a regular feature of town
comprehensive plan. Criteria should be developed that would help towns identify areas that it
could promote as excellent areas for both recreational walking as well as an alternative for nonmotorized movement around town. All towns have walkable areas, but in many towns they are
not as clearly defined. Lighting is the key criterion when defining areas that are walkable both
during the daylight hours and after sunset. Towns should consider developing lighting
inventories and including lighting maps in their town plans.
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8. End Notes
1
Theodore Patterson and Ryan Gillespie, Pedestrian-Lighting Options and Roles of Responsibility within
Unincorporated Delaware Communities. Newark: Institute for Public Administration, University of
Delaware (2011), accessed December 18, 2013,
www.ipa.udel.edu/publications/PedLightingWorkingPaper.pdf.
2
Ibid.
3
“Lighting Use and Design,” Project for Public Spaces. www.pps.org/reference/streetlights/.
4
U.S. Department of Transportation, National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, Traffic Safety
Facts: 2011 Data, (Washington, D.C.: NHTSA National Center for Statistics and Analysis, 2009),
www-nrd.nhtsa.dot.gov/Pubs/811748.pdf, 2.
5
DE Department of Safety and Homeland Security, Delaware Office of Highway Safety, 2013 Delaware
Pedestrian Fact Sheet, ohs.delaware.gov/Pedestrian_Safety/2013/DidYouKnowPedestrianSafetyFactsAndTips.pdf.
6
National Complete Streets Coalition, Dangerous by Design 2014,
www.smartgrowthamerica.org/documents/dangerous-by-design-2014/dangerous-by-design-2014.pdf ,
38.Washington, D.C..
7
Kate Painter, “The influence of street lighting improvements on crime, fear, and pedestrian street use,”
Elsevier Landscape and Urban Planning 35, no. 2-3 (1996): 194.
8
Ibid, 193.
9
Ibid, 197.
10
“Create a Thriving Business District,” City of Seattle Office of Economic Development.
www.seattle.gov/economicdevelopment/create-a-thriving-business-district.
11
“Adding Street Lighting for Atmosphere or Safety,” Useful Community Development, n.d., accessed
November 29, 2013, www.useful-community-development.org/street-lighting.html.
12
Craig Zimring et al., “Influences of Building Design and Site Design on Physical Activity: Research
and Intervention Opportunities,” Preventive Medicine 28, (2005): 186–193.
13
SFbetterstreets, “Sidewalk Zones,” San Francisco, CA: Department of Planning, accessed November
29, 2013, www.sfbetterstreets.org/design-guidelines/sidewalk-zones/.
14
“NACTO Urban Street Design Guide,” National Association of City Transportation Officials, accessed
November 29, 2013, nacto.org/publication/urban-street-design-guide/
15
U.S. Department of Transportation, Federal Highway Administration, Office of Highway Safety,
“How to Develop a Pedestrian Safety Action Plan,” by Charles V. Zegeer, Laura Sandt, Margaret Scully,
Michael Ronkin, Mike Cynecki, and Peter Lagerway, (Chapel Hill, NC: Highway Safety Research
Center, University of North Carolina) May 2008: 56, accessed November 14, 2014,
safety.fhwa.dot.gov/ped_bike/ped_focus/docs/fhwasa0512.pdf.
16
“Design Manual: Lighting,” Town of Chapel Hill (2008): 65, accessed November 10, 2013,
townhall.townofchapelhill.org/agendas/2009/06/15/1/master_plan/pages_from_mykd_chapelhill_masterpl
an_section6.pdf.
17
Laura Sandt et al., “A Resident’s Guide for Creating Safer and Walkable Communities,” United States
Department of Transportation, Federal Highway Administration (2015), 83, accessed December 22,
2015, safety.fhwa.dot.gov/ped_bike/ped_cmnity/ped_walkguide/residents_guide2014_final.pdf.
18
Donald K. Carter et al., “LED Street Light Research Project,” Remaking Cities Institute (2011): 47,
accessed December 01, 2013, www.cmu.edu/rci/documents/led-updated-web-report.pdf.
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19
Fabio Falchi et al., “Limiting the Impact of Light Pollution on Human Health, Environment, and Stellar
Visibility,” Journal of Environmental Management (2011): accessed December 18, 2013,
chronobiol.haifa.ac.il/images/articles/YJEMA2821[1].pdf.
20
“Lighting for Pedestrian Crossings: Identification Visibility Safety,” Thorn Lighting (2009), accessed
November 01, 2013, www.thornlighting.com/PDB/Ressource/teaser/COM/TLG_IVS.pdf.
21
Christa van Santen, Light Zone City: Light Planning in the Urban Context (Basel, Switzerland:
Birkhäuser, 2006), 13.
22
Ibid.
23
Ibid.
24
Ibid.
25
Ibid.
26
Theodore Patterson and Ryan Gillespie, “Pedestrian-Lighting Options and Roles and Responsibility
within Unincorporated Delaware Communities,” Newark, DE: Institute for Public Administration,
University of Delaware (2011): 54, accessed December 18, 2013,
www.ipa.udel.edu/publications/PedLightingWorkingPaper.pdf
27
City of Amarillo, Downtown Amarillo Urban Design Standards, Amarillo, TX, 2010,
downtownamarillo.publishpath.com/Websites/downtownamarillo/images/PDF/FinalDesignStandards.pdf.
28
Ibid., 16.
29
Ibid.
30
Ibid.
31
Ibid., 22.
32
Donald K. Carter et al., “LED Street Light Research Project,” Remaking Cities Institute (2011): 47,
accessed December 01, 2013, www.cmu.edu/rci/documents/led-updated-web-report.pdf.
33
Mujgan S. Sozen, “Lighting Master Plan,” Luminous, July 2009: 43, accessed on December 01, 2013,
www.lighting.philips.com/pwc_li/gb_en/lightcommunity/trends/luminous/Luminous3.pdf.
34
Ibid., 42
35
Photometrics are computerized lighting calculations that are used to estimate actual nighttime light
output.
36
Donald K. Carter et al., “LED Street Light Research Project,” Remaking Cities Institute (2011): 47,
accessed December 01, 2013, www.cmu.edu/rci/documents/led-updated-web-report.pdf.
37
Ibid., 42
38
Ralph and Curl Engineers, “A Master Plan for Street Lights,” City of Columbus Department of Public
Works, 6, accessed December 17, 2013, ralphandcurleng.com/images/firstp2020.pdf.
39
“San Jose Downtown Street and Pedestrian Lighting Master Plan,” The Redevelopment Agency of the
City of San Jose, 10, accessed November 20, 2013,
www.sjredevelopment.org/PublicationsPlans/lighting.pdf.
40
Ibid.
41
Ibid.
42
Ibid.
43
National Lighting Product Information Program, “Lighting Pollution,” Lighting Answers 7 no 2
(February 2007), Lighting Research Center at the Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, accessed March 21,
2015, www.lrc.rpi.edu/programs/nlpip/lightinganswers/lightpollution/lightpollution.asp.
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Delaware Transportation Lighting Inventory & Assessment
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44
Mikyoung Kim Design, “6.0 Design Manual: Lighting,” Chapel Hill Downtown Streetscape and
Lighting Master Plan, Chapel Hill: Town of Chapel Hill, 2008: 65, accessed November 10, 2013,
townhall.townofchapelhill.org/agendas/2009/06/15/1/master_plan/pages_from_mykd_chapelhill_maste
rplan_section6.pdf.
45
Donald K. Carter et al., “LED Street Light Research Project,” Remaking Cities Institute (2011): 47,
accessed December 01, 2013, www.cmu.edu/rci/documents/led-updated-web-report.pdf.
46
Ibid.
47
Ibid.
48
Ibid.
49
Ibid.
50
Ibid, 42.
51
Ibid, 43.
52
Laura Sandt et al., “A Resident’s Guide for Creating Safer and Walkable Communities,” United States
Department of Transportation, Federal Highway Administration (2015), 83, accessed December 22,
2015, safety.fhwa.dot.gov/ped_bike/ped_cmnity/ped_walkguide/residents_guide2014_final.pdf.
53
Donald K. Carter et al., “LED Street Light Research Project,” (2011): 47, accessed December 01, 2013,
www.cmu.edu/rci/documents/led-updated-web-report.pdf.
54
Ibid.
55
Mikyoung Kim Design, “6.0 Design Manual: Lighting,” Chapel Hill Downtown Streetscape and
Lighting Master Plan, Chapel Hill: Town of Chapel Hill, 2008: 65, accessed November 10, 2013,
townhall.townofchapelhill.org/agendas/2009/06/15/1/master_plan/pages_from_mykd_chapelhill_masterpl
an_section6.pdf.
56
Ibid.
57
U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Community Oriented Policing Services, “Improving Streetlighting to Reduce Crime in Residential Areas,” by Ronald V. Clarke, Problem-Oriented Guides for
Police Response Guides Series 8, December 2008, accessed December 18, 2013.
www.popcenter.org/Responses/pdfs/street_lighting.pdf.
58
Ibid.
59
Fabio Falchi et al., “Limiting the Impact of Light Pollution on Human Health, Environment, and Stellar
Visibility,” Journal of Environmental Management (2011): accessed December 18, 2013,
chronobiol.haifa.ac.il/images/articles/YJEMA2821[1].pdf.
60
Leonard J. Hopper, Landscape Architectural Graphic Standards (Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons,
2007), 342.
61
Pepco Holdings, Inc. PHI LED Streetlight Pilot (2012), 11.
62
Pepco Holdings, Inc. PHI LED Streetlight Pilot (2012), 53.
63
Pepco Holdings, Inc. PHI LED Streetlight Pilot (2012), 22.
64
Pepco Holdings, Inc. PHI LED Streetlight Pilot (2012), 46.
65
Pepco Holdings, Inc. PHI LED Streetlight Pilot (2012), 47-48.
66
Pepco Holdings, Inc. PHI LED Streetlight Pilot (2012), 19.
67
Pepco Holdings, Inc. PHI LED Streetlight Pilot (2012), 66.
68
Pepco Holdings, Inc. PHI LED Streetlight Pilot (2012), 20.
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69
Fabio Leccese and Zbigniew Leonowicz. “Intelligent wireless street lighting system.” Environmental
and Electrical Engineering 1 (2012)
70
Ibid.
71
Ibid.
72
Elejoste, Pilar, et al., “An Easy to Deploy Street Light Control System Based on Wireless
Communication and LED Technology.” Sensors 13 (2013): 6506
73
Ibid.6506
74
Ibid 6505
75
Ibid. 6498
76
Leccese, Fabio, and Zbigniew Leonowicz. “Intelligent wireless street lighting system.” Environmental
and Electrical Engineering 1 (2012)
77
Ibid.
78
Elejoste, Pilar, et al., “An Easy to Deploy Street Light Control System Based on Wireless
Communication and LED Technology.” Sensors 13 (2013): 6506. www.mdpi.com/14248220/13/5/6492.
79
City of Tampa. “Mayor Buckhorn Introduces ‘Bright Lights, Safe Nights’ Initiative – Investment in
Neighborhoods Keeps Tampa’s Street Safe,” City of Tampa Press Release, Sept. 23, 2012.
www.tampagov.net/news/mayor-buckhorn-introduces-bright-lights-safe-nights-initiative-investmentneighborhoods-keeps.
80
“Managing Energy Costs in Street Lighting,” Southwestern Pennsylvania Commission, accessed Dec.
5, 2013. www.spcregion.org/power/pdf/CostMgt.pdf
81
Josh Snoddy, “Utility Saves Money by Mapping Street and Security Lights,” ArcWatch: GIS News,
Views and Insights, Sept. 2012, www.esri.com/news/arcwatch/0912/utility-saves-money-by-mappingstreet-and-security-lights.html.
82
“Managing Energy Costs in Street Lighting,” Southwestern Pennsylvania Commission, accessed Dec.
5, 2013. www.spcregion.org/power/pdf/CostMgt.pdf
83
Darren Rozeneck, A.J. Romanelli, John Schiebold, “Street Light Inventory Using Digital Photography
and GPS” (2014), accessed December 22, 2015, www.geospatialexperts.com/wp_streetlight.php.
84
Theodore Patterson, Marcia Scott, Natasha Nau and Christopher Anderson. “Planning for Complete
Communities in Delaware: Summary Report to the Town of Elsmere” (Newark, DE: Institute for Public
Administration, University of Delaware), January 2013.
www.ipa.udel.edu/publications/ElsmereSummaryReport.pdf
85
Ibid.
86
Liebl, David S., Writing an Exterior Lighting Ordinance, Madison, WI: Solid & Hazardous Waste
Education Center, University of Wisconsin Extension, March 2003, 1.
87
Ibid.
88
Darron Kloster, “City firm's street-light dimmer saves”, Times Colonist (Victoria, British Columbia),
October 8, 2008, www.canada.com/victoriatimescolonist/news/business/story.html?id=45329a7a-e58f4975-8ddb-af7de62330c9.
89
Ibid.
90
Ibid.
91
Ibid.
63
Delaware Transportation Lighting Inventory & Assessment
February 2016
92
BBC Breakfast, “Dimmable Street Lights in UK (05March10),” Youtube 4:20, posted by liarpoliticians,
March 7, 2010,
March 5, 2010, www.youtube.com/watch?v=NRVcFTUINBQ.
93
Darron Kloster, “City firm's street-light dimmer saves energy”, Times Colonist (Victoria, British
Columbia), October 8, 2008,
www.canada.com/victoriatimescolonist/news/business/story.html?id=45329a7a-e58f-4975-8ddbaf7de62330c9.
94
Gabe Arnold, Dan Mellinger, Paul Markowitz, Mike Burke, and Dave Lahar. “A Win-Win-Win for
Municipal Street Lighting: Converting Two-Thirds of Vermont’s Street Lights to LED by 2014.”
American Council for an Energy Efficient Economy 1 (2012): 14,
aceee.org/files/proceedings/2012/data/papers/0193-000144.pdf
95
Ibid. 15
96
Ibid. 15
97
Ibid. 17
98
Ibid. 17
99
Ibid. 17
100
Ibid. 18
101
Ibid. 19
102
Ibid.
103
Ibid., 38.
104
Ibid.
105
Ibid.
106
Ibid., 5.
107
Ibid., 7.
108
Ibid., 39.
109
Ibid., 7.
110
Ibid., 9.
111
fieldassets.giskey.com/faq/
64
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